COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSE TITLE: Linear Circuit (Cpen 206)

POJECT TITLE: Design and Simulation of a
Proximity Circuit

GROUP 7
Pius Oblie – 11018690
Mohammed Awal Yakubu Jnr – 11334401
Desmond Aflete Kamasah – 11253931
Latifah Abubakar - 11209640
TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Abstract …………………………………………… 3
2. Introduction.……………………………………….. 4
3. Theory …………………………………………….. 5
4. Circuit Diagram and Simulation….…….…………. 6
5. Discussion ………………….………………………9
6. Conclusion ……………………………..………….11
7. Reference ………………………………………….12
 Abstract
This paper presents the design and implementation of a low-cost proximity sensor
utilizing an LM358 operational amplifier, an IR photodiode, and an infrared light
source. The LM358 is configured as a comparator, enabling the circuit to detect
changes in reflected infrared light intensity. The sensor operates by emitting
infrared light and measuring its reflection from nearby objects.

Central to the sensor's operation is the IR photodiode, which functions based on the
photoelectric effect. In the absence of light, the photodiode operates in reverse bias
with a minimal dark current flowing through it. When exposed to infrared light, the
photodiode generates electron-hole pairs in its depletion region. These charge
carriers are swept by the electric field, creating a photocurrent that increases
linearly with light intensity. This property allows the photodiode to effectively
detect changes in reflected infrared light as objects move within the sensor's range.

While the IR photodiode is well-suited for this application due to its fast response
time and sensitivity to infrared wavelengths, alternative components could be
considered for different design requirements. Phototransistors offer higher
sensitivity but slower response times, making them suitable for applications not
requiring high-speed switching. Photoresistors (LDRs) change resistance based on
light intensity but are less sensitive to specific wavelengths. For extremely lowlight
applications, avalanche photodiodes (APDs) or photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) could
be employed, though they would significantly increase the complexity and cost of
the circuit.

When an object enters the detection range, the reflected light intensity increases,
causing a change in the photodiode's current output. The LM358 comparator then
triggers a digital output signal based on this change. This simple yet effective
design offers reliable proximity detection for various applications, including
robotics, automation, and consumer electronics. The paper discusses the circuit
design, component selection, and performance characteristics of the sensor, as well
as potential improvements and applications. Additionally, it explores how
alternative light-sensing components might affect the sensor's performance and
suitability for different use cases.
Introduction
Proximity sensors play a crucial role in modern automation, robotics, and
consumer electronics, providing non-contact detection of nearby objects. This
report presents the design and implementation of a cost-effective proximity sensor
using readily available electronic components. The sensor utilizes an infrared light-
based detection method, combining an IR LED, a photodiode, and an LM358
operational amplifier configured as a comparator.

The LM358 operational amplifier was chosen for its versatility, low cost, and
ability to operate on a single power supply. When configured as a comparator, it
effectively detects small changes in the photodiode's output, translating them into a
clear digital signal. The photodiode serves as the primary sensing element,
converting reflected infrared light into an electrical current. Its fast response time
and sensitivity to infrared wavelengths make it ideal for this application.

An infrared LED acts as the light source, emitting invisible IR radiation that
reflects off nearby objects. This choice of light source reduces interference from
ambient visible light, improving the sensor's reliability. To provide user feedback, a
buzzer is incorporated into the design, audibly alerting when an object is detected
within the sensor's range.

For initial testing and refinement, the circuit was simulated using Proteus software.
Proteus offers a robust platform for virtual circuit design and analysis, allowing for
rapid iteration and optimization without the need for physical prototyping at every
stage. This approach saves time and resources while ensuring the circuit's
functionality before physical implementation.

The primary objectives of this project are:

1. To design and implement a proximity sensor using an operational amplifier and

photodiode.

2. To demonstrate the effective use of the LM358 as a comparator in sensing

applications.

3. To create a cost-effective and reliable proximity detection solution.

4. To simulate and analyze the circuit's performance using Proteus software.

5. To explore the practical applications and limitations of the designed proximity.

Theory
Proximity sensors are devices designed to detect the presence of nearby objects
without physical contact. The working principle of the proximity sensor in this
project is based on the reflection of infrared light and its subsequent detection. This
section will explore the fundamental concepts behind the sensor's operation,
focusing on the interaction between its key components: the IR LED, photodiode,
and operational amplifier used as a comparator.

The proximity sensor's operation begins with the infrared LED, which emits a
beam of invisible infrared light. This light propagates through the air until it
encounters an object within the sensor's detection range. Upon hitting the object, a
portion of the light is reflected back towards the sensor. The amount of reflected
light depends on various factors, including the object's distance, surface properties,
and orientation.

Adjacent to the IR LED is a photodiode, which serves as the light detector. The
photodiode is specifically chosen for its sensitivity to infrared wavelengths. In the
absence of reflected IR light, the photodiode operates in reverse bias, allowing only
a small dark current to flow. However, when IR light from the LED is reflected
back to the sensor, it strikes the photodiode's active area. This incoming light
energy causes the photodiode to generate electron-hole pairs within its depletion
region. These charge carriers are then swept by the electric field present in the
reverse-biased photodiode, resulting in a photocurrent. The magnitude of this
photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity of the reflected light, which in
turn relates to the proximity of the detected object.

The heart of the sensor's decision-making process lies in the operational amplifier
(op-amp) configured as a comparator. In this project, the LM358 op-amp is
employed for this purpose. As a comparator, the op-amp compares two input
voltages and produces a binary output based on their relative magnitudes. One
 Specifications
❖ D1 (LED Emitter): An infrared (IR) LED used as the light source.
❖ D2 (Receiver): An infrared photodiode or phototransistor that detects the
light reflected from an obstacle.
❖ R1 (100Ω resistor): Current limiting resistor for the IR LED.
❖ R2 (10kΩ resistor): Pull-down resistor for the receiver.
❖ RV1 (100Ω Potentiometer): Used to adjust the sensitivity of the receiver.
 ❖ (LM358 Op-Amp): Operational amplifier used as a comparator. It compares
the voltage from the receiver with a reference voltage.
❖ R3 (300Ω resistor): Current limiting resistor for the output stage (connected
to the microammeter and LED).
❖ Microammeter (µA): Used to display the output current from the
comparator.
❖ D3 (Green LED): Indicates when an obstacle is detected.
❖ BUZ1 (Buzzer): Sounds an alarm when an obstacle is detected.
❖ Power source (10V)

input of the comparator is connected to a reference voltage, typically set by a

potentiometer to adjust the sensor's sensitivity. The other input is connected to the
photodiode's output, which varies with the detected light intensity.

When no object is near, the voltage from the photodiode remains below the
reference voltage, and the comparator's output stays low. As an object approaches
and more IR light is reflected, the photodiode's output voltage increases. Once this
voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the comparator's output swiftly switches to a
high state, indicating the detection of an object.

The use of an operational amplifier as a comparator in this application offers

several advantages. First, the op-amp's high gain allows it to respond to very small
differences between the input voltages, making the sensor highly sensitive. Second,
the sharp transition between output states ensures a clear and unambiguous
detection signal. Additionally, the LM358's ability to operate on a single power
supply simplifies the circuit design and power requirements.

Circuit Design
Components:
1. Proximity sensor (IR sensor )
2. Green LED
3. Buzzer
4. Resistors
5. operational amps(LM358)
6. Power supply
The images provided show a proximity sensor circuit designed and simulated in
Proteus software. This circuit utilizes an LM358 operational amplifier configured
as a comparator, along with an infrared LED emitter and photodiode receiver pair
for object detection.

The circuit is powered by a 10V supply, which is connected to the LM358 op-amp
and other components. The IR emitter (D1) is connected in series with a 10Ω
resistor (R1) to limit the current and protect the LED. The photodiode receiver
(D2) is connected in reverse bias mode, with its cathode connected to the positive
supply and its anode connected to the inverting input (pin 2) of the LM358 op-
amp.

A 10kΩ resistor (R2) is connected between the photodiode's anode and grond,
forming a current-to-voltage converter. This arrangement allows the photodiode's
current to be converted into a voltage that can be compared by the op-amp. The
non-inverting input (pin 3) of the LM358 is connected to a 100Ω potentiometer
(RV1), which acts as an adjustable voltage divider to set the reference voltage for
object detection sensitivity.

The output of the LM358 (pin 1) is connected to a green LED (D3) and a buzzer
(BUZ1) in parallel, with a 300Ω resistor (R3) in series to limit the current. This
output configuration provides both visual and audible indications when an object is
detected.

The choice of component values is crucial for the circuit's operation. The 10Ω
resistor for the IR emitter ensures sufficient current for light emission without
exceeding the LED's ratings. The 10kΩ resistor for the photodiode provides a good
balance between sensitivity and response time. The 100Ω potentiometer allows for
fine-tuning of the detection threshold, while the 300Ω resistor for the output LED
and buzzer limits the current to safe levels for these components.

Proteus simulation software was used to design and test this circuit. The software
allows for virtual component placement and connection, mirroring the physical
circuit layout. Initial conditions were set to simulate ambient lighting conditions,
and the potentiometer was adjusted to set an appropriate detection threshold.

The simulation results demonstrate the circuit's functionality. In one state,

representing no object detection, the LED remains off and the buzzer silent. This
indicates that the voltage from the photodiode is below the reference voltage set by
the potentiometer. In the other state, simulating object detection, the LED glows
and the buzzer is activated, showing that reflected IR light has increased the
photodiode's output above the reference voltage, causing the op-amp to switch its
output.

Discussion
Analysis of Results:
The simulation results from the Proteus software demonstrate that the designed
proximity sensor circuit performs as intended. When no object is detected, the
circuit maintains a low output state, with the green LED (D3) remaining off and the
buzzer (BUZ1) silent. This indicates that the voltage from the photodiode (D2) is
below the reference voltage set by the potentiometer (RV1).

Upon simulating the presence of an object, which increases the reflected IR light to
the photodiode, the circuit responds by switching to a high output state. This is
evidenced by the illumination of the green LED and the activation of the buzzer.
This behavior confirms that the LM358 operational amplifier is successfully
comparing the photodiode's output to the reference voltage and triggering when the
threshold is exceeded.

The circuit's performance meets the design expectations in several key aspects:
1. Sensitivity: The ability to adjust the detection threshold via the potentiometer
(RV1) allows for fine-tuning of the sensor's sensitivity.
2. Clear indication: The dual output of LED and buzzer provides both visual and
audible alerts, enhancing the usability of the sensor.
3. Power efficiency: The use of a single-supply operational amplifier (LM358)
simplifies the power requirements.

However, the simulation also reveals areas for potential refinement:

Difficulties and Resolutions:
During the design and simulation process, a few challenges were encountered:
1. Noise sensitivity: Initial simulations showed that the circuit was sensitive to
small fluctuations, potentially leading to false triggers. This was addressed by
adjusting the values of R2 and RV1 to create a more stable reference voltage and
improve noise immunity.
2. LED brightness: The initial design had the LED appearing too dim when
activated. This was resolved by reducing the value of R3 from an initial 1kΩ to
300Ω, allowing more current through the LED while still staying within safe
operating limits.
3. Simulation environment: Setting up realistic ambient light conditions in Proteus
required careful adjustment of the photodiode's properties to mimic real-world
behavior. This was achieved through iterative testing and calibration within the
software.

Potential Improvements:
Based on the simulation results and analysis, several improvements could enhance
the circuit's performance and versatility:

1. Hysteresis: Implementing a Schmitt trigger configuration could reduce

oscillations near the threshold point, improving stability in borderline detection
scenarios.
2. Automatic calibration: Adding a microcontroller could allow for dynamic
adjustment of the detection threshold based on ambient light conditions, enhancing
adaptability to different environments.
3. Distance measurement: Incorporating an analog output stage could provide
information on object distance, not just presence/absence.
4. Power optimization: Implementing a pulsed IR emission scheme could reduce
power consumption, making the sensor more suitable for battery-powered
applications.
5. Interference rejection: Adding a band-pass filter tuned to the IR LED's
modulation frequency could improve rejection of ambient light interference.
6. Temperature compensation: Including temperature-dependent components could
maintain consistent performance across varying environmental conditions.
7. Multiple sensors: Simulating an array of these sensors could explore potential
applications in directional sensing or object tracking.
Conclusion
This project successfully designed, simulated, and analyzed a proximity sensor
using an infrared LED-photodiode pair and an LM358 operational amplifier as a
comparator. The primary objective of creating a cost-effective and reliable
proximity detection solution was achieved, as demonstrated by the Proteus
simulation results. The circuit design, incorporating an IR emitter-detector pair
with the LM358 op-amp, proved capable of detecting nearby objects and providing
clear output signals. The inclusion of a potentiometer allowed for fine-tuning of the
detection threshold, enhancing the sensor's versatility across different
environments and applications.

A key feature of the design was its dual-output system, using both an LED and a
buzzer, which provided effective visual and audible alerts upon object detection.
This approach ensures clear indication of sensor activation, improving its usability
in various settings. The use of the LM358 op-amp, capable of operating on a single
power supply, contributed to a simpler and more energy-efficient design, making
the sensor suitable for a wide range of applications.

Proteus software proved to be an invaluable tool for circuit design and analysis,
allowing for rapid iterations and performance optimization without physical
prototyping. This simulation-based approach enabled thorough testing of the
circuit's behavior under different conditions, facilitating refinements and
improvements before physical implementation.

The project met its objectives through successful implementation of the proximity
sensor using an operational amplifier and photodiode, demonstrating the LM358's
effectiveness as a comparator in sensing applications. The creation of a cost-
effective and reliable proximity detection solution was achieved, with
comprehensive simulation and analysis using Proteus software providing insights
into its performance characteristics. Throughout the project, practical applications
and limitations of the designed sensor were explored, highlighting its potential in
fields such as robotics, automation, and consumer electronics.

The significance of these results extends beyond the immediate project scope. This
proximity sensor design offers a template for low-cost, easily implementable object
detection systems. Its simplicity and effectiveness make it suitable for educational
purposes, prototyping, and integration into more complex systems. The project
highlighted the importance of simulation in the design process, accelerating
development and allowing for a deeper understanding of component interactions
and circuit behavior.

Several areas for potential improvement were identified during the project,
including the addition of hysteresis to reduce oscillations near the threshold point,
implementing automatic calibration for adapting to different ambient light
conditions, and optimizing power consumption for battery-powered applications.
These enhancements could lead to a more robust and versatile sensor, expanding its
potential applications and improving its performance across various environments.

Reference
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11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2012.

[3] Texas Instruments, "LM358 Dual Operational Amplifier Datasheet," [Online].

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https://www.labcenter.com/
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