COMPUTER FUNDAMENTAL ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE

Unit – 2
Computer organization: block diagram of computer and its functional units, Input devices – keyboard,
scanner, mouse, light pen, bar code reader, OMR, OCR, MICR, track ball, joystick, touch screen camera,
microphone, etc., Output devices: monitors – classification of monitors based on technology – CRT & flat
panel, LCD, LED monitors, speakers, printers – dot matrix printer, ink jet printer, laser printer, 3D Printers,
Wi-Fi enabled printers, plotters and their types , LCD/LED projectors, Computer memory and its types,
Memory Hierarchy, Types of RAM and ROM, Cache Memory, Storage devices: Magnetic tapes, Floppy
Disks, Hard Disks, Compact Disc – CD-ROM, CD-RW, VCD, DVD, DVD-RW, USB drives, Blue Ray Disc,
SD/MMC Memory cards.

Block diagram of computer and its functional units

Functions:-
All computers system perform following 5 basic operations
1. Input
2. Storage
3. Processing
4. Controlling
5. Output
In the block of diagram solid linear are used to indicate the flow of instruction and data a and the dotted
lines represent the control operation. It display the five major building blocks, or function units, which
correspond to the five basis operation perform by the computer system.
1) INPUT UNIT – Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation
can be performed on the supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit that links the
external environment with the computer system. Regard less of the form in which they receive
input, all input device must provide a computer with data they a transform into the binary codes.
This transformation accomplished by input interfaces.
In short the function of input unit are -
1. It accept (or reads) the list of instruction and data form the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data into a computer-acceptable form
3. It supplies converts instruction and data to the system for further processing.
2) OUTPUT UNIT – The job of output unit is just reverse of that of an input unit. Its supply
information and result of computation to the outside world, Thus it links the computer system with
the external environment. The result produced are also in the computer is in binary form, Hence
before supplying the result to the outside world it must be converted to human acceptable
(readable) form.
The functions of output unit are –
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot be
easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded result to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplies the converted result to the outside world.
3) STORAGE UNIT – The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system though
input unit have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing star. Similarly, the
results produced by the computer after the processing must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer system before being passed on to the output units. The storage unit is design to cater to
all these requirement.
The specific function of a storage unit are –
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction are hold in there unit.
2. Intermediate results of processing are stored.
3. Final result of processing before these result are released to an output device are cold so stored
here.

CONCEPT OF HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND FIRMWARE

1. Hardware – Hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer or electronic device that you can
touch and see. It includes components like the CPU (which processes information), Ram (temporary
memory), and storage device like hard drives or SSD. Hardware also includes external devices like
the keyboard, mouse, monitor, and printer which help you interact with the computer. These parts
work together with software (program) to make the computer function. Without hardware, the
software wouldn’t be able to run, and the device wouldn’t work. In short, hardware forms the body
of a computer.
2. Software – Software is a set of programs or instructions that tell a computer how to perform
tasks. It cannot be physically touched, unlike hardware software controls the hardware and make it
useful. There are two main types of software:-
A. System Software – System software is a set of one or more program designed to control the
operation of a computer system. They are general program written to assist user in the use of
computer system while performing task such as operation control, moving data into out of
computer and all the other steps in executing any application program. They also help in
communicating with other peripheral devices such as printer, tape devices, disks, card reader
etc. Therefore system software makes the operation of a computer more effective and efficient.
 The program including in the system software as known as system software and the person who
prepare them in known as programmer. Without system software, application packages could
not be run the computer system. The production of system software is a complex task that
requires attention knowledge and specialist training in computer science.

HARDWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

USER

B. Application software – Application software also known as application package, is a set of one
or more program designed to carry out operations for any specific application. The programs
that constitute an application package are known as application program and the person who
prepares them is known is application programmer.
Different application software are available nowadays, such as inventory control, general
accounting, word processing, production scheduling, payroll creation, spreadsheet, database
software, graphic and imaginary software, audio video and multimedia program, banking
software, health administration, scientific research and many other.
3. Firmware – Firmware is a type of software that is built into hardware devices. It acts as a bridge
between the hardware and other software, helping the hardware function properly. Unlike regular
software, firmware is stored on a special type of memory, such as ROM (Read-Only Memory) or
Flash Memory, and it is not erased when the device is turned off.
Firmware is designed to control basic operations of devices like keyboards, printers, routers, and
smartphones. For example, the firmware in a TV remote controls how the buttons work.
It is usually pre-installed by the manufacturer and can sometimes be updated to improve
performance or fix bugs. Updating firmware is important because it ensures the device works
efficiently and securely.
In simple terms, firmware is like the instructions that tell hardware how to operate. Without it,
hardware cannot function properly.

INPUT DEVICES
They are various type of input device with different manner the input may be text, number, graphic,
sound, video etc.
 1. Keyboard – It is the most important input device which is usually used to provide text type of
keyboard. Its design it known as “QWERTY” design. The key on a keyboard can be categorized into
following types –
a) Alphanumeric Keys(a—z,0-9)
b) Cursor movement keys
c) Function keys (f1—f12)
d) Specials keys(Alt, Ctrl, space, enter,shift)
2. Scanner – A scanner is a device that copies physical documents, photos, or images and turns them
into digital formats that can be stored on a computer. It works by using light to scan the surface of
the object, capturing the details, and then converting it into a digital image or file. Scanners are
commonly used to digitize paper documents for storage, editing, or sharing. Once scanned, the
digital file can be saved, emailed, or printed. Scanners come in various types, including flatbed,
handheld, and specialized models for tasks like scanning books or 3D objects.
3. Mouse – A mouse is a small device that helps control a computer by moving a pointer (or cursor)
on the screen. It lets users select, open, or move items, and perform actions by clicking buttons.
The mouse typically has two main buttons, left and right, and sometimes a scroll wheel in the
middle for easy navigation. It connects to a computer either by a wire (wired mouse) or wirelessly.

Types of Mouse: Mechanical and Optical

1. Mechanical Mouse:
A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball at its bottom to detect movement. When you move the
mouse, the ball rolls, and sensors inside the mouse pick up the direction and speed of the
movement. These sensors convert the ball's motion into signals that the computer understands,
moving the pointer on the screen accordingly.
Advantages: It was the first widely used type of mouse and is very affordable.
Disadvantages: The ball can collect dirt and dust over time, which can affect the smoothness
and accuracy of the mouse. Regular cleaning is required to maintain its performance.
2. Optical Mouse:
An optical mouse uses light, usually an LED, and a sensor to detect movement. Instead of a ball,
it shines light onto the surface underneath and the sensor picks up how the light reflects,
tracking the movement. This data is then sent to the computer, moving the pointer on the
screen.
Advantages: The optical mouse is more accurate and smoother compared to the mechanical
mouse. It works on most surfaces without needing a mousepad and doesn’t require cleaning
because there’s no ball.
Disadvantages: It is usually more expensive than a mechanical mouse, and it may struggle to
work on very shiny or glass surfaces unless designed for that.
4. Light pen – A light pen is a handheld device used to interact directly with a computer screen. It
looks like a pen and allows users to point, draw, or select items on the screen by touching it. The
light pen works by detecting the light emitted from the monitor, and when the user touches the
screen with the pen, it sends information to the computer about the position. Light pens were
commonly used with older CRT monitors and in specific tasks like graphic design or technical
drawings. However, they are less popular now, replaced by modern touchscreens and stylus pens.

5. Bar Code reader – A bar code reader is a device used to scan and read barcodes, which are
patterns of lines and numbers printed on products or items. The reader uses a light source, usually
a laser or LED, to scan the barcode, and then converts the information into digital data that a
 computer can understand. This data typically represents product details like price, item name, or
inventory information. Bar code readers are commonly used in stores, warehouses, and libraries to
quickly identify and manage items. They help speed up tasks like checkout and inventory tracking.

6. OMR (Optical Mark Recognition):

OMR is used to read marks made by people, usually on specially designed forms like tests, surveys, or
ballots. The marks are typically in the form of bubbles or checkboxes. When the form is scanned by an
OMR device, it detects where the marks are and converts them into data that a computer can process. For
example, in multiple-choice exams, OMR helps quickly grade tests by recognizing which answers are
selected.

 Use: Scanning answer sheets, surveys, and voting ballots.

 Example: School exams where students fill in bubbles for answers.

7. OCR (Optical Character Recognition):

OCR is used to convert printed or handwritten text into digital characters that a computer can understand.
It scans documents like books, receipts, or letters and recognizes the letters, numbers, and symbols in the
text. This technology is useful for digitizing printed materials so they can be edited, searched, or stored
electronically.

 Use: Scanning books, printed documents, or receipts to convert them into editable digital text.
 Example: Converting printed text into digital text for word processing.

8. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition):

MICR is used to read numbers printed in a special magnetic ink, mainly found at the bottom of checks. The
numbers represent important details like the bank code and account number. MICR scanners can easily
read these characters, even if they are smudged or written over, making it a secure way to process checks.

 Use: Banking industry, specifically for check processing.

 Example: Reading account and routing numbers from checks.

9. Trackball:

A trackball is an input device similar to a mouse but with a ball on top. Instead of moving the whole device,
users rotate the ball with their fingers, thumb, or palm to move the pointer on the computer screen. The
ball is seated in a socket and spins in different directions to control the cursor movement. Trackballs are
often used in places where space is limited, like in industrial machines or special workstations. They are
preferred by some users because they can be more comfortable for long use and require less desk space
than a traditional mouse.

 Use: Computer navigation.

 Example: Moving the cursor on a computer screen without physically moving the device.

10. Touch Screen:

A touch screen is a display that also works as an input device. Instead of using a mouse or keyboard, you
interact directly with the screen by touching it with your finger or a stylus. Touchscreens can detect
different gestures, like taps, swipes, or pinches, allowing for easy navigation. There are different types of
touch screens, such as resistive and capacitive, but the most common one in modern devices like
smartphones and tablets is capacitive, which responds to the electrical properties of the human body.

 Use: Smartphones, tablets, ATMs, kiosks.

 Example: Tapping on apps or swiping to scroll through pages on a mobile phone.

11. Mic (Microphone):

A microphone (mic) is a device that captures sound and converts it into electrical signals that a computer
or other device can understand. It’s commonly used for recording voice, talking in video calls, or giving
voice commands to a device. Microphones come in different shapes and sizes, from those built into laptops
and smartphones to external mics used for professional recording or gaming. They work by picking up
vibrations in the air caused by sound waves and turning them into audio signals that can be processed or
amplified.

 Use: Recording voice, video calls, voice commands.

 Example: Speaking into a mic during a Zoom call or using a microphone to record music.

OUTPUT DEVICE

An output device is a hardware component that takes data from a computer and presents it in a form that
people can understand. It shows, prints, or plays the information that the computer processes. For
example, a monitor displays text and images, a printer produces documents or photos on paper, and
speakers play sound. Output devices help users see or hear the results of what the computer is doing.
Without them, we wouldn’t be able to easily interact with or understand the data on the computer.

 Examples: Monitor, printer, speakers, and projector.

1. Monitor – A monitor is an output device that displays information from a computer on a screen,
allowing users to see text, images, videos, and other data. It’s like a TV screen but designed
specifically for computers. Monitors are essential because they let us interact visually with the
computer and understand what it's processing or showing. The quality, size, and features of
monitors can vary greatly depending on the type and technology used.
Classification of Monitors Based on Technology:
1. CRT Monitor (Cathode Ray Tube):
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors were the first type of computer monitors, resembling old
television sets. They use electron beams to light up phosphor dots on the screen, which create the
images you see.
 How CRT Works: The CRT monitor has a large, heavy tube at the back where electron guns shoot
beams onto the screen. These beams pass through a mask to hit specific phosphor-coated areas,
creating images with different colors.
 Characteristics of CRT Monitors:
o Bulky and Heavy: CRT monitors are large and take up a lot of desk space.
o Good Color and Contrast: They offer good color reproduction and contrast ratios.
o Durability: CRT monitors are generally robust and long-lasting.
o Low Resolution: Compared to modern monitors, CRTs have lower resolution and image
quality.
 o Energy Consumption: CRT monitors consume more power and produce heat due to the
cathode ray tube technology.
CRT monitors have largely been replaced by newer, more compact, and energy-efficient
technologies.

2. Flat Panel Monitor:

Flat panel monitors are thinner and lighter than CRTs and are based on different technologies like
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and LED (Light Emitting Diode).
LCD Monitor (Liquid Crystal isplay):
LCD monitors use liquid crystals that align when electric current passes through them, controlling
the light to display images.
 How LCD Works: LCDs have a backlight that passes through liquid crystals and a series of filters to
display colors and images. The liquid crystals block or allow light to pass through, forming the
display.
 Characteristics of LCD Monitors:
o Slim and Lightweight: Much lighter and thinner than CRT monitors, taking up less space.
o Higher Resolution: LCDs typically offer sharper images with higher resolution.
o Energy Efficient: They use less power than CRT monitors.
o Longer Lifespan: LCD screens generally last longer and don’t degrade as quickly as CRTs.
o Limited Viewing Angles: The image quality can degrade when viewed from the sides.
LED Monitor (Light Emitting Diode):
LED monitors are a type of LCD monitor but use LEDs as the backlight instead of the traditional
fluorescent lights in older LCDs. This makes them more energy-efficient and provides better image
quality.
 How LED Works: LED monitors work similarly to LCDs but use tiny LEDs for backlighting, which can
be controlled more precisely for better brightness and contrast.
 Characteristics of LED Monitors:
o Better Image Quality: LEDs offer higher contrast ratios, brighter colors, and sharper images
than regular LCDs.
o Energy Efficiency: LED monitors consume less power and produce less heat than CRT and
standard LCD monitors.
o Slim and Stylish Design: LED monitors are extremely thin and lightweight, making them
ideal for modern, space-saving setups.
o Long Lifespan: LEDs last longer and are more durable than other display technologies.
o Wider Viewing Angles: LED monitors generally offer better viewing angles than traditional
LCDs.
2. Speakers – Speakers are output devices that produce sound from a computer, phone, or other
electronic devices. They work by converting electrical signals into sound waves that we can hear.
Speakers can play music, videos, alarms, or any audio content. They come in various sizes, from
small built-in speakers in laptops and phones to large external ones for home theaters or
computers. Some speakers have extra features like volume control, bass adjustment, or Bluetooth
connectivity for wireless use. Speakers are essential for enjoying multimedia, making video calls, or
listening to audio content on devices.

3. Printer – A printer is an output device that takes digital information from a computer or other
device and converts it into a physical copy, typically on paper. It allows you to produce hard copies
of documents, photos, or other digital content. Printers are commonly used in homes, offices, and
industries for printing text, images, or graphics. They can be connected to computers via USB, Wi-
Fi, or Bluetooth, making it easy to print from multiple devices.
Characteristics of Printers:

1. Print Quality (Resolution): This refers to how sharp and clear the printed output is, measured in
DPI (dots per inch). Higher DPI means better quality prints.
2. Print Speed: This measures how fast the printer can print documents, typically shown in PPM
(pages per minute). Faster printers are useful in offices where many documents need to be printed
quickly.
3. Paper Size and Type: Most printers support standard paper sizes like A4, but some can handle
larger or different types of paper, such as photo paper, envelopes, or labels.
4. Connectivity: Printers can connect via USB cables, wireless networks (Wi-Fi), or even Bluetooth,
allowing multiple devices to send print jobs remotely.
5. Color vs. Monochrome: Printers can be either color (able to print in multiple colors) or
monochrome (only print in black and white). Color printers are good for photos and graphics, while
monochrome printers are often faster and more affordable for simple text documents.
6. Duplex Printing: Some printers can automatically print on both sides of a sheet of paper, which is
useful for saving paper and producing professional-looking documents.
7. Ink and Toner: Printers use either ink (in inkjet printers) or toner (in laser printers). Ink is usually
cheaper, but toner lasts longer and is more cost-effective for high-volume printing.
8. Functionality: Many printers are "all-in-one" or multifunctional, meaning they can also scan, copy,
and sometimes fax documents.

Types of Printers:

1. Inkjet Printer:
An inkjet printer sprays tiny droplets of ink onto paper to create an image or text. It is one of the most
common types of printers used in homes and small offices because it’s affordable and produces good-
quality prints, especially for photos and color documents.

 Characteristics:
o Good for high-quality photo printing.
o Affordable initial cost.
o Slower compared to laser printers.
o Ink cartridges need frequent replacement, especially if printing in color often.
 Use: Home printing, small office documents, photos.

2. Laser Printer:
A laser printer uses a laser beam to produce images and text by transferring toner (powdered ink) onto the
paper. It is popular in offices due to its speed and efficiency, especially for large-volume printing.

 Characteristics:
o Very fast printing speed, making it ideal for busy offices.
o High-quality text and graphics, though not as good as inkjet for photos.
o More expensive than inkjet printers, but the toner lasts longer, making it cost-effective in
the long run.
o Low maintenance and reliable for high-volume printing.
 Use: Office printing, bulk document printing, black-and-white or color text documents.

3. Dot Matrix Printer:

A dot matrix printer is an impact printer that uses a print head to strike an ink ribbon, creating characters
or images on paper in a series of dots. This technology is older and less common today but still used in
some specialized environments.
  Characteristics:
o Can print multiple copies using carbon paper.
o Durable and can print on continuous feed paper, making it useful for long reports or forms.
o Low print quality and noisy operation.
o Slower and not suitable for modern high-quality printing needs.
 Use: Industrial use, printing receipts, multi-copy forms, and reports.

4. 3D Printer:
A 3D printer is a modern type of printer that creates three-dimensional objects by adding layers of
material, typically plastic, based on a digital model. It’s used in manufacturing, design, and even medical
fields.

 Characteristics:
o Creates solid, 3D objects from digital designs.
o Can use various materials like plastic, resin, or metal.
o Slower process compared to traditional printing.
o Used for creating prototypes, models, or parts.
 Use: Manufacturing, prototyping, medical devices, creative design.

4. Plotter – A plotter is a special type of output device used for printing large, detailed designs, such
as architectural plans, engineering drawings, or banners. Unlike regular printers that print text or
images using dots, plotters use pens or ink to draw continuous lines, making them perfect for
producing high-precision graphics and technical drawings. Plotters are mainly used by engineers,
architects, and designers because they can print on large sheets of paper with great accuracy and
detail.

Types of Plotters:

1. Pen Plotter:
o How it works: Uses one or more pens to draw on paper. The pen moves across the surface
in horizontal and vertical directions to create the design.
o Use: Ideal for technical drawings, blueprints, and detailed graphics.
2. Inkjet Plotter:
o How it works: Similar to inkjet printers, it sprays tiny droplets of ink onto the paper, but in
larger formats. It can print in color and is faster than pen plotters.
o Use: Commonly used for posters, banners, and high-quality images.
3. Cutting Plotter:
o How it works: Uses a blade instead of a pen to cut shapes and designs from materials like
vinyl or paper.
o Use: Often used for creating signs, stickers, and custom graphics.

Plotters are essential for producing large, detailed, and high-quality designs efficiently.

5. LCD Projector (Liquid Crystal Display):

An LCD projector works by shining a light through liquid crystal panels. The light passes through red, green,
and blue filters to create the colors needed for the image, which is then projected onto a screen.

 Advantages: LCD projectors provide bright, clear images and are often more affordable. They are
good for displaying detailed text and images.
 6. LED Projector (Light Emitting Diode):

An LED projector is similar to an LCD projector but uses LED lights instead of traditional lamps. LED
projectors are more energy-efficient and last longer because the LED lights don’t need frequent
replacement.

 Advantages: LED projectors are durable, have longer lifespans, and produce consistent image
quality over time. They are also quieter and more compact compared to traditional projectors.

COMPUTER MEMORY AND ITS TYPES

Memory is an essential part of a computer that stores data and instructions needed for processing. It
allows the computer to access and process information quickly. Without memory, a computer cannot
perform any tasks.

1. What is Computer Memory?

Computer memory is the storage space in a computer where data, programs, and instructions are stored
temporarily or permanently. It is divided into two main categories:

1. Primary Memory (Volatile) – Temporary storage.

2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile) – Permanent storage.

2. Types of Memory

A. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory is directly accessed by the CPU (Central Processing Unit). It is fast and used while
processing data.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory):

 Purpose: Temporary storage for data and instructions while the computer is running.
 Volatile: Data is lost when the computer is turned off.
 Types:
o DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower and cheaper, needs to be refreshed.
o SRAM (Static RAM): Faster and expensive, used in cache memory.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory):

 Purpose: Stores permanent data required to start the computer (e.g., BIOS).
 Non-Volatile: Data is not lost when power is off.
 Types:
o PROM (Programmable ROM): Can be written once.
o EPROM (Erasable PROM): Can be erased using UV light and reprogrammed.
o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM): Can be erased electrically and reprogrammed.

3. Cache Memory:
  Purpose: Stores frequently accessed data to speed up processing.
 Faster than RAM but smaller in size.

4. Registers:

 Purpose: Temporary storage inside the CPU for quick data processing.
 Very Fast but stores only a few bytes of data.

B. Secondary Memory (Storage Memory)

Secondary memory is used for permanent storage of data and programs. It is non-volatile and retains data
even when the computer is off.

1. Hard Disk Drives (HDD):

 Purpose: Stores operating systems, software, and files.

 Slower than RAM but provides large storage capacity.

2. Solid-State Drives (SSD):

 Purpose: Faster than HDD and used for high-speed data access.
 No moving parts, making it more reliable.

3. Optical Disks (CD/DVD):

 Purpose: Used for storing music, videos, and software.

 Data is written using a laser.

4. USB Drives and Memory Cards:

 Portable and used for transferring data between devices.

5. Magnetic Tapes:

 Purpose: Used for backup storage in large organizations.

 Low cost but slower access speed.

3. Cache and Virtual Memory

 Cache Memory: Speeds up processing by storing frequently used data.

 Virtual Memory: Uses part of the hard disk as temporary RAM when actual RAM is full.

STORAGE DEVICES

Storage devices are used to store data in a computer system. These devices can store information
permanently or temporarily. Let’s take a look at three common types of storage devices: Magnetic Tapes,
Floppy Disks, and Hard Disks.
1. Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic tapes are one of the oldest forms of storage used to store large amounts of data. These tapes
are similar to the ones used for audio and video recordings, but instead of music or videos, they store
computer data.

 Structure: Magnetic tape is a long strip of plastic covered with a magnetic material. Data is
recorded on this tape by magnetizing the material in different patterns.
 Usage: Mostly used in backups or for archiving data. They are not very fast compared to modern
storage devices but are very cost-effective for storing huge amounts of data.
 Example: Large organizations or data centers often use magnetic tapes to back up important data
because of their high capacity and low cost.
 Advantages:
o High storage capacity.
o Cheap for large-scale storage.
 Disadvantages:
o Slow access time (data retrieval is slower).
o Not suitable for everyday tasks, mostly used for backup or long-term storage.

2. Floppy Disks

Floppy disks were one of the first portable storage devices. They are small, round, plastic disks that store
data using magnetic material. Though they are mostly outdated now, they were widely used in the 1980s
and 1990s for transferring files between computers.

 Structure: The disk is enclosed in a plastic casing and contains a thin, flexible magnetic disk inside.
 Capacity: A typical floppy disk could store about 1.44 MB of data, which is very small compared to
today’s storage standards.
 Usage: Mainly used for transferring small files or programs between computers, as well as for
system booting.
 Advantages:
o Portable and easy to use.
o Inexpensive.
 Disadvantages:
o Very low storage capacity by today’s standards.
o Prone to damage and corruption, especially due to exposure to dust or magnetic fields.
o Very slow data transfer rate.

3. Hard Disks (HDDs)

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) are the most commonly used storage devices in computers. They offer large
storage capacities and relatively fast data access compared to older storage devices like floppy disks and
magnetic tapes.

 Structure: A hard disk consists of circular metal disks (platters) coated with a magnetic material.
These disks spin at high speeds while read/write heads move across the surface to access the data.
 Capacity: Modern hard disks can store hundreds of gigabytes (GB) or even terabytes (TB) of data,
much more than floppy disks or magnetic tapes.
  Usage: Used as the main storage in desktop computers, laptops, and external storage devices. They
store operating systems, software, files, and other data.
 Advantages:
o High storage capacity.
o Faster access times compared to floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
o Reliable for regular use.
 Disadvantages:
o Have moving parts, which can make them vulnerable to physical damage, like dropping.
o Slower than newer storage devices like SSDs.
o Produce noise and consume more power.

COMPACT DISC

There are several types of compact discs (CDs) and storage devices used to store digital data. These
devices allow users to store, transfer, and retrieve data, such as music, videos, software, or documents.
Here’s a breakdown of some of the common types:

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory)

A CD-ROM is a type of compact disc that is used to store data that can only be read, not written or
modified.

 Structure: It looks like a regular CD but contains data that is permanently etched into it by a laser
during manufacturing.
 Usage: Commonly used to distribute software, games, or multimedia files like videos.
 Advantages:
o Inexpensive and widely available.
o Easy to use for data distribution.
 Disadvantages:
o Data can only be read, not written or erased.
o Limited storage capacity (typically 700 MB).

2. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable)

A CD-RW is a type of rewritable CD that allows users to write and erase data multiple times. It’s more
flexible than a CD-ROM.

 Structure: Similar to a CD-ROM, but the data can be erased and rewritten using a special laser.
 Usage: Used for transferring files, creating backups, or storing files temporarily.
 Advantages:
o Reusable and can store new data multiple times.
o Cost-effective for transferring smaller amounts of data.
 Disadvantages:
o Slower read/write speeds than a regular CD-ROM.
o Lower storage capacity compared to newer devices (700 MB).
3. VCD (Video Compact Disc)

A VCD is a type of CD that is used to store video files in addition to audio or images.

 Structure: A regular CD that is specially formatted to store video and audio in a specific format.
 Usage: Used for video playback on devices that support the VCD format, such as older DVD players.
 Advantages:
o Allows video storage in a compact form.
o Often used for movie distribution before DVDs became popular.
 Disadvantages:
o Lower video quality compared to modern formats like DVDs or Blu-ray.
o Limited storage capacity (around 700 MB, which allows only about 1 hour of video).

4. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

A DVD is a type of optical disc that is used to store more data than a CD, including high-quality video and
audio.

 Structure: Similar to a CD, but with a higher data density, allowing more storage space.
 Capacity: Can hold about 4.7 GB of data (single-layer), which is enough for a full-length movie or
large software programs.
 Usage: Used for movies, software distribution, and large data storage.
 Advantages:
o Higher storage capacity than CDs.
o Better video and audio quality compared to VCDs.
 Disadvantages:
o Still not as high capacity or as fast as newer devices like Blu-ray or SSDs.

5. DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable)

A DVD-RW is a rewritable version of a DVD that allows you to write, erase, and rewrite data on the same
disc multiple times.

 Structure: It’s similar to a regular DVD but supports multiple write cycles, so data can be changed.
 Usage: Used for temporary storage or when you need to reuse a disc.
 Advantages:
o Reusable for storing different data over time.
o Higher capacity than CD-RWs.
 Disadvantages:
o Slower read/write speeds than other media like hard drives or USB drives.

6. USB Drives (Universal Serial Bus)

A USB drive (often called a flash drive or pen drive) is a small, portable storage device that connects to a
computer via a USB port.
  Structure: A compact device with flash memory inside that can store data.
 Capacity: Typically ranges from 2 GB to 1 TB or more.
 Usage: Used for transferring files, creating backups, or carrying files between computers.
 Advantages:
o Portable and easy to use.
o Much faster data transfer compared to CDs or DVDs.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be easily lost due to its small size.
o Limited lifespan (can wear out after many read/write cycles).

7. Blu-ray Disc

A Blu-ray Disc is a high-capacity optical disc used for high-definition video and large data storage.

 Structure: Uses a blue laser (rather than the red laser used by DVDs) to read and write data,
allowing higher storage capacity.
 Capacity: A single-layer Blu-ray disc can hold about 25 GB of data, while a dual-layer Blu-ray disc
can hold 50 GB.
 Usage: Primarily used for HD video (movies, games) and large data storage.
 Advantages:
o High storage capacity, ideal for HD video and large files.
o Better video and audio quality compared to DVDs.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires a Blu-ray player for playback.
o More expensive than DVDs and CDs.

8. SD/MMC Memory Cards

SD (Secure Digital) and MMC (MultiMediaCard) are small, portable memory cards used to store data in
devices like cameras, phones, and tablets.

 Structure: Small, rectangular cards with flash memory that can store data.
 Capacity: Ranges from 2 GB to 1 TB or more, depending on the type of card.
 Usage: Commonly used in cameras, smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices to store
photos, videos, music, and apps.
 Advantages:
o Compact and portable.
o Can be used across multiple devices (with the right card reader).
 Disadvantages:
o Relatively slower data transfer compared to USB drives or SSDs.
o Easily lost due to small size.