Lesson 2

Fundamentals of a computer system

What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device

that manipulates information or data.

What does a computer does?

They are changing the way we live our life.

Characteristics of a computer

1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Versatility
4. Efficiency
5. Storing and retrieving
Speed -> A computer can perform millions of calculations in a
second.

Accuracy -> Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy.

Versatility->Computer can be used to perform various tasks at the

same time.

Efficiency-> A computer can work continuously without getting tired.

Storing and Retrieving->A computer can store billions of bytes of

information.

Computer Classification

According to physical size According to

technology
 Classification Classification according to physical size

1) Super computers

Super computers with excellent storage capacity, are considered the

fastest computer in data processing and handling. They are big and
have multiple CPUs for faster data and information access and
processing.

Example-IBM Seirra, Sunway taihu light

2) Mainframe computers

These computers are small in size compared to super computer. Fast

and can store a massive amount of data and information. They have
extremely impressive data processing and handling abilities, and
number of users can connect to them quickly for better sharing and
functionality.

Example-Z890,hitachi Z800

3) Mini computers

Are considerably smaller in size when compared to super computers

and mainframe computers. Mini computer consist of more than 1
CPU making then faster than micro computers and costlier than
microcomputers.

4) Micro computers

Are compact in shape and size and use a micro processor , processor,
or CPU for processing and calculations. They are comparatively
relatively smaller than other computers.
 Classification according to technology

1) Analog computers

Analog computers are computers that operate on continuous data

through measuring physical quantities like temperature, voltage,
speed, current, pressure.

Example-Speedometer, thermometer

2) Digital computers

Works on discrete data or discontinuous data. It accepts data as

digits or number and processors it with programs stored in the
memory to produce desired output. Digital computer works on a
binary system where 0 represents off and 1 represents on. It is based
on digital signals.

Example-Smart phones, laptops

3) Hybrid computers

These combines the features of both analog and digital computers. It

can perform the tasks of both analog and digital computers. The
hybrid computer can convert the analog signal into digital signal and
digital signal into the analog signal.

Functions of a computer system

Computers are incredibly versatile machines that can perform a wide

range of tasks. These tasks are made possible by the four basic
functions of a computer. Input, Process, output and storage.

Each of the functions are essential for the computer to operate

correctly and perform useful tasks.
Whether you're writing an email, playing a video game, or managing
spreadsheets ,these fundamental functions enable the processing
and output of data that makes computers invaluable in our daily
lives.

Components of computer architecture

Central processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is like the "brain" of the computer.
It follows instructions, does calculations, and handles data. Its design
affects things like how fast it works, how it processes instructions,
and how it stores quick-access data, all of which influence the
computer's speed and performance.

Memory hierarchy

This includes different types of memory, like cache memory, random

access memory (RAM), and storage devices. The way memory is
arranged helps speed up data access, as data moves between
different types of memory based on how close they are to the CPU
and how often they are needed.

Input/Output system

The I/O system enables communication between the computer and

external devices, such as keyboards, monitors, and storage devices. It
involves designing efficient data transfer mechanisms to ensure
smooth interaction and data exchange.

Storage architecture

This deals with how data is stored and retrieved from storage devices
like hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives. Efficient
storage architectures ensure data integrity, availability, and fast
access times.

Instruction pipelining

Modern CPUs employ pipelining, a technique that breaks down

instruction execution into multiple stages. This allows the CPU to
process multiple instructions simultaneously, resulting in improved
throughput.

Parallel processing

This involves dividing a task into smaller subtasks and executing

them concurrently, often on multiple cores or processors. Parallel
processing significantly accelerates computations, making it key
to tasks like simulations, video rendering, and machine learning.

Basic physical components of a computer system.

Input Devices

Keyboard-The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter

data into a computer or any other electronic device by pressing keys.
It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and
functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a
Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Pointing Devices

Mouse-The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move

cursor or pointer across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat
surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel
between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works
as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by
moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with
integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different
buttons.

Touch screen-It is the display screen of a device such as a

smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to interact or provide
inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the
electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a
mouse for navigating a graphical user interface. For example, by
touching, you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play
videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera,
Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

Joystick-A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is

made up of a stick with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket
that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick
controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

Lightpen-A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen.
The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive detector that
enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen.
Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible
with LCD screens, so it is not in use today.

Imaging and video input devices

Digital camera-It is a digital device as it captures images and records

videos digitally and then stores them on a memory card. It is
provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to
film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is
connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

Webcam-It is a digital device as it captures images and records

videos digitally and then stores them on a memory card. It is
provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to
film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is
connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

CCTV-Cameras, the central components of CCTV systems, capture

visual information from the environment, transforming it into
electronic data. This captured data acts as valuable input, facilitating
real-time monitoring, event recording, and the potential for post-
incident analysis.

Scanners

Flatbed scanners-It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD
array. The light illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed on
the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans the
document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a
transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

Barcode reader-It is a small manual scanning device which is held by

hand and is rolled over a flat image that is to be scanned. The
drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady while
scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly
used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would
have seen in shopping stores.

Magnetic Ink character recognition-Magnetic ink character

recognition (MICR) is a technology that uses magnetic ink to print
characters on documents so that machines can read and process
them. It's commonly used by banks to process checks.

Optical Character recognition-Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is

the process that converts an image of text into a machine-readable
text format. For example, if you scan a form or a receipt, your
computer saves the scan as an image file. You cannot use a text
editor to edit, search, or count the words in the image file. However,
you can use OCR to convert the image into a text document with its
contents stored as text data.

Optical Mark recognition-The full form of OMR is Optical Mark

Recognition. OMR acknowledges human-created marks on a specially
printed paper or journal used in experiments, surveys, etc. It is
widely used where a huge number of candidates apply and to
evaluate data with consistency and immediate effect. OMR sheet can
be read using the OMR reader.

Automated Teller Machine-ATMS, or automated teller machines,

are banking outlets where you can withdraw cash without going into
a branch of their bank. Some ATMs only dispense cash, while others
allow transactions such as check deposits or balance transfers

Microphone

A microphone is a device that converts sound waves into an

electrical signal. It allows you to capture audio and transmit it to
various devices, such as computers, amplifiers, or recording
equipment.

Output devices
1) Softcopy
2) Hardcopy
3) Sound
1)Softcopy-A soft copy is a file stored online or in an electronic
medium involving no physical space. The digital documents can be
read without having to print anything out. A digital version of a
physical object such as a printed book contains both the electronic
text and any accompanying images.

Monitor/screen

Most people use computer monitors daily at work and at home. And
while these come in a variety of shapes, designs, and colors, they can
also be broadly categorized into three types.

1) Cathode Ray Tube monitor

These monitors employ CRT technology, which was used most

commonly in the manufacturing of television screens. With these
monitors, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to form
images on a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is basically a
vacuum tube containing an electron gun at one end and a
fluorescent screen at another end.

2) Liquid crystal display-LCD

The LCD monitor incorporates one of the most advanced

technologies available today. Typically, it consists of a layer of color
or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a couple of
transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is
made possible by polarizing the light in varied amounts and making it
pass through the liquid crystal layer.

3) Light Emitting Diode-LED

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today.
These are flat panel, or slightly curved displays which make use of
light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of cold cathode
fluorescent (CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors are said
to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD and are considered far
more environmentally friendly.
Multimedia Projector

As their name suggests, multimedia projectors allow you to connect

to various external devices like DVD players, computers, or laptops
and support WiFi and Bluetooth for wireless streaming and screen
mirroring to display various content.

2) Hard Copy- A hard copy is a printed form of a digital document file

from a computer on paper or any other material that may be
transparent. The output prints on paper in a hard copy- thus,
sometimes referred to as a permanent copy. It may be a photograph,
text, drawing, or other types of printable files.

Printers

Impact Printers Non-Impact

Printers
Dot-matrix printer
Line printer Laser Printer
Bubble printer/Ink jet printer
Impact Printers
Creates immediate contact between the ink ribbons and paper. They
can be noisy yet are very popular. Impact printers have mechanical
components that allow printing.
Example 1-Dot Matrix printer
A dot matrix printer has a print head through which the tips of nine
wires project, forming a vertical column of dots. As the print head
scans a page, an electronic mechanism pushes the wires out with
precision timing. The wire tips strike a ribbon which touches the
paper, producing horizontal patterns of dots that form letters,
numerals, lines and other characters.
Example 2-Line printer
Line printer is an impact printer. it is very fast printer. It prints a
complete line of characters at a time. The printing speed of line
printer is measured in lines per minute (lpm). It is upto 3000 lines per
minute. Line printers are normally used with mainframe and mini
computers.
Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact printers create pictures, characters, and figures without
any uninterrupted contact between the printing device and the
paper.
Example 1- Laser printer
Laser stands for Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of
Radiation. A laser printer is the fastest and hight quality non-impact
printer. It works like a photocopier. The laser printer transfers the
image of output on paper using LASER technology and toner. Toner is
an ink powder. It is used in laser printers and photocopiers also.
Example 2- Bubble/Ink jet printer
Ink-jet printer is type of non-impact printer. It creates output on
paper by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink. Inkjet printer has print-
head that can spray very fine drops of ink. It consists of print
cartridge filled with liquid ink and has small nozzles in form of matrix.
Example 3- Thermal printers
Thermal printer is another type of non-impact printer. It can only
print output on a special heat sensitive waxy paper. The image if the
output is created on the waxy paper by burning dots on it.
For coloured output, coloured waxy sheets are used.
Example 4- Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets
computer commands and makes line drawings on paper using
multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing graphs,
drawings, charts, maps etc.

3) Sounds

The device which gives a sound output is called speaker. Speaker

devices are designed for personal and common purpose.
Central Processing Unit-CPU

The central processing unit (CPU) is the computer's brain. It

handles the assignment and processing of tasks and manages
operational functions that all types of computers use. CPU types
are designated according to the kind of chip that they use for
processing data.

CPU Parts

Arithmetic and Logic Unit-ALU

This unit is responsible for mathematical, logical and decision

operations. This unit is divided into two main parts or groups of
functions. The arithmetic portion completes the mathematical
operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication and
devision. The logic portion completes operations comparing,
selecting, matching and merging data and information.

Control Unit-CU

The CU is the director of operations. This is where the iput is read

and interpreted. It sends data to the ALU, memory unit and other
locations as needed. It translates things into binary in order to
store them and sends instructions to many different output
devices.

Memory registers

Registers are small amounts of high-speed memory contained

within the CPU. They are used by the processor to store small
amounts of data that are needed during processing, such as:
the address of the next instruction to be executed, the current
instruction being decoded, the results of calculations.
 CPU Functions
Computer speed-Clock speed or clock rate is the CPU’s operating
speed. This tells the number of operations it performs in one second.
Previously this was the most important measurement of a CPU’s
performance.

Computer Memory

Primary memory

RAM-Any system process that has to be executed is put into RAM,

where it is processed by the CPU according to the program’s
instructions. If we click on an application like Browser, the Operating
System will first load browser code into RAM, following which the
CPU will execute and open the Browser.

ROM-Any data that does not need to be changed is saved in ROM.

The ROM contains both programmes that run when the system
boots up (known as a bootstrap programme that initialises the OS)
and data such as the algorithm that the OS requires. Nothing can be
tampered with or modified in ROM.

Cache-Cache memory refers to high-speed memory. It is small but

faster than RAM (the main memory). The CPU can access the cache
comparatively more quickly than its primary memory. Thus, we use it
to synchronize with a high-speed CPU and also to improve its overall
performance.

Secondary memory

1) Magnetic media devices

Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of
tiny magnetised dots. These dots are created, read and erased using
magnetic fields created by very tiny electromagnets.

Example 1-Hard Disk drive

Hard-drives have a very large storage capacity (up to 1TB). They can
be used to store vast amounts of data. Hard-drives are random
access devices and can be used to store all types of films,
including huge files such as movies. Data access speeds are very
fast.

Components

Platter-The platter is a thin, circular disk where data is physically stored.

Modern HDDs typically have multiple platters stacked on top of each other.

Spindle-The spindle holds the platters in place and rotates them at high
speeds.

Head-The read/write head is a small, magnetically charged component that

moves across the surface of the platters to either read data stored on the
platters or write new data to them.

Actuator arm-The actuator arm holds the read/write heads and moves
them back and forth across the platters.

Power connector-The power connector is where the hard drive receives

electrical power from the computer’s power supply.
IDE Connnector-Transmits data to the platter.

Actuator- The actuator is an electromechanical device that controls the

movement of the actuator arm.

Example 2-Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Tape is a type of storage medium that consists of a thin

plastic strip with a magnetic coating, allowing data to be stored
sequentially. It was commonly used in early computing systems and
is still used today for data backup due to its cost-effectiveness.

2) Optical media devices

Optical storage devices save data as patterns of dots that can be read
using light. A laser beam is the usual light source.

The data on the storage medium is read by bouncing the laser beam
off the surface of the medium. If the beam hits a dot it
is reflected back differently to how it would be if there were no dot.
This difference can be detected, so the data can be read.
 3)

Solid State Drives

The term ‘solid-state’ essentially means ‘no moving parts’.

Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no

moving parts (no reels of tape, no spinning discs, no laser beams,
etc.)

Example 1-USB flash drive

Flash are non-volatile solid state storage devices which use NAND
flash memories to store data (millions of transistors).
USB refers to the USB connection that allows users to plug the device
into the USB port of a computer.

Example 2-Memory card

Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players,

etc.) require compact, non-volatile data storage. Flash memory cards
provide this and come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is the SD

Card. The cards store the digital images taken by the camera.

Computer ports

A computer port is a piece of hardware that allows a computer to

connect to other devices, including accessories, peripheral devices,
and other computers. Ports are standard yet versatile component
found on most modern computer systems.

PS/2 port

PS/2 connectors are used for connecting the keyboard and mouse.

PS/2 mouse connector and port is usually green in colour.

PS/2 for the keyboard is usually purple in colour.

USB port

USB is the short form for universal serial bus.

USB ports and connectors allow the transfer of data to and from
digital devices.

Many digital cameras and memory card readers connect to the USB
port on a computer.
 Parallel port

In contrast to the serial port, parallel ports perform a parallel

communication interface. Moreover, it can transfer multiple bits at a
time. Besides they also connect devices like printers and scanners.
We can also call them printer port. Furthermore, they contain 25
pins, and the speed of data travel is 150-kilo bits per second.

HDMI port

The full form of HDMI is the High Definition Multimedia Interface. It

is an all-digital audio-video interface that transmits information to a
computer monitor, video projector, digital television and so on, in
uncompressed mode. When you use an HDMI cable, it takes this full-
quality video from one device, like a gaming console or DVD player,
and shows it on your TV without losing any details.

RJ45 port

An RJ45 port is primarily used to establish a wired connection

between devices on a local area network (LAN) for internet access,
file sharing, and other network communications, essentially
functioning as the physical interface for Ethernet connectivity,
allowing you to connect devices like computers, routers, and
switches using an Ethernet cable.
Audio ports/Jacks

Audio ports link computers with speakers, headphones, and other

external output devices. Audio ports can handle analog or digital
data, depending on the type of port and the connected device.
Display ports connect computers with high-resolution digital
displays.

Video port-Video Graphics Adapter

The VGA connector is crucial for connecting video devices like

monitors and projectors. It features a 15-pin arrangement in three
rows of five, which allows for the transmission of analog video
signals.

Serial port

A serial port is a physical communication interface that enables the

transfer of data between devices, such as a computer and a modem
or a printer. It transmits data serially, which means that the bits of
data are sent one after the other over a single wire.

Data Communication
 Basic components required for data communication
 Sender:
The device or source that originates the data to be transmitted, like a computer
sending an email.
 Receiver:
The device that receives the transmitted data, like the recipient's email server.
 Transmission Medium:
The physical pathway through which the data travels, including options like wired
cables (copper, fiber optic) or wireless signals (radio waves).

Data Transmission modes

Simplex mode

In this mode, we have unidirectional communication- meaning it’s a one-way street.

Out of the two connecting devices, only one is capable of transmission- the other
one is only capable of receiving. The simplex mode can always utilize a channel’s
entire capacity for sending the data in a single direction.

Half-duplex mode

In this mode, every station can both- receive and transmit data- but not at the very
same moment. When one of the devices sends information, the other one can only
then receive it. It also happens vice versa because the transmission is not
unidirectional. The half-duplex mode comes into play in those cases where we
don’t need the transmission in both directions at the same moment.

Full duplex mode

In this mode, both the stations have the ability to both receive and transmit data
simultaneously. The signals that go in one direction in a Full-Duplex mode share
the link’s capacity with the signals that go in the other direction. The Full-Duplex
communication mode comes into play when one requires a continuous connection
in both directions all the time. However, it needs to divide the channel’s capacity
between both these directions.

Data Transmission media

1) Guided/Wired

Guided media is a type of transmission media in computer networks which is also

known as wired or bounded media. These transmission media consist of wires
through which the data is transferred. Guided media is a physical link between
transmitter and recipient devices. Signals are directed in a narrow pathway using
physical links. These media types are used for shorter distances since physical
limitation limits the signal that flows through these transmission media.

Example 1-Twisted pair

Twisted pair cables are like two friends holding hands and spinning around to block
out noise! In computer networks, they are made of two insulated wires twisted
together, which helps them send information without getting disturbed by other
signals. These cables are wrapped in a protective cover to keep them safe.
Twisting them helps reduce unwanted signals, like when you cover your ears to
block out loud noises. That way, the information travels smoothly without
interference, making them the most popular cables for connecting computers and
the internet.

Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are like two copper spaghetti noodles twisted
together to help messages travel without getting mixed up! These special wires
don’t need any extra covering to block out noise—they do it all by twisting around
each other. They are super easy to use, don’t cost much, and help computers and
the internet talk to each other really fast. That’s why they’re one of the most
popular types of cables for networks.

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables are like superheroes with an extra layer of
armor! They have a special foil shield around them that blocks outside noise,
keeping the messages inside clear and fast. Because of this extra protection, they
can send data even quicker than regular twisted cables. These special cables are
used in super-fast internet connections and telephone lines to make sure voices
and data travel smoothly without getting mixed up.

Example 2-Coaxial cable

Coaxial cables are like special tunnels for information! Imagine a thick wire with
different layers, just like a straw inside another straw. Inside, there’s a main wire
that carries signals, and around it, there’s a protective layer to keep the signals
safe from outside noise. This helps TV, internet, and telephone signals travel fast
and clearly without getting mixed up. Coaxial cables are strong and work really well
for connecting homes to the internet and cable TV.

Example 3-Fiber Optics Cable

Fiber optic cables are like magic light tunnels that send information super fast!
Instead of using metal wires, they have tiny glass or plastic strands inside. These
strands carry data using light, just like a flashlight shining through a clear tube.
Because they use light, fiber optic cables are much faster and can send messages
really far without losing quality. That’s why they are used for high-speed internet,
phone calls, and even in hospitals and space missions.

2) Unguided/Wireless media

Wireless media is like sending secret messages through the air! Instead of using
wires, it sends signals using invisible waves, just like magic. It works over long
distances, letting us use Wi-Fi, mobile phones, and satellite connections without
plugging in any cables. The messages travel from a sender to a receiver, like how
a radio or a TV gets signals from far away. But since the messages are in the air,
they need extra protection to keep them safe from others trying to listen in.

Example 1-Radio waves

Radio waves are like invisible sound waves that travel all around us! They spread
in every direction, just like when you shout and people all around can hear you.
These waves help send messages from one place to many receivers, like how
radios, TVs, and Wi-Fi work. They can travel through walls and buildings, so we
can hear music on the radio even inside our homes! But sometimes, if two signals
have the same wave pattern, they can get mixed up, just like when two people talk
at the same time, making it hard to understand.

Example 2-Microwaves
Microwaves are special invisible waves that need a clear path to travel, just like
when you shine a flashlight in a straight line. The sender and receiver antennas
must be lined up perfectly, which is why this is called line-of-sight transmission.
These waves are used for short distances, like sending TV signals or phone calls.
Their strength depends on how tall the antenna is—the taller the tower, the farther
the signal can go! Microwaves help us communicate quickly, but if something
blocks the path, the signal can get weak or lost.

Example 3-Infrared

Infrared waves are like invisible beams of light that can send information, but only
for short distances. Unlike radio waves, they can't go through walls or obstacles, so
they stay in one room. They work in things like TV remotes, where you press a
button, and the TV gets the signal. Infrared waves are super fast because they can
carry a lot of data, and since they don’t spread everywhere, they are safer and
don’t get mixed up with other signals easily.

Computer network devices

1) Network Interface Card(NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is like a special key that helps a computer talk to
other computers on a network! It connects the computer to the internet or other
devices, making sure data is sent and received properly. A long time ago, NICs
were separate cards plugged into the computer, but now they are built right into
most computers. There are different types, like wired NICs that use cables
(Ethernet), wireless NICs for Wi-Fi, and fiber optic NICs for super-fast connections.
Each NIC has important parts, like a tiny brain (controller) to handle data, a plug for
cables, and a special ID called a MAC address, so the network knows who’s who.

2) Switch/Hub
A switch in networking is like a smart helper that makes sure messages go to the
right places! Imagine a big room full of computers, and each computer wants to
send a message to another. The switch is like a traffic controller that looks at each
message and sends it to the right computer. It helps all the computers in the room
talk to each other without getting in the way or mixing up the messages. Instead of
shouting out loud to everyone, the switch makes sure the message only goes to the
computer it’s meant for.

3) Wireless Fidelity-(WiFi)

Wi-Fi is like an invisible bridge that helps your devices, like phones, tablets, and
computers, connect to the internet without any wires! It uses special waves to send
signals through the air, just like a radio sending music to a speaker. When you're at
home, school, or a cafe, the Wi-Fi lets you browse the web, watch videos, and play
games, all without needing to plug anything in. It's like a magical, invisible web that
keeps you connected to everything online.

4) Router

A router is like a traffic manager for the internet! It helps direct the flow of data, like
making sure cars go the right way on different roads. Routers use special
addresses called IP addresses to know where to send data, like sending a letter to
the correct house. They also help keep things safe by checking the data before it
passes through, like a guard at the gate. Routers make sure everything on the
network moves smoothly and doesn’t get stuck or lost.

5) Modem
A modem is like a translator for your computer! When you send data, like a
message or a video, your computer talks in a digital language. But the internet or
cable lines only understand an analog language, so the modem changes the digital
signals into analog ones so they can travel. When the data comes back, the
modem changes it back to digital so your computer can understand it. It helps your
computer talk to the internet through telephone or cable lines.

6) Firewall

A firewall is like a security guard for your computer or network! It checks all the
data that tries to come in or go out, making sure only safe and allowed information
passes through. It follows special rules to decide what’s okay and what’s not, just
like how a guard decides who can enter a building. Firewalls can also keep track of
what’s happening, like making notes in a notebook, to make sure nothing bad or
suspicious gets in. This helps keep your network safe and protected from any
dangers.

Client/Server network

A client/server network is a computing model in which multiple client devices, such

as computers or smartphones, connect to a central server to access resources,
applications, or data. The server manages network resources, processes requests
from clients, and ensures security and data integrity. Clients rely on the server for
services like file storage, database access, or web hosting, while the server
operates continuously to handle multiple client requests simultaneously. This model
is widely used in businesses, websites, and cloud computing, offering centralized
control, scalability, and efficient resource management.
Types of computer network

1) Local Area Network(LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices
within a small area, like a home, school, or office. It allows devices to share files,
printers, and internet connections. LANs use cables (like Ethernet) or Wi-Fi to link
devices, making communication fast and efficient. Since LANs cover a limited area,
they are secure and easy to manage compared to larger networks like the internet.

2) Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that connects multiple computers

and devices across a city or a large area, bigger than a Local Area Network (LAN)
but smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN). It is used by businesses,
government offices, or universities to share data and resources over long distances
within a city. MANs often use high-speed connections like fiber optics to provide
fast communication between locations, such as linking different branches of a
company or providing internet access in a city.

3) Wide Area Network

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a type of computer network that connects devices
across large distances, such as cities, countries, or even worldwide. Unlike local
networks (LANs), which cover small areas like homes or offices, WANs use
telephone lines, fiber optics, satellites, or the internet to link computers and
networks together. The best example of a WAN is the internet, which connects
millions of devices globally. WANs help businesses, organizations, and individuals
communicate and share data over long distances.

Differences between LAN, MAN and WAN

Network Topology

 Network topology is the way devices are arranged and connected in a

network. It shows how computers, servers, and other devices link and
communicate with each other.
 A good network layout helps improve speed and reliability. It decides
how data moves, which affects how fast and smooth the network
works.
 A well-planned network reduces delays and traffic, making sure data
flows without problems. It also allows new devices to be added easily
without causing issues.
 Understanding and setting up a good network design helps keep
communication smooth, supports growth, and ensures data moves
efficiently.
Star Topology

In a star topology, each device is connected directly to a central hub or switch. All
communication between devices must go through this central point. It's like a hub-
and-spoke model, with the hub being the focal point for data transmission.

Bus Topology

Imagine a long cable, resembling a bus route, with devices connected along its
length. This is the essence of a bus topology. In a bus network, all devices share
the same communication channel. Data travels along the cable, and each device
checks if the data is intended for it. If so, it accepts the data; otherwise, it ignores it.

Think of a school bus with seats for students. In a bus topology, devices like
computers and printers are arranged in a line along a single cable, which serves as
their communication pathway, similar to the bus route.

Ring

Topology

In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a
closed loop or ring. Data circulates around the ring in one direction. When a device
receives data, it processes it and passes it along to the next device until it reaches
its destination.

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up Hard to fix problems
Works fast Slower speed
 Advantages Disadvantages
Can grow bigger easily Limited memory/storage
Reliable and stable Security risks
Fewer data errors Not very flexible
No need for a main computer Hard to connect new devices
Simple to solve issues Expensive to set up
Saves costs Limits data flow
Data moves in one direction

Tree topology

Tree topology is a type of network structure where devices are connected in a

hierarchical way, resembling a tree. It combines elements of both star and bus
topologies. At the top, there's a central node called the "root," and from there,
branches (or "nodes") spread out, connecting to other devices or smaller groups of
devices. Each branch can connect to additional branches, and these branches
continue until they reach the leaves (the end devices).

In simple terms, think of it like a family tree. The root is the main ancestor, and
each level of branches represents different generations or connections, with the
leaves being the end devices or computers.

Advantages of tree topology:

 Easy to expand (you can add more branches).

 Efficient data flow because there are clear paths.
 Failure in one branch doesn’t affect the whole network.

Disadvantages:

 If the main root fails, the whole network can be affected.

 It can be more complex to set up and maintain than simpler topologies like
star.

Mesh topology

In mesh topology, all the computers are connected to each other in a network. The
connections between devices are made randomly. Computers, switches, hubs, and
other devices can all be connected as nodes. If one connection fails, the other
devices can still communicate through other paths. Since there is no clear order or
pattern between the devices, it can be very expensive. Also, setting up the
connections in mesh topology is not easy.

Benefits of networking

 File sharing - you can easily share data between different users, or access it remotely if
you keep it on other connected devices.
 Resource sharing - using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners
and copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
 Sharing a single internet connection - it is cost-efficient and can help protect your
systems if you properly secure the network.
 Increasing storage capacity - you can access files and multimedia, such as images and
music, which you store remotely on other machines or network-attached storage devices.

Disadvantages of networking
. Lack of
independence.
Computer networks
involve processes that
operate with the help
of computers, so
people rely more on
computer work than
on the task at hand.
Apart from that, they
rely on the main file
server, so in the event
of a failure, the
system becomes
unusable
and users remain idle.
. Lack of
independence.
Computer networks
involve processes that
operate with the help
of computers, so
people rely more on
computer work than
on the task at hand.
Apart from that, they
rely on the main file
server, so in the event
of a failure, the
system becomes
unusable
and users remain idle.
. Lack of
independence.
Computer networks
involve processes that
operate with the help
of computers, so
people rely more on
computer work than
on the task at hand.
Apart from that, they
rely on the main file
server, so in the event
of a failure, the
system becomes
unusable

and users remain idle

End…….