The Copper Industry: Occurrence,

Recovery, and Consumption

THE COPPER INDUSTRY in North emerging as finished products. Figure 1 is a sim- als, principally chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), chalcocite
America, broadly speaking, is composed of two plified flow chart of the copper industry. (Cu2S), and bornite (Cu5FeS4 ). The main
segments: producers (mining, smelting, and processes used in the production of copper from
refining companies) and fabricators (wire mills, Production of Copper sulfide ores are shown in Fig. 2. The mined ore,
brass mills, foundries, and powder plants). The which contains only 0.5 to 2.0% Cu, is finely
end products of copper producers, the most Primary copper is produced from sulfide cop- ground, and then is concentrated by flotation to
important of which are refined copper cathode per minerals and oxidized copper minerals. form copper concentrates containing 25 to 30%
and wire rod, are sold almost entirely to copper These materials are processed pyrometallurgi- Cu. The concentrates are then smelted at high
fabricators. The end products of copper fabrica- cally and/or hydrometallurgically to produce a temperatures (about 1250°C, or 2280°F) to form
tors can be generally described as mill products high-purity electrorefined or electrowon copper a molten mixture of copper and iron sulfide
and foundry products, and they consist of wire containing less than 40 parts per million (ppm) called matte containing up to 60% Cu. The
and cable, sheet, strip, plate, foil, rod, bar impurities, which is suitable for all electrical, molten matte is converted to blister copper
mechanical wire, tubing, forgings, extrusions, electronic, and mechanical uses. Secondary cop- (98.5% Cu) by oxidizing the remaining iron and
castings, and powder metallurgy (P/M) shapes. per is produced from recycled scrap. Recycling sulfur in a converter. After removing the residual
These products are sold to a wide variety of of scrap accounts for approximately 40% of cop- sulfur and oxygen in an anode furnace, copper
industrial users. Certain mill products—chiefly per production worldwide. anodes are cast and then refined electrolytically
wire, cable, and most tubular products—are to produce high-purity copper cathode copper
used without further metalworking. On the other Production of Copper from (99.95% Cu), which is suitable for most uses.
hand, most flat-rolled products, rod, bar, Smelting Processes. The reverberatory fur-
mechanical wire, forgings, and castings go
Sulfide Minerals nace (Fig. 3) is the oldest and most widely used
through multiple metalworking, machining, fin- More than 90% of the primary copper in the smelting process. It consists of a refractory-lined
ishing, and/or assembly operations before Western world is produced from sulfide miner- chamber, typically 30 m (100 ft) long by 10 m

Fig. 1 Copper supply and consumption in the United States. See text for details. Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
 The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption / 11

(30 ft) wide, into which copper concentrates and drained separately from the furnace through tap- treatment costs. These processes use oxygen
silica flux are charged. Fuel-fired burners melt holes into ladles. The slag is discarded, while enrichment and oxidize more iron sulfide to gen-
the charge, driving off the labile sulfur by the matte is transferred to the converting step. The erate more heat and produce mattes with higher
following reaction: sulfur evolved during smelting leaves the fur- copper levels (50 to 75% Cu). The smelting
nace in a 1 to 2% SO2 gas stream, which is too reaction for these processes can be represented
2CuFeS2 → Cu2S · 2FeS(l)  12 S(g) (Eq 1) dilute for economic treatment. by the following reaction:
Because the reverberatory furnace cannot
Little iron sulfide is oxidized, so that fuel meet current requirements for low-energy con- 2CuFeS2  2  SiO2 + (1 + 3) O2
requirements are high, about 6.3 106 kJ per sumption and environmental standards, more → Cu2S  2(1 )FeS  2  FeO  SiO2
metric tonne (5.4 10 6 Btu per ton) of copper efficient smelting processes have been devel-  (1  2)SO2 (Eq 2)
concentrate. Two molten layers are formed in oped since the 1960s. These processes use much
the furnace: an upper layer slag of iron silicate less energy (typically 0.8 to 2.1 10 6 kJ per where  is the fraction of FeS reacted (typically,
with little copper ( 0.5% Cu), and a lower layer metric tonne of copper concentrate) and produce in the range  0.5 to 0.9). As shown in Fig. 2,
of matte (30 to 40% Cu). The slag and matte are a strong SO2 gas stream (10% SO2) to reduce modern smelting processes fall into two cate-
gories: flash smelting and bath smelting. In flash
smelting, dry concentrate is dispersed in an oxi-
Sulfide ores dizing gas stream, and the smelting reactions
(0.5–2% Cu)
occur very rapidly as the particles fall down a
reaction shaft (Fig. 4). The molten matte and slag
are collected in a hearth, and the SO2-containing
Comminution gases exit via an uptake shaft. In bath smelting,
moist concentrate is smelted continuously in a
molten bath of matte and slag, which is vigor-
ously stirred by the injection of air or oxygen-
enriched air. In one commercial process reactor,
Flotation the air is injected through tuyeres into a vessel
similar to an elongated converter.
Matte Converting. The molten matte is con-
Drying Concentrates (20–30% Cu) verted to blister in Peirce-Smith converters (Fig.
5). The converter is a refractory-lined, cylindri-
Reverberatory cal vessel, typically 10 m (30 ft) in length and 4
furnace m (13 ft) in diameter. The converter can be rotat-
ed about its axis, and is fitted on one side with a
Flash Bath row of approximately 50 tuyeres through which
smelting smelting air is injected. The top of the converter has a
(Outokumpu) Matte Matte (30–40% Cu) Matte (Noranda)
(50–65% Cu) (65–75% Cu) large mouth for charging molten matte and
removing slag and product copper. Converting is
a batch operation; initially several ladles of
matte are charged, the air turned on, and the con-
Converting
verter rotated until the tuyeres are submerged.
The air, bubbling violently through the bath,
gradually oxidizes the matte in two stages. In the
Blister copper (98.5 + % Cu)
first or slag-forming stage, iron sulfide is oxi-
dized and fluxed with silica to form a fluid slag
Anode refining by the following reaction:
and casting

2FeS(l)  2SiO2(s) + 3O2(g)

→ 2FeO  SiO2(l)  2SO2(g) (Eq 3)

The converter slag contains some copper (1 to

Anodes (99.5% Cu) 5% Cu), and is recycled to the smelting furnace
or treated in a separate process. When all the
iron has been removed, the remaining copper
Electrorefining sulfide is further oxidized to blister copper by
the following reaction:
Cathodes (99.99 + % Cu)
Cu2S(l) + O2(g) → 2Cu(l)  SO2(g) (Eq 4)
Melting
The converting process is sufficiently exother-
mic that no additional fuel is required. The blis-
Continuous ter copper from the converter is transferred by
Open-mold casting ladle to the anode furnace, where the residual
casting sulfur and oxygen levels in the copper are
reduced further. The copper is then cast into
anodes for electrorefining.
Fabrication and use Sulfur Fixation. Smelting and converting a
typical copper concentrate generates over 0.50
Fig. 2 Flow sheet of copper production from sulfide minerals metric tonne SO2 per metric tonne concentrate
12 / Metallurgy, Alloys, and Applications

(0.55 ton SO2 per ton concentrate) and the per sulfate and free sulfuric acid is continu- are more effectively treated by hydrometallur-
resulting SO2 emissions must be controlled to ously circulated. When direct current is gical processes. The ore is crushed, ground if
meet local environmental standards. This is applied, the copper in the anodes is electro- necessary, and leached with dilute sulfuric
generally achieved by converting the SO2 to chemically dissolved and then plated as pure acid, either by percolation through heaps of
sulfuric acid in a contact acid plant, as long as copper on the cathodes. Some of the anode ore or by agitation in tanks. Copper is recov-
the SO2 concentration exceeds 4% and a impurities, such as arsenic and nickel, are less ered from the resulting solution by either
viable market for acid exists. If local condi- noble than copper and dissolve in the elec- cementation or solvent extraction-electrowin-
tions are favorable, it is also possible to make trolyte, but they do not plate out at the cathode ning. In cementation, copper is precipitated
liquid SO2 or elemental sulfur from strong as long as their concentrations are controlled. by contact with scrap iron to form an impure
SO2 gases. The other impurities, such as silver, lead, and cement copper, which is smelted, then
Electrorefining. The objective of electrore- selenium, are virtually insoluble in the elec- refined. Solvent extraction-electrowinning
fining is to remove the remaining impurities in trolyte and fall as slimes to the bottom of the has become the preferred process. In solvent
the anode copper (principally As, Bi, Ni, Pb, tank. These slimes are recovered and extraction special organic reagents are used to
Sb, and Se) and produce a pure cathode cop- processed for eventual recovery of selenium selectively extract copper from solution. The
per (99.95  % Cu). Also, many copper ores and the precious-metal values. resulting copper-containing organic phase is
contain appreciable amounts of precious met- then stripped to give a pure and more concen-
als (Ag, Au, Pt, and so on), which are concen- Production of Copper from trated aqueous copper solution for electrowin-
trated into the anode copper during smelting Oxidized Minerals ning. Electrowinning is similar to electrore-
and are recovered as valuable by-products in fining, except that an inert anode is used and
electrorefining. The impure anodes are sus- About 10% of primary copper originates more energy is required. Although electrowon
pended alternately with pure copper cathodes from oxidized copper ores, principally oxides, cathode copper is generally not as pure as
in tanks through which an electrolyte of cop- silicates, and sulfates. Oxidized copper ores electrorefined copper, it is still suitable for
many applications.
Concentrate
Off gas
One of the newest developments in
or calcine hydrometallurgy is referred to as “bioleach-
(to waste
Charging heat ing.” In this emerging process, the copper
conveyor boilers) concentrate is transported to a drum contain-
Fuel ing thermophillic bacteria and slightly acidic
warm water. The resultant slurry is constantly
Slag stirred, allowing the bacteria to “eat” sulfur,
Converter arsenic, and other contaminants. In approxi-
slag
mately four days a copper solution containing
30 g of pure copper for every liter of water is
produced. this solution is subsequently elec-
Air trolytically refined.

Matte
Production of Copper from Scrap
Burners
Charging pipes
Slag The box at the lower left in Fig. 1 represents
Matte the portion of the copper supply provided by
scrap. In recent years, well over half the copper
consumed in the United States has been derived
Fig. 3 Cutaway view of a reverberatory furnace for copper smelting

Exhaust gas

Dry concentrates
and flux

Concentrate burners (1 to 4)
Movable
Uptake hood cover Siliceous
O2-enriched air flux

Reaction
shaft

Flux
Tuyere gun
pipes
Air Air

Pneumatic
Off-gas
punchers

Matte Slag Matte Settler Air

Slag

Fig. 5 Cutaway view of a horizontal side-blown Peirce-Smith converter for produc-

Fig. 4 Cutaway view of an oxygen-enriched flash-smelting furnace ing blister copper from matte
 The Copper Industry: Occurrence, Recovery, and Consumption / 13

from recycled scrap, and this percentage has remaining 55%. Free-cutting brass rod, which Table 1 Recently published data on
grown somewhat over the last three decades. exhibits outstanding machinability and good the leading copper markets in the
Approximately 55% of this scrap has been new corrosion resistance, and brass strip, which has United States
scrap, such as turnings from screw-machined high strength, good corrosion resistance,
Consumption
rod, as opposed to old scrap, such as used elec- excellent formability, and good electrical prop-
Application lb 106 %
trical cable or auto radiators. Scrap recycled erties, together constitute 80% of the total
tonnage of copper alloys shipped from U.S. Building wire 1215 16
within a particular plant or company (run- Plumbing and heating 1147 15.1
around scrap) is not included in these statistics. brass mills. Other alloy types of major com- Air conditioning and 671 8.8
About one-third of the scrap recycled in the mercial significance include tin bronzes (phos- commercial refrigeration
United States is fed into the smelting or refining phor bronzes), which are noted for their excel- Power utilities 647 8.5
lent cold-forming behavior and strength; tin Telecommunications 544 7.2
stream and quickly loses any identity. The Automotive (electrical) 511 6.7
remainder is consumed directly by brass mills; brasses, known for outstanding corrosion In-plant equipment 500 6.6
by ingot makers, whose main function is to resistance; copper-nickels, which are strong Electronics 409 5.4
process scrap into alloy ingot for use by and particularly resistant to seawater; nickel Automotive (nonelectrical) 276 3.6
foundries; by foundries themselves; by powder silvers, which combine a silvery appearance Industrial valves and fittings 239 3.2
Lighting and wiring devices 231 3.1
plants; and by others, such as the chemical, alu- with good formability and corrosion resist- All others 1201 15.8
minum, and steel industries. ance; beryllium-coppers, which provide out- Total 7591 100
standing strength when hardened; and alu-
Source: Copper Development Association Inc.
minum bronzes, which have high strength
Copper Fabricators along with good resistance to oxidation, chem-
ical attack, and mechanical abrasion. harnesses are the most important products in this
Foundries use prealloyed ingot, scrap, and vir- category. Finally, consumer and general prod-
The four classes of copper fabricators togeth-
gin metal as raw materials. Their chief products ucts include electrical appliances, fasteners, ord-
er account for 97% of the total copper (includ-
are shaped castings for many different industrial nance, coinage, and jewelry. Table 1 provides a
ing alloying metal) consumed each year in the
and consumer goods, the most important of listing of the largest markets for copper and cop-
United States (Fig. 1). Other industries, such as
which are plumbing products and industrial per alloys in the United States. Additional infor-
steel, aluminum, and chemical producers, con-
valves. Centrifugal and continuously cast prod- mation on the supply and consumption of copper
sume the remaining 3%.
ucts find major application as bearings, cylin- can be found in statistical data available from the
The share of metal consumed by wire rod
ders, and other symmetrical components. Powder Copper Development Association Inc., the U.S.
mills has grown sharply over the last 35 years to
plants produce powder and flake for further fab- Geological Survey in the U.S. Department of the
the current level of 51.5%; consumption by
rication into powder metallurgy parts, chiefly Interior, and the Bureau of the Census in the
brass mills has dropped to 41.5%. Foundries
small sintered porous bronze bearings. U. S. Department of Commerce.
account for about 4% of fabricated mill prod-
ucts, and powder plants use less than 1% of the
U.S. supply of copper. SELECTED REFERENCES
Wire mill products are destined for use as
Markets and Applications
electrical conductors. Starting with wire rod, • A.K. Biswas and W.G. Davenport, Extractive
these mills cold draw the material (with neces- The five major market categories shown at the Metallurgy of Copper, 2nd ed., Pergamon,
sary anneals) to final dimensions through a far right in Fig. 1 constitute the chief customer 1980
series of dies. The individual wires can be industries of the copper fabricators. Of the chief • D.P. Cox, Copper Resources, in Encyclopedia
stranded and normally are insulated before being customer industries, the largest is building con- of Materials Science and Engineering, Vol 2,
gathered into cable assemblies. struction, which, purchases large quantities of M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon Press and the MIT
Brass mills melt and alloy feedstock to make electrical wire, tubing, and parts for building Press, 1986, p 855–859
strip, sheet, plate, tube, rod, bar, mechanical hardware and for electrical, plumbing, heating, • W.G. Davenport, Copper Production, in
wire, forgings, and extrusions. Less than half the and air-conditioning systems. The second largest Encyclopedia of Materials Science and En-
copper input to brass mills is refined; the rest is category is electrical and electronic products, gineering, Vol 2, M.B. Bever, Ed., Pergamon
scrap. Fabricating processes such as hot rolling, including those for telecommunications, elec- Press and the MIT Press, 1986 p 841–848
cold rolling, extrusion, and drawing are tronics, wiring de-vices, electric motors, and • G. Joseph and K.J.A. Kundig, Copper: Its
employed to convert the melted and cast feed- power utilities. The industrial machinery and Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmen-
stock into mill products. equipment category includes industrial valves tal Status, International Copper Association,
Approximately 45% of the output of U.S. and fittings; industrial, chemical, and marine Ltd., and ASM International, 1999
brass mills is unalloyed copper and high-cop- heat exchangers; and various other types of • J.G. Peacey, Copper Metallurgy, McGraw-
per alloys, chiefly in such forms as plumbing heavy equipment, off-road vehicles, and Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technol-
and air conditioning tube, busbar and other machine tools. Transportation applications ogy, Vol 2, 7th ed., 1992, p 420–423
heavy-gage current-carrying flat products, and include road vehicles, railroad equipment, and • E.G. West, Copper and its Alloys, Ellis
roofing sheet. Copper alloys make up the aircraft parts; automobile radiators and wiring Horwood Limited, 1982