LESSON 3

Higher-order problem-solving skills in a variety of

scenarios

Contents

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Construction of problem-solving methods in relation to numbers and operations
3.3 Application of proportional reasoning processes involving numbers and operations
3.4 Critical problem-solving skills when dealing with higher-order tasks
3.5 Scenarios where numbers and operations will be used to analyse real-world situations
3.6 Test your knowledge
3.7 Conclusion

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to

• demonstrate the ability to engage in the construction of problem-solving methods in
relation to numbers and operations
• demonstrate knowledge of the proportional reasoning processes involving numbers
and operations
• illustrate problem-solving skills when dealing with higher-order tasks
• demonstrate the skills to create scenarios where numbers and operations will be used
to analyse real-world situations

3.1 INTRODUCTION
When teaching through problem-solving, it is important that learners are taught how
to extract, make explicit, and practise problem-solving heuristics, such as means-ends
analyses, working backwards, successive approximation and drawing diagrams. We
will use some of these heuristics in the last study unit of this module, when we solve
mathematical problems in other subjects.

Polya (1973), a pioneer in problem-solving, wrote that “[s]olving a problem means

finding a way out of a difficulty, a way around an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not
immediately understandable”. The proponents of problem-solving have argued that it
is its manifestations and activity that structures everyday life in a meaningful way. The
South African Department of Education (2001:18) regards problem-solving as one of the
unique features of learning and teaching mathematics. In other words, problem-solving
may be defined as the ability to solve contextually problematic problems for which the
appropriate mathematical models or solutions are neither obvious nor indisputable.

36

Open Rubric
3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF PROBLEM-SOLVING METHODS IN
RELATION TO NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS
Problem-solving is an ever-present feature of human functioning. Human beings are
problem-solvers who think and act within a complex system of shifting goals. It is
interesting that we have different means at our disposal to reach these goals. People of
all ages can and must be problem-solvers. Young children are probably the most natural
problem-solvers, because they are continually confronted with situations that are novel.
Children love to solve problems and they often find unique solutions to their problems.
Since they bring their skills to the mathematics class, we should build on and improve
their problem-solving skills.

There are two ways in which problem-solving can be addressed in mathematics. Problem-
solving, as indicated above, is as a skill. The skills of how to solve a problem in mathematics
and everyday life must be taught to learners – in particular the process of solving a
problem. Still, all animals – including human beings – are born with the skills to identify
a problem and come up with a solution/s.

Problem-solving usually involves the solving of non-routine problems in which the

algorithms, or methods and procedures of solving them are not known. This leaves a
problem to be solved! Not all tasks are a problem – for many there are straightforward
solutions, which means that they are not problems.

A problem consists of three states: the starting state, the goal state and a set of available
actions or strategies to move from the starting state to the goal state. The action of
moving from a stated problem to the goal is what often proves to be difficult for the
problem-solver.

Polya maintained that problem-solving requires developing or applying strategies, carrying

out those strategies and then reflecting upon the strategies.

It is therefore a mental activity that draws upon different components of cognition.

Mathematical problem-solving is a complex cognitive activity involving a number
of processes and strategies. Complex problems require greater involvement of the
information-processing competencies of the problem-solver and more sophisticated
strategies to be solved than simple (i.e. routine) problems. They require the problem-
solver to
(i) Identify the problem and understand it
(ii) Devise a plan to solve the problem
(iii) Carry out the plan to solve the problem (solving the problem)
(iv) Revisit the answer to the problem

There is a link between problem-solving and critical thinking. They both involve higher
cognitive thinking from the identification of the problem-solving task to the solution.

It is necessary to note that most school mathematics has definite answers and problem-
solving is “narrowly related to word problems”.

37 ACI2605/1
The complexity of the problem posed dictates whether the students will engage with the
problem at a superficial level of simple recall, or at a deeper cognitive level of analysis,
synthesis and evaluation (Schoenfeld, 1991).

Researchers have found that learners’ inability to solve higher-order/complex problems

can be ascribed to the types of mathematics teaching they receive. They argue that the
reason why learners’ knowledge acquired in the classroom does not transfer well to the
world of work, is that conceptions of problem-solving are characterised by “a distinction
between acquiring knowledge and applying it”. This distinction suggests that computation
procedures should be acquired first and then applied to solve problems.

Activity 3.1

What do you think the drawbacks of teaching mathematics through problem-solving

are? Write your ideas in the space below.
............................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................................

Feedback on activity 3.1

5

We asked a few teachers about the drawbacks of teaching mathematics through problem-
solving. Some of them raised the following concerns:
Problem-solving is too difficult and takes too much time.
The learners are unable to solve word problems, because they do not understand the language.
The school curriculum is too full, so it is impractical to spend time solving one or two problems.
Where do we find good problems? The textbooks we use do not have enough word problems.
Learners must master facts and use algorithms to do exercises.

3.3 APPLICATION OF PROPORTIONAL REASONING

PROCESSES INVOLVING NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS
Proportional reasoning revolves around the deliberate use of multiplicative relationships
to compare quantities and predicting the value of one quantity in relation to another.
In Intermediate Phase Mathematics, developing learners’ proportional reasoning is a
very challenging task. Many teachers with considerable teaching experience notice that
learners grapple more with the concept of proportional reasoning than they do with
other concepts, despite the varied instructional practices applied throughout the years.
Cordel and Mason (2000) noted that the ability to reason using proportional relationship
is a complex process that develops over an extended period. It also takes many varied
physical experiences to develop an understanding of what a proportional relationship
is and time to gain the ability to deal with it abstractly.

38
Suggestions of activities to develop proportional reasoning
Pi (p)

The one ratio that we have mentioned several times in various of our mathematics modules,
is the circumference/diameter one. Do you remember? If you measure the circumference
of a circle and divide the circumference by the diameter, you get a number slightly larger
than three. The more accurate your measurements, the closer your ratio will come to a
special number called p (pi). This might be a good way to introduce ratio to your learners.

We often teach mathematics in fragmented bits, without allowing our learners to discover
the interrelatedness of the learning area. If the examples below were to be given to learners
upfront, they would use informal tools to measure, they might record their measurements
in a table (representation of data), and they would use their calculators to find ratios. From
this activity, learners might even be able to define a ratio without a teacher’s help: A ratio
is an expression that compares two quantities by division.

Example 1: Find the ratio of the shaded area to the unshaded area

Example 2: Use the figure to find these ratios: AC:CD, CD:BD and BD: BC
3 cm 5 cm 8 cm
| | | |

A B C D

Example 3: In order to get a certain shade of pink paint, a man mixes 6 tins of red paint
with 8 tins of white paint.

Red Paint White Paint

We can express this ratio as

tins of red paint: tins of white paint
= 6:8
= 6
8
= 3
4
= 3:4

39 ACI2605/1
Another way of expressing the same ratio is:
tins of red paint 3
tins of white paint = 4

3.4 CRITICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS WHEN DEALING

WITH HIGHER-ORDER TASKS
We must make a distinction between how problem-solving was dealt with in the past
and how we view it today. In the past, mathematics was taught so that learners could
learn concepts and skills. Word problems formed part of the curriculum, but were mainly
vehicles for practising applications. Teachers first taught the concepts and then gave the
learners problems to solve.

Is there anything wrong with this? Do you agree that this approach to problem-solving
is teacher-centred? It assumes that all learners will make sense of the problem in the
manner the teacher thinks is best. There is only one way to solve the problem and it is
the teacher’s way. The problem is separated from the learning process.

Effective lessons begin where the learners are, that is, with the ideas that they already have.
We have to set tasks or activities that are problem-based and through which the learners
can learn mathematics as a result of solving problems. Today we believe that most, if not
all, important mathematics concepts and skills are best taught through problem-solving.

Problem-solving is a process that requires skills in understanding the question, collecting

data, planning what to do, finding the answer, and checking to see if the answer makes
sense. To help you to develop skills in planning what to do, make a problem-solving
strategies poster for yourself. As you focus on new strategies, add them to the poster
and refer to them as you plan a solution to a problem.

Critical problem-solving is the ability to analyse and evaluate a problem and devise a
plan to make an informed judgement, such as finding a solution to the problem.

Complex problems are those that engage learners in critical thinking and enable them
to apply the skill of critical thinking (evaluating, analysing and forming a judgement).

Activity 3.2

Discuss the following statement with a fellow student:

 “Important mathematics concepts and skills can best be taught through problem
solving”.

Summarise your discussion in the space below.

............................................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................................
Solve the following problem using the strategy of working backwards: Thembi works as a
waitress in a restaurant. She counts the money she has earned during the day and writes

40
 it on a slip of paper. She then buys a magazine for R15,95 and a pen for R5,75. After her
shopping, she has R31,68 left. She has unfortunately lost her slip of paper. What was the
amount written on the paper?

Feedback on activity 3.2

6

Traditionally, teachers teach the mathematics (a skill or concept), the learners practise it and
then they are expected to use the new skill or ideas to solve problems.
In an article on problem-solving as a basis for instruction in the mathematics classroom,
Hiebert et al (1996) claim that learners should be engaged in resolving problems, rather than
mastering skills and applying them. Reflective enquiry would facilitate learners’ understanding.
Problems that can be solved using the strategy of working backwards can usually also be
solved by writing and solving an equation. We could solve the problem like this:
R15,95 + R5, 75 = R21, 70. If after shopping she has R 31,60, then the amount that was initially
written on the paper is R53, 38.

3.5 SCENARIOS WHERE NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS ARE

USED TO ANALYSE REAL-WORLD SITUATIONS
Solving a simpler problem is a strategy that is often used along with strategies such
as creating a table or looking for a pattern to solve a problem. Consider the following
problem to see how this strategy can be used.
Problem: Vuyo and six friends spend a day at the river and find a boat in which two
people can sail. They decide to pair up, so that each friend sails with each of the
other friends exactly once. How many trips will the boat make?

A useful way to find a solution to this problem is to solve a simpler problem. You could,
for example, ask the following questions:

What if Vuyo had gone with only one friend? two friends? three friends?

You could also draw pictures to help you to solve these simpler problems:

2 friends: 3 friends: 4 friends:

1 trip 3 trips 6 trips

41 ACI2605/1
These simpler problems help us to find a solution to the problem. We can also use a table
to help us to organise the information.

Friends 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Trips 0 1 3 6 10 15 21

In problem-solving, real numbers and scenarios are provided in order to solve real-life
problems. However, learners’ knowledge of numbers and number operations, as well as
their ability to analyse a scenario, is critical. The problem below is an example of the kind
of tasks that prompt learners in the Intermediate Phase to devise a plan. For this problem,
learners should possess knowledge of the area of a rectangle and its equivalence. Try it.

If the area of the rectangle below is equal to (12 + 9x) m, find the value of x.

3.6 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Several outcomes were formulated at the beginning of this learning unit. To see whether
you have achieved these outcomes, do the following self-assessment activity.

1SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

(1) Formulate 5 problems that will enable the learners to engage and apply skills of
problem-solving.
(2) A school has 5 cricket balls and some soccer balls. If they have 11 balls altogether, how
many soccer balls do they have?
(3) A path with a width of x metres is laid around a rectangular lawn, as shown.

I. Find an expression for the perimeter of the grass.

II. Find an expression for area of the grass.

(4) There are 123 boxes of sweets in a store. There are 25 sweets in each box. How many
sweets are there in the store?

42
 (5) There are 365 days in one year, and 100 years in one century. How many days are there
in one century?
(6) 123 school girls are to be transported in small vans. Each van can carry 8 girls
only. What is the smallest possible number of vans that are needed to transport
all 123 school girls?

Feedback
7

Discuss your responses with the rest of the students to discuss the problem-solving strategies
used in solving the problems.
(1) Students’ responses may vary. Examples are:
(i) If 5 chocolates cost R37, how much do 13 cost?
(ii) Between them, Jon and Mark have 32 marbles. Jon has 3 times as many as Mark.
How many marbles does each boy have?
(2) 5 + x = 11
i. Expression for the perimeter: 2(L+B)
ii. Expression for area: L x B
(4) To find how many sweets, we multiply 123 by 25:
123 × 25 = 3 075 sweets
(5) In 100 years, which is one century, there are
365 × 100 = 36 500 days
(6) To find the number of vans, we divide 123 by 8.
123 ÷ 8 = 15 and the remainder = 3.
So, 15 vans are needed to transport 15 × 8 = 120 girls, and 1 van is needed to transport
the 3 remaining girls. A total of 16 vans are needed.

3.7 CONCLUSION
Problem-solving is a very important skill that we all have, but needs to be sharpened by
teachers that instil into the learners the ability to identify a problem, devise a plan and
execute the plan. By providing learners with real life problems and teaching them the
skills required to solve problems they become effective problem-solvers.

43 ACI2605/1