TRANSDUCER

A transducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to another. Let us
consider the case of a Bourdon gauge for measurement of pressure. The pressure, which
is the measurand in this case, makes its contact with the Bourdon tube which acts as the
detector. The Bourdon tube simply converts the pressure into a linear mechanical
displacement · The linear mechanical displacement is converted into a rotary
displacement by the mechanical linkages for deflection of the pointer. Thus Bourdon tube
simply performs the function of detection, and nothing else.
Let us take the case of measurement of a compressive force with the
help of a load cell in conjuction with strain gauges

The first process involves conversion of force into mechanical displacement

which is done by the column, while the second process involves conversion
of Force Load cell mechanical displacement into change of resistance which
is Fig. Force measurement with done by strain gauges.

The force is detected by the. column in the first stage and hence it is called a Detector or a
Primary Transducer. The output signal from the primary transducer is converted subsequently
into a usable output by the strain gauges and therefore they are known as Secondary
Transducers.
 Introduction

• The physical parameters to be measured are most of the time ‘non-electrical’.

• Non-electrical measurands are converted into electrical quantities for better
measurements. This is because electrical methods of measurement (sensing, signal
conditioning, transmission, indication) are much more advantageous than other
methods (e.g. mechanical, optical and chemical).
• The process of converting one form of energy into another form is called
‘Transduction’, and the device that performs this function is called a ‘Transducer’.
• The devices which converts other form of energy into electrical forms are called
‘Electrical Transducers’
However, with reference to this course, when we say ‘transducer’, it refers to
‘electrical transducer’.
A nice definition:
‘A transducer is a device which, when actuated by energy in one form, produces an
electrical output energy ’

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The closed end of the Bourdon tube is connected to the core of an LVDT (Linear Variable DifferentialTransformer). When
there is no pressure applied, the core is at its centre and the voltage induced in the two secondary windings are equal
and there is no differential voltage output.

But when a pressure is applied to tube Bourdon tube, it is converted into a displacement, Due to the mechanical
displacement, the core of the LVDT is moved and hence a differential output voltage is obtained. Thus, in this case, two stages
of signal conversion are involved.

The pressure is first converted into a displacement by the Bourdon tube which acts as Detector or Primary Transducer.
The mechanical displacement causes the core of the LVDT to move to produce a usable electrical
output, voltage in this case, and therefore, the LVDT is called a Secondary Transducer.
Electrical Transducers
The art of electrical measurements has been chiefly used for measurement of electrical quantities but its value in
making measurements of non-electrical quantities in this new era of automation is rapidly growing. In order to
measure non-electrical quantities a detector is used which usually converts the physical quantity into a
displacement. This displacement actuates an electric transducer, which acting as a secondary transducer, gives an
output that is electrical in nature.

The electrical quantity so produced is measured by standard methods used for electrical measurements. The result
(electrical output) gives the magnitude of the physical quantity or condition being measured. The electrical signal may
be a current or a voltage or a frequency and production of these signals is based upon, resistive, capacitive, inductive
effects etc.
Advantages of Electrical Transducers

(i) Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and that too with static devices.
(ii) The mass-inertia effects are minimized. In fact, when dealing with electrical or electronic
signals, the inertia effects are due to electrons which have negligible mass
(iii) The effects of friction are minimized.
(iv) The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
(v) The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
(vi) Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement systems.
 Advantages of Electrical Transducers
Text: T1-25.7-25.8 (Nineteenth revised edition), only the topics covered
in the class

The advantages of converting physical quantities into analogous electrical quantities

are:
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and with static devices
2. The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
3. Effects of friction are minimized
4. Can be controlled with a very small power level
5. Output can be easily used, transmitted, stored and processed
6. Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated measurement systems. The entire
aerospace research and development is based upon telemetry and remote
control. Mechanical transmission would not make this possible.
7. Miniaturization is possible by the use of Ics

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 Classification of Transducers

Primary transducers: Transducers that sense a physical phenomenon at the first stage
of detection; e.g. thermocouple
Secondary transducers: The physical phenomena is first sensed by a transducer
(other than electrical) and converted into another non-electrical output. This output
is then converted into an electrical signal by a secondary transducer. For example, in
one type of pressure meter, a Bourdon tube first convert the pressure to be
measured into an analogous displacement. It is then sensed by an electrical
transducer which is called secondary transducer

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 Classification of Transducers

Can be classified according to their applications, method of energy conversion,

nature of output signal and so on.

A classification can be done based on the electrical circuit parameter that is meant to
be changed due to the presence of the physical parameter to be measured:
1. Resistance
2. Capacitance
3. Inductance
4. Voltage and Current

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Active transducer: No external power required for production of electrical output

Passive transducer: External power required for production of electrical output

Analogue Transducer: These transducer convert the input physical phenomenon into an analogous
output which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducer: These transducer convert the input physical phenomenon into an electrical output which is
in the form of pulses.
Electrical Phenomena used in Transducers
These phenomena are :
1. Resistive.
2. Inductive.
3. Capacitive.
4. Electromagnetic.
5. Piezoelectric.
6. Ionization.
7. Photoelectric or Photo·emissive
8. Photoconductive or Photoresistive.
9. Photovoltaic.
10. Potentiometric. 11. Thermoelectric or Thermovoltaic.
12. Electrokinetic
 Capacitive Transducers
Advantages:
1. They require small forces to operate them and hence are very useful for small
systems
2. They can be very sensitive
3. Have a high input impedance and therefore the loading effect and power draining
is very small
4. A resolution of the order of 2.5 µm can be obtained
5. Can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields render the inductive
transducers useless.

Disadvantages:
1. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from each other
2. Edge effects make the capacitive transducers non-linear for some ranges.
3. The capacitance of a capacitive transducer may be changed due to presence of
external matter, like, dust particles and moisture.
4. The instrumentation circuitry (for signal processing) used with capacitive
transducers are complex.

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 Applications of Capacitive Transducers
1. Can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacements.

2. Can be used for the measurement of force and pressure. The force and pressure to
be measured are first converted to displacement which causes a change in
capacitance.
3. For measurement of humidity, as the dielectric constant of gases changes with
change in humidity thereby producing a change in capacitance
4. Commonly used in conjunction with mechanical modifiers for measurement of
volume, density, liquid level, weight etc.

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Piezo-electric Transducers

A piezo-electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of
the crystal are changed by the application of a mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of
charges. The effect is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will
change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it. This effect is known as piezo·electric effect. Elements
exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are sometimes are called as electroresistive elements.

The materials that exhibit a significant and useful piezo-electric effect are divided into two
categories : (i) Natural group, and (Ii) Synthetic group .
Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartarate
belong to the synthetic group.
 Thermistors
Text: T1-25.20 (Nineteenth revised edition)

Content:
- General
- Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
- Voltage-Current Characteristics
- Current-Time Characteristics
- Applications

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 General
❖ Thermistors are generally made of semiconductor materials.
❖ They have negative temperature co-efficient, i.e. resistance decreases with
increase in temp (Due to production of higher number of electron-hole pair
generation with temperature)
❖ The co-efficient could be very large (sensitivity is high), so suitable for very small
changes in temperature.
❖ This very high sensitivity makes thermistors useful for precision temperature
measurement applications.
❖ Response is highly non-linear.
❖ the major advantages are their relatively low cost and their small size.
❖ Measurement range: approximately, (-60) – (15) °C

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 Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
❖ The relation can be expressed mathematically as:
  1 1 
RT 1 = RT 2 exp    − 
  T1 T2 
Where, R T1 , R T 2 - resistances at absolute temperatures, T1 and T2 respectively
and  - a constant depending on the material of thermistor, typically 3500 to 4500 K

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 Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
❖ The characteristics is non-linear, but a linear approximation can be done over a
small range as:
R = R 0 (1 +  0  ) for 1     2
Important: Here the resistance-temperature co-efficient of thermistor is
negative, which is typically about (-)0.05/°C

❖ Instead of linear approximation, an approximate logarithmic relationship may be

used:

RT = aR0 exp(b / T )
Where, R0 is resistance at ice point
a, b are curve fitting constants

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 Voltage-Current Characteristics
❖ V-I characteristics shows that the voltage drop across a thermistor increases with
increasing current until it reaches a peak value. (Ohms law )
❖ Beyond that peak, the voltage drop decreases as the current increases. In this
portion of the curve, the thermistor exhibits a negative resistance characteristic.
❖ The current continues to increase (as its resistance decreases) until its heat
dissipation equals the power supplied to it (this is called self-heating), or, the
current is limited by external impedance/resistance.
❖ In the self-heating state, the thermistor is sensitive to anything that changes the
rate at which heat is conducted away from it. It can be utilized to measure flow,
pressure, liquid level, composition of gases, etc.

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 Current-Time Characteristics
❖ This characteristic curve indicates the time delay to reach maximum current as a
function of the applied voltage. Due to the self-heating effect, a certain time is
required for the thermistor to build up to a maximum steady-state value
❖ The DELAY time is fixed for a given set of circuit parameters. It may easily be
varied by changing the applied voltage or the resistance/impedance connected
in the circuit.
❖ This delay effect provides a simple and accurate means of achieving time delays
from milliseconds to many minutes.

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 Applications
❖ Measurement and control of temperature:
❖ Provides a large change in resistance for a small change in temperature
(high sensitivity)
❖ It can be connected in a simple series circuit consisting of a battery and a
micro-ammeter. The micro-ammeter can directly be calibrated in terms of
temperature.
❖ A thermistor can be connected as one arm of a bridge circuit for more
sensitive measurement

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 Applications
❖ Temperature compensation:
❖ Thermistors have negative temperature co-efficients, opposite to that of
electrical resistors. So, they are widely used to compensate for the effects
of temperature.
❖ They are so connected in the circuit that the total circuit resistance is
constant over a wide range of temperatures

❖ Other Applications:
❖ Measurement of flow, composition of gases, providing time delay etc.
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