Jamalpur Science & Technology University

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT

No: 01
Name: Solutions To The Given Questions

Submitted By : Submitted To :

Tanvir Ahmed Sujit Roy

ID : 21111214 Assistant Professor
Dept. Of CSE

Course Code : EEE 3211

Course Title : Communication Engineering I
Year & Semester : 3rd Year 2nd Semester
Submission Date : 02-02-25

REMARK:
i) Delta Modulation & Demodulation in Communication
Delta Modulation (DM)

DM transmits the difference between consecutive signal samples rather than absolute values,
using a single bit per sample. It sends '1' if the signal rises and '0' if it falls.

Key Components: Sampler → Comparator → Binary Encoder → Transmitter

Challenges:

• Granular noise (excessive step-size)

• Slope overload distortion (insufficient step-size)

Delta Demodulation

Reconstructs the signal by integrating received bits and smoothing them with a low-pass filter
for a continuous waveform.

Key Components: Binary Decoder → Integrator → Low-pass Filter

Advantages & Limitations

✔ Simplifies circuit design, reduces bandwidth, and minimizes data storage.

Susceptible to noise, distortion, and requires a high sampling rate.

Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM)

Modifies the step-size dynamically to minimize distortion and enhance signal accuracy.
Common Applications

• Voice and audio transmission

• VoIP, satellite, and wireless communication
• Digital data compression

ii) Radio Transmitter and Receiver Circuit Design

1. Radio Transmitter Circuit

A radio transmitter converts an audio or data signal into electromagnetic waves for wireless
transmission.

Figure 2.1 : Radio Transmitter Circuit

Key Components & Functionality:

• Microphone – Captures sound and converts it into electrical signals.

• Oscillator – Generates a stable high-frequency carrier wave.
• Modulator – Combines the input signal with the carrier wave (AM/FM modulation).
• RF Amplifier – Increases the signal strength for transmission.
• Antenna – Broadcasts the signal as electromagnetic waves.

Flow of Operation:
Audio Input → Oscillator → Modulator → RF Amplifier → Antenna
2. Radio Receiver Circuit

A radio receiver detects and processes incoming signals to recover the original information.

Figure 2.2: Radio Receiver Circuit

Main Components & Functionality:

• Antenna – Captures transmitted radio waves.

• RF Amplifier – Strengthens weak incoming signals.
• Tuner (Bandpass Filter) – Selects the desired frequency from multiple signals.
• Demodulator – Extracts the original audio or data signal from the modulated wave.
• Audio Amplifier – Enhances the sound output for clarity.
• Speaker/Headphone – Converts the electrical signal back into sound.

Flow of Operation:
Antenna → RF Amplifier → Tuner → Demodulator → Audio Amplifier → Speaker

Types of Radio Transmission:

• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Alters signal amplitude, used in AM radio.

• FM (Frequency Modulation): Varies signal frequency, commonly used in FM radio.
iii) Sampling Theorem
Definition

The Sampling Theorem states that a continuous-time signal can be fully reconstructed from its
samples if the sampling rate is at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal.

Mathematical Expression:
For a signal x(t) with a maximum frequency fₘ, the sampling frequency fₛ must satisfy:

fₛ ≥ 2fₘ

where:

• fₛ = Sampling frequency (in Hz)

• fₘ = Maximum frequency of the signal

This condition prevents aliasing, where different signals become indistinguishable due to
inadequate sampling.

Math Example :

Given: A signal with a maximum frequency of 14 kHz.

Required: The minimum sampling rate.

Applying the theorem:

fₛ ≥ 2 × 14 kHz = 28 kHz

Thus, the signal must be sampled at 28 kHz or higher to retain all information without
distortion.

Nyquist Theorem
Definition

The Nyquist Theorem, also referred to as the Nyquist Sampling Criterion, states that a
continuous-time signal can be precisely reconstructed from its discrete samples if the sampling
rate is at least twice the highest frequency of the original signal.

Mathematical Representation:
For a signal with a highest frequency component fₘ, the required minimum sampling frequency fₛ
is given by:

fₛ ≥ 2fₘ
where:

• fₛ = Sampling rate (in Hertz)

• fₘ = Maximum frequency present in the signal

This condition ensures that the original signal can be perfectly reconstructed without introducing
errors or loss of information.

Mathematical Example

Given: A signal with a maximum frequency of 14 kHz.

Required: The minimum sampling rate.

Applying Nyquist’s formula:

fₛ ≥ 2 × 14 kHz = 28 kHz

Thus, the signal must be sampled at 28 kHz or higher to preserve all information accurately.

iv) : Binary Modulation Techniques in Communication

Binary modulation techniques are methods used to convert digital data (0s and 1s) into analog
signals for transmission over communication channels. These techniques manipulate properties
of a carrier wave, such as its amplitude, frequency, or phase, to represent binary data.

1. Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK)

Definition:
In BASK, binary data is encoded by varying the amplitude of the carrier wave. A 1 is
represented by a higher amplitude, while a 0 is represented by a lower or zero amplitude.

Advantages:

• Simple to implement
• Low power consumption

Disadvantages:

• Highly vulnerable to noise, especially in low signal-to-noise ratio environments

2. Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

Definition:
In BFSK, binary data is represented by changing the frequency of the carrier signal. A 1 is
represented by one frequency, and a 0 is represented by another frequency.

Advantages:

• More robust against noise compared to BASK

• Reliable for communication over long distances

Disadvantages:

• Requires more bandwidth than BASK

• More complex to implement

3. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Definition:
BPSK encodes binary data by shifting the phase of the carrier signal. A 1 is represented by no
phase shift (0°), and a 0 is represented by a phase shift of 180°.

Advantages:

• Highly resistant to noise

• Efficient bandwidth usage

Disadvantages:

• Requires precise phase synchronization

• More complex than BASK

4. Binary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Definition:
QAM combines both amplitude and phase modulation. It encodes binary data by altering both
the amplitude and phase of two carrier signals that are 90° apart (quadrature).

Advantages:
 • Efficient bandwidth utilization
• Supports higher data rates by carrying multiple bits per symbol

Disadvantages:

• Requires a higher signal-to-noise ratio for reliable communication

• More complex modulation and demodulation

5. Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK)

Definition:
DBPSK is a variation of BPSK where the phase of the carrier signal is changed relative to the
previous signal, rather than using a fixed phase shift.

Advantages:

• More resistant to phase errors

• Useful in environments where phase synchronization is challenging

Disadvantages:

• Slightly more complex than BPSK

Applications of Binary Modulation Techniques

• BASK: Low-power systems, basic wireless communications

• BFSK: Radio communication systems, especially in noisy environments
• BPSK: Satellite communications, deep-space communication, Wi-Fi
• QAM: High-speed data transmission (e.g., cable modems, Wi-Fi)
• DBPSK: Mobile communications, systems with phase ambiguity

These modulation techniques are essential in various digital communication systems, enabling
efficient data transfer and ensuring signal reliability.
v) Channel Capacity Theorem and Channel Coding Theorem in
Communication
1. Channel Capacity Theorem

The Channel Capacity Theorem, or Shannon’s Capacity Theorem, defines the upper limit of
the data transmission rate that can be achieved over a communication channel, considering the
available bandwidth and the noise present. This theorem suggests that there exists a maximum
rate at which data can be sent with negligible error, given the bandwidth (B) and signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR).

The mathematical expression for channel capacity is:

C = B * log2(1 + SNR)

Where:

• C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps)

• B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hz
• SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, a unitless value representing the strength of the signal
relative to the noise

Example:

Consider a communication channel with a bandwidth of B = 2 MHz (2,000,000 Hz) and a

signal-to-noise ratio of SNR = 20 dB. We need to determine the channel’s capacity.

To begin, we convert the SNR from decibels (dB) to a linear scale using:

SNR_linear = 10^(SNR(dB) / 10)

SNR_linear = 10^(20 / 10) = 100

Now, applying the Shannon Capacity formula:

C = 2 * 10^6 * log2(1 + 100)

C = 2 * 10^6 * log2(101)

C ≈ 2 * 10^6 * 6.66

C ≈ 13.32 Mbps

Thus, the channel capacity is approximately 13.32 Mbps.

2. Channel Coding Theorem

The Channel Coding Theorem emphasizes that reliable communication over noisy channels is
feasible by using codes that approach the channel’s capacity. The theorem asserts that, with the
correct coding and decoding strategies, information can be transmitted with a very low
probability of error, even if the channel is noisy.

The essential takeaway is that communication rates must be below the channel's capacity C for
reliable transmission. The rate R of data transmission must satisfy:

R<C

Where:

• R is the transmission rate in bits per second (bps)

• C is the channel capacity

Example:

Let’s assume the channel capacity calculated previously is C = 13.32 Mbps, and the
transmission rate R = 12 Mbps.

Since R < C, reliable communication is achievable according to the Channel Coding Theorem.

To enable this, error-correcting codes, such as Hamming codes or Turbo codes, are used to add
redundancy to the transmission. These codes help the receiver detect and correct errors caused by
noise, ensuring the data is transmitted accurately.

For example, using a Hamming code with a coding rate of 1/2 means that for every bit sent, two
bits are transmitted (one bit for the data and another for error correction). This redundancy
allows the receiver to recover from errors during transmission.

vi) Short Notes on ATM, ISDN, and SONET

1. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

ATM is a high-speed networking technology designed to efficiently handle a variety of data

types, including voice, video, and digital data. It breaks down the information into small, fixed-
size packets called cells (53 bytes, with 48 bytes dedicated to data and 5 bytes for header
information). ATM operates on a connection-oriented model, meaning a dedicated path must be
set up between the sender and receiver before transmission starts. It ensures quality of service
(QoS) and is ideal for real-time applications, like voice communication or video conferencing.

• Key Features:
o High-speed, low-latency data transfer.
o Ensures quality of service (QoS) for different traffic types.
o Uses cell-based switching.
o Connection-oriented communication.
o Ideal for multimedia traffic.
• Typical Applications:
o Video and voice communications.
o Backbone internet networks.
o Private enterprise networks requiring guaranteed QoS.

Another Point of View : Automated Trailer Machine (ATM) in Logistics

An Automated Trailer Machine (ATM) is a robotic or mechanized system used for

automatically loading and unloading trailers in environments such as ports, warehouses, and
distribution centers. These machines are part of the logistics industry and help streamline the
movement of goods without direct human intervention, improving efficiency, reducing human
error, and enhancing safety.

• Key Features:
o Automation: Reduces manual labor and speeds up the process of loading and
unloading cargo.
o Precision: Equipped with robotics and sensors, ATMs can handle goods more
accurately.
o Safety: Automation reduces the risk of accidents and injuries in busy warehouses.
o Optimization: ATMs are often integrated with warehouse management systems
to optimize cargo handling.
• Applications:
o Warehouse operations for sorting and shipping goods.
o Ports for loading/unloading shipping containers.
o Distribution centers for handling inventory efficiently.

2. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN is a communication standard that allows for the digital transmission of voice, video, and
data over traditional telephone lines. It offers faster and more reliable service than traditional
analog telephony by providing simultaneous voice and data transmission. ISDN is offered in two
main types:

• BRI (Basic Rate Interface): Intended for home or small business use, it provides 2 B-
channels (64 kbps each) and 1 D-channel for signaling (16 kbps).
• PRI (Primary Rate Interface): Suited for larger organizations, PRI offers 23 B-channels
and 1 D-channel in North America (or 30 B-channels and 1 D-channel in Europe).
• Key Features:
o Faster digital transmission for clearer voice and higher data quality.
o Simultaneous voice and data capabilities.
o Provides better voice quality compared to analog systems.
o Reliable for both local and wide-area communication.
• Common Applications:
o Digital voice communication.
o Video conferencing.
o High-speed internet access, especially for small offices and homes.

3. SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)

SONET is an advanced optical fiber standard used for transmitting large volumes of data over
long distances with high efficiency. It employs synchronous multiplexing, meaning data is
transmitted in fixed-size frames, which allows for precise and reliable data delivery. SONET is
designed to support high-bandwidth requirements with transmission speeds ranging from
51.84 Mbps to 40 Gbps and higher. It is known for its robustness due to built-in error correction
and fault tolerance, making it ideal for telecommunication backbone networks.

• Key Features:
o Supports high-speed, high-bandwidth transmission.
o Uses synchronous multiplexing with fixed-size frames.
o Built-in error correction and fault tolerance mechanisms.
o Scalable to accommodate growing bandwidth needs.
o Primarily used in telecom networks for data, voice, and video transmission.
• Common Applications:
o Backbone infrastructure for telecommunications.
o High-speed internet services.
o Wide-area network (WAN) setups.