SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Introduction

Various procedures are used in determining the sample of respondents in any research. The
procedures are presented in this section. The term sample is defined and different types of samples
discussed. The term sample is differentiated from the term population, with it is often confused.
Knowledge of sampling is useful since one cannot study the entire population that would give the
requisite data.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Define the term “sampling”.

 Distinguish between a sample and population.
 Explain the criteria for a good sample.
 State advantages of sampling.
 Select a suitable sampling method for your study

What is sampling?
Sampling is a procedure used in the selection of sample units from the population. A sample
represents a small section of the population that has been selected for observation and analysis.
The purpose of sampling is to study a population.
A population represents all cases of people, objects or events that posses certain common
characteristics relevant to the purpose of a study. The target population for a research study
depends on what kind of information is required and who can provide it. For example, a study on
“effects of Management styles on school performance in Examinations” would target a population
of:
 Head teachers
 Deputy head teachers
 Assistant teachers
 Students
 Sub – ordinate staff.

The various categories of people mentioned here have certain common characteristics. They are
all members of the school environment where the various management styles’ prevail. Also, their
behaviour or actins contribute directly or indirectly to school performance.

Activity
Describe the target population for the following research study: Determinants of Effective
Financial Management Practices in Secondary schools in Nairobi.
The target population represents the universe in which the results of the study are generalized. This
implies that the sample measures (or statistics) are used to interpret or estimate the population
parameters (or characteristics).

The purpose of sampling is to study some population by selecting a representative sample. In this
case: “A sample is a set of cases drawn from the specified population for purposes of generalizing
or making inferences about that population” (Kohout, 1974:247). Look at the figure below which
illustrates a sample population.

Used to estimate or
Interpret the population Parameters
Example: pop. Mean: Pop. S.D: 

In this case the sample mean, X, is used to estimate the population mean, . Likewise, the sample
standard deviation, s, is used to estimate the population standard deviation, .

A parameter is a measure that summarizes or describes a characteristic of a population. A statistic

is a corresponding measure that describes a sample characteristic. The sample statistic can provide
a close or accurate estimate of the true population parameter. However, the two can be widely
varied. This difference represents the sampling error.

Sampling error: Is the difference between the true population measure (Parameter) and the statistic
used to estimate it. A good sample must fulfil the following criteria in order to minimize sampling
error.
Criteria for a good sample
a) Adequacy of the sample size
The sample size should be large enough to adequately represent the true population characteristics.
The smaller the sample size the greater the sampling error and vice versa.

b) Reliability of the sample

The selected sample should be reliable to minimize errors or bias in interpretation of research
results.

c) Independence of sample units

The sample units should be independent of each other. This means that the selection of one
population unit should not influence the selection of another unit. Each population unit
should be given equal chance of being drawn for the sample.

d) Homogeneity of sample units

The sample units should be homogeneous. This is to say that they must posses’ similar
characteristics which reflect the true population characteristics.

Reasons for sampling

What are the advantages if using a sample in a research study?

a) Cost factor
Sampling reduces the costs of the study, what would otherwise be high if the whole population is
used.

b) Time factor
Less time is spent in the study with a sample than that a total population. This enables the
researcher to meet specific time for research projects.

c) Accuracy
Handling fewer population cases enables the researcher to conduct a through evaluation and
analysis of data. This improves reliability of results.

d) Efficiency
It is possible to carry our several studies simultaneously in a single population when samples are
used. This increases efficiency in allocation of research resources.
Activity
Explain why sampling is preferred to a census study.
Designing a sample

The following steps are suggested in sample design:

Step 1: Re-examine the objectives of the study. The objectives indicate the relevant population
characteristics required in the study.

Step 2: Define the population characteristics, that is, categories of people, institutions, or
organizations.

Step 3: Determine the population size (N) and obtain a suitable sampling frame: A list of all
population units from which the sample will be drawn.

Step 4: Determine an adequate sample size (n). This could be at least 25% of the population
size (N).

Step 5: Select the sample units, using a suitable sampling method.

Sampling methods
Sampling methods can be classified into two major categories, namely:

a) Random/ Probability sampling methods

b) Non – Random (Non – Probability) sampling methods.
Random sampling: Refers to a procedure for selecting cases from a population in such a way that
every member of the population has an equal chance of being drawn for the sample.
Non – random sampling: Refers to a procedure for selecting cases from a population in such a
way that members of the population have an unequal chance of being drawn for the sample.

The differences between the two methods are summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: The differences between random sampling and non-random sampling
methods
NON – RANDOM SAMPLING
RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS METHODS
a) Selection is based on chance or a) Selection is judgmental or purposive
probability
b) Generates an accurate sample b) Generates a biased sample
c) Mainly used in quantitative research c) Mainly used in qualitative research

Random methods of sampling

Random sampling techniques include:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster or area sampling.
The table below summaries the contexts in which one can use each of the methods of sampling

Table: How and when to use random sampling methods in research

Sampling When Used Selection Procedure

Method
1. Simple random  Target population 1. The population is
Sampling must be defined, that is,
Homogeneous. (homogeneous).
 Population size is 2. A sampling frame
known is obtained.
 A sampling frame 3. An adequate
is available. sample size is the
 Population is determined.
relatively small. 4. Population size is
determined
5. Sample units are
selected using
random numbers or
the lottery
technique.
2. Systematic Random  Target population 1. Define the target
Sampling. is Homogeneous. population
 Population size is 2. Obtain a suitable
known. sample.
 Sampling frame is 3. Determine the
available. population size.
 Population size is 4. Determine an
large. adequate sample
size.
5. Divide the
population into a
number of equal –
interval, where
each Interval =
Population size
over Sample size.
6. Select the first unit
from the first
interval at random,
and note its position
in the interval ( that
is, r th units from the
rest of the
intervals).
3. Stratified Random  The target 1. Define the target
Sampling. population is population.
heterogeneous 2. Obtain a sampling
 Population size is frame.
known. 3. Determine the
 Sampling frame is population size.
available. 4. Divide the
population into
logical components
or strata.
5. Determine the
number of units in
each stratum.
6. Select the sample
units each stratum
at random and
ensure that the
sample components
reflect the
population strata,
proportionately.

4. Cluster or Area  Population size is 1. Define the target

Sampling known. population.
 Population is 2. Determine the
distributed into population size.
wide geographic 3. Determine the
areas/locations. sample size
 Population units are required
grouped into 4. Determine the
clusters. number of logical
cluster in the
population and the
size of the smallest
cluster.
5. Select one or more
clusters at random
to represent the
sample.
Methods of sampling are non – random / non – probability.
Non –random sampling techniques include:

 Quota sampling
 Chain sampling (snowball)
 Maximum variation sampling
 Critical case sampling
 Extreme/deviant sampling
 Typical case sampling
 Intensity sampling
 Criterion sampling
 Homogeneous sampling

When and for what purpose the non – random sampling methods used
The table below explains the contexts in which the non-random sampling methods are used.

Table: Use of non-random sampling methods

Sampling Method Purpose and Use Selection Procedure

1. Quota Sampling Used to illustrate sub groups  Identify the

(Stratified purposive and facilitate comparisons. population strata.
sampling) - Used when the population  Estimate relative
heterogeneous but the sizes of population
population size is not strata.
known.  Design a sample by
allocating quotas to
the population strata
by size or
importance to the
study.

2. Chain sampling  Used to identify  The target

(snowball method) cases of interest from population is
the people who can defined.
identify others that  A few population
are familiar with units are identified.
population cases that  A referral network
are information rich. system is used to
identify other sample
units until an
adequate sample size
is achieved.
Activity
a) Describe the kind of data you will need for your research report
b) Indicate the method of sampling you will use to collect the data

Conclusion
The reliability of the research results will depend on the careful choice of a relevant sampling
method. It is important to ensure that the researcher selects a sample that fulfils the major criteria
for a good sample.