CHUKA, UNIVERSITY Knowledge is wealth ( Sapientia divitia est) Department of Telephones: 020-2310512/18 P. 0, Box 109-60400, Chuk a Email Website: www,chuka.ac. ke Chuka University: Module Structure Template COURSE PRELIMINA | CONTENT RIES Course Hist 355 Sur | This course is intended for people who are undertaking their unde vey of European Hist | rgraduate studies in Bachelor of Arts Programmes. You need prio ory to 1914 r knowledge of the course covered from first year. You are expect ed to complete the course in 45 hours within a period of one sem ester. Course content entails:~ The social, economic and political situation in Europe in the eighteenth century; an overview. The Fre nch Revolution: causes and course. The rise and fall of Napoleon and the new alignments of Europe to 1814. the congress system. The revolutions of 1848. Social, economic and political develop ents in Europe in the nineteenth century: France, Germany, Russia and Italy. Rise of European Imperialism and its impact in the Balk ans, Asia and Africa. Prelude to the outbreak of the First World W ar. Course Objectives The learner should be able to describe the history of Europe up to 1914 Course Study Skills | Asan adult learner your approach to leaming will be different to that from your first year. you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing s o and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around o ther professional or domestic responsibilities Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environmen t. As a consequence, you will need to consider performanceissue s related to time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Pethaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas su ch as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and space ie. t he time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in whi ch you engage in that leaming We recommend that you take time now-before starting your self- study-to familiarize yourself with these issues. There area numb er of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are: http: //www.how-to-study.com/ The ‘How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resource s. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text b ooks, using reference sources, test anxiety. http://www.uce.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhip htm! This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affai rs. You will find links to time scheduling (Including a 'where does time go?" link), a study skill checklist, ba sic concentration techni ques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read e ssays for analysis, memory skills (‘remembering’). http://www howtostudy.org/resources. php Another "How to study" web site with useful links to time manage ment, efficient reading, questioning/listening/ observing skills, getting the most out of doing (‘hands-on leaming), memory b uilding, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan. Need Help? The instructor for this course is Mulati Job Chebai, Department o { Humanities. | can be consulted during thenormal working hours of contacted through: Phone 0726486370; Email: job.mulati@yah 00.com Chuka Main Campus. My office is in Business Complex, Ground Floor. For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact tech-support via email [email protected] ke ‘Assignments/Activiti es ‘Assignment /Activities are provided at the end of each topicCourse Leaming Req |* Timely submission of the assignments © 2CATs (30%) uirements inal Examination (70% of total score) Selfassessment | Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the topic and course content. While they may not be graded, yo u are strongly advised to attempt them whenever they are availab le in atopic. TOPIC 1 The French Revolutionary Introduction Welcome to our first topic. In this topic we want to study The Fren ch Revolution. To help you understand the topic, you will be given exercises to help you practice what you have learnt. Welcome Topic Time © Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & prac tice exercises /4] © Further reading /2 Total student input /6/ Topic Leaming Re quirements * Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries) + Atleast two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. Yo u may also start your own discussion thread. Timely submission of the assignments Learning Outeom es Topic Content By the end of the topic, the student should be able to: jiscuss the causes, course and results of the French Revolution. Europe in the 18 Century 1 Peasants in 18t* Century Europe 2 Nobility in 18th Century Europe 3 The inhabitants of towns and cities 4 Economic conditions in 187 Century Europe 5 French Revolution of 1789 6 The course of the French revolution 7 Results of the French Revolution 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Topic Summary 1 Europe in the 18!" century--Various social, political and Economi c conditions led to the revolution in Europe. These conditions inclu ded- dissatisfaction among the lower and middle class, interest in new ideas, financial problems, legal divisions among social group8, 1.1 PEASANTS IN THE 187 C EUROPE:- Though peasants consti tuted 85% of Europe population but owned little or no land yet the y paid tithes, hunting right, monopolies over flour mills, communit y ovens and oll and wine press 1.2 NOBILITY IN 18 C EUROPE:- The nobles had legal privileges o ver land, in goverment employment, military yet they did not pay tax 1.3 The inhabitants of towns and cities:- The contrast between th e city with its education and material consumption and the surrou nding often poverty stricken country side were striking. Peasants often resented the prosperity of towns 1.4 French revolution:-French society before the revolution was gr ounded in the ideas of privileges and inequality of rights, the popu lation of France was divided as it had been since the middle ages into legal categories or order the 3 estates or orders, the 187, 2"! an dard CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Europe was governed by the absolute dictators thus they governe d without the consent of the people. The church and the state expl cited the people. People lived in the fearof hunger. The philosoph er's writings influenced people to revolt against the government. T he system of Ancient regime, food shortages in early 1789, weakn esses of the then King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette, fin ancial problems and influence of American revolution contributed to the outbreak of revolution in France. 1.6 The course of the French revolution. By course we mean how events followed one 1.From State General to National Assembly 2. Destruction of the old regime 3. NEW CONSTITUTION 4, RADICAL REVOLUTION 5. ANATION IN ARMS6. The Committee of Public Safety and the Reign of Terror 7. The Republic of virtue 8. The Decline of the Committee of the Public Safety 9. Reaction and directory 1.7 Results of French revolution, declaration of rights of man and the citizen -the people as the source of political power and the pri nciples of liberty and equality French revolution established Modem revolutionary concept - The French revolution became a symbol of hope to the masses while for those who feared change the revolution became a sym bol of dread. -The French revolution became the classical political and social m odel for revolution The monarchy and old privileges were swept asidea new state w as created New men rose to power from class who had enjoyed lit tle or no political support The other European countries were similarly affected by the Frenc h revolution To the serfs and poorer classes of Europe the revolution of 1789 camein time to represent their hope of better things while naturall y to the privileged classes and the kings and princes who support ed them, It represented a horrifying specter of their own future. Further Reading Lowe,N( 2005) Mastering World Historylondon palgrave Darwin,J (2009) The empire Project: the Rise and Fall of the Britis 1h World system . 1830-1970. Cambridge university Press TOPIC ACTIVITIE s Activity Discuss the causes, course and results of French Revolutions of 1 789a L EUROPE IN THE 18TH CENTUARY Various social political and Economical conditions led to the revolution in the Europe. These conditions included Dissatisfaction among the lower and middle class. Interest in new ideas about the government Financial problems caused by the war Legal divisions among social groups that had existed for a hundred years crea ted mass discontent According to the law for example French society consisted of 3 groups called t he estates / orders. Members of the clergy made the first estates the nobles the second estate and the rest of the people on the third estates Social status in 18% C in Europe was largery determined not by wealth and eco nomic studying but by division into the traditional orders / estate which were d etermined by the heredity The divinely suction division of society into the traditional order was supporte d by Christian teaching which emphasized need to facilitate the responsibility of ones estates, although enlightenment intellectuals attacked these traditions distinction they did not die easily, inter estate marriage of the noble to the third estate was prohibited by law. 1.1 PEASANTS IN THE 187 C EUROPE Peasants constituted 85% of Europe population and most of them were rural dwellers for ‘the European society at that time was rural. In France 40% of peasants owned little or no land atall by 1789.most of the peasants paid tithes a third of the crop. Local aristocrats claimed hunting right on peasant land and they had monopolies over t he flour mills, community ovens and oil and wine press which wereneeded by the peasa nts, “] -_ L Hunting rights, fees and tithes were all deeply presented, a village church and sometime a school master collected tax for central government, maintained roads and bridges and established common procedures for planting, ploughing and harvesting crops but village s were often dominated by rich peasants and proved highly resistance to the innovations such as new agricultural practice. 1.2 NOBILITY IN 18 CIN EUROPE The nobles constituted only 2 or 3 % of population played a dominating role in the socie ty, being born a noble automatically guaranteed one a place at the tip of social order The legal privileges of the nobility included judgment by their peers immunity from thes evere punishment and exemption from many forms of taxation rights of land lords over t heir serves were overwhelming The nobles played important role in the military in the Govemment affairs The 18!" C nobility also played an important role in the administrative machinery of thes tate in some of the European countries the entire bureauctacy reflected aristocratic value s In the land holding nobles controlled much of the life of their districts 1.3 THE INHABITANTS OF TOWNS AND CITIES © Towns’ people in the 18th century were still distinct minority of the total popul ation. © The contrast between the city with it's education, culture and material consum ption and the surrounding often poverty stricken countryside were stricking © Peasants often resented the prosperity of towns and their exploitation of thec ountryside to serve urban interest. ©. The towns were better of than rural areas not because they bought goods and crops from the rural surroundings but because of using tithes, rents and feudal dues to acquire peasant produce. In the 18th century, Europe cities experienced high deaths especially among th e children because of polluted water and lack of sewage facilities. “d rT_ L “] 1.4 The 18th century economic conditions in Europe European economy was based on a system known as feudalism where a few individuals owned so much land while the rest were serfs. The economy depended on agriculture wh ich wasn't doing very well just before 1789. There was food scarcity and everybody lived in fear of going hungry. This problem was made worse by the challenge of poor road network which made food distribution impossible or difficult. All these factors created bitterness in France and the entire Europe and they were responsible for the outbreak of the bloody Revolutions that o ccured in Europe including France, Germany e.tc. 1.5 FRENCH REVOLUTION Thelong range/ indirect causes of French revolution must be sort in conditions of the Fr ench society before the revolution in which French society was grounded in the ideas of privileges and inequality of rights, the population of France was divided as it has been si nce the middle ages into legal categories or order known as the 3 estates or orders The three estates First Estate © The first consisted of the clergy whose numbered about 130,000 people. Thec hurch owned approximately 10 percent of the land. The clergy were exempted from the taille which was the France's chief tax although the church had agree d to pay a voluntary contribution every 5 years to the estate. © The clergy were also radically divided where we had the higher clergy steming from aristocratic families. They shared the interest of the Nobility while the oth er clergy who were referred to as the Parish priest were often poor commoners The Second Estate © This was the Nobility composed of not more than 350,000 people who neverth eless owned perhaps 30 percent of the land. The Nobility held leading position 5 in the govemment, in the millitary, in the law courts and in the higher church offices ©. The French Nobility was also divided into two such that we had the Nobility of -L the Robe who derived their status from office holding. A pathway that had often nabled commoners to attain Noble rank. These nobles dominated the royal la w courts and important administration offices. ©. The other was the Nobility of the sword. They claimed to be descendent from t he original medieval Nobility. As a group, the Nobles sort to expand their privile ges at the expense of the monarch. © All the Nobles were exempted from the tax The Third Estate «The commoners of the French society constituted the overwhelming majority of the population. They were divided by diverse differences in occupation, the | evel of education and wealth. © Peasants made up 75 percent to 80 percent of the population. They were the | argest segment of the third Estate. * They owned about 35 percent to 40 percent of the land although this owning v aried from area to area and more than a half of the peasants had little or no la nd on which to support themselves though serfdom no longer existed on a lar ge scale in France but the French peasant still had obligations to their local lan dlords that they deeply resented/resisted. @ The third Estate paid fees for the use of village facilities such as the flour Mill s, the community oven and the oil presses as well as tithes to the clergy. @ Inthe 18th century, consumer prices rose high yet the wages remained low. As a result, the urban dwellers experienced a decline in purchasing power. This m ade the people in the urban to support the revolution. @ About 8% or 2.3 million people constituted the Bourgeoisie or middle class wh 0 owned about 20-25% of the land. This group included the merchants, banker s, the finance and manufacturing who had benefited from the economic prosp erity after 1730. «The Bourgeoisie also included professionals, lawyers, holders of public offices and doctors. Most members of the Bourgeoisie sought security and status through the pure hase of landa © They had their own set of grievances because they were often excluded from t he social and political privileges monopolised by the Nobles. At the same time remarkable similarities existed at the upper level of society between the Bourg eoisie and the Nobility. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. The example of the American revolution The Americans had revolted against their British colonisation in the American revolution of 1776. They won the war and got their way to freedom. They declared that all men are created equal and God had given them the same rights which could not be taken away b y anybody i.elife, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. This idea inspired the French revol ution. The Americans rejected a simple tax on tea yet the French were heavily taxed. The y therefore felt more justified to revolt against the monarch. In this way therefore, the Am ericans Revolution inspired the French revolution. Some of those soldiers who fought in ‘America came back and were the main leaders of the French revolution, e.g Lafayette 2. Financial problems facing France. By 1789, France was broke, there was comuption that wasted Government revenue. TheK ing and his family lived in luxury and they spent so much money on the warfare even wh en they knew that the Nation was broke. France had spent a lot of money supporting the American revolution and because of this the Nation was in financial crisis. The financial ctisis became one of the way or contributions of the French revolution. 3. The character of King Luis XVI and his wife Maria Antoinette. The character of the King and his wife influenced the French revolution. It was very unfor tunate that when France was facing challenges in the af fairs of the Nation it was in the hands of a King who loved hunting more than governing and a wife who didn't assist the king to make the right decisions and largely gave wrong advises to the king. Both the Kin gand the Queen weren't sensitive to the suffering of the common citizens. The Queen w as also hated because she wasn't a French citizen but an Austrian 4. Food shortage France was faced by food shortage from early 1789. The weather conditions in France w ere unfavourable starting in the early 1789. There was very severe winter which destroye d crops. Many citizens begun to beg for food from the government. The government was L “d rTa L unable to give them any assistance. The mobs were incited by the philosophers and hen ce the revolution broke out. ‘The role of the Philosophers in the French Revolution. 4 Montesquieu. He was a lawyer and a writer. He was a very committed student of History esp ecially political History. He advocated for a goverment that was based on the Constitution. He believed in the separation of powers that is the executive, the judiciary and the legislature which were supposed to be independent from each other. According to Montesquieu, if any of the organs of the government combined with each other, they would bring about tyranny or dictatorship Montesquieu was however not a revolutionaries even though his ideas were re volutionary in nature. He was a Catholic, a supporter of the Monarch anda conservative. He was able to criticize corruption in the church and despotism/authoritarianis m in the state. He wrote a book in which he compared the various forms of go vernment and pointed out their merits and demerits. One of them most radical idea of Montesquieu was that Kings aren't put in pla ce by God. Citizens can remove them from power because all sovereignty pow er belongs to the people. In this way, Many undermined the principles of Devin e rights of the King ii, Voltaire He was the most radical philosopher. He wrote many articles on History and h e attacked the Catholic Church for suppressing reason and persecuting free th ought He was a warrior on his life. He was a defender of the oppressed and he never gave up in his search for justice. However, he was not a Democrat. He believed in benevolent despotism i.e merciful/sensitive dictatorship According to him, it was better ta be lead/governed by one lion than by a hund -a “] red rats that is he advocated for strong leadership iil, Jeane Jacques Rousseau # The influence of Jeane Jacques Rousseau in the French revolution was felt hi ghly. According to him, man is bom free but he is everywhere in chains # People were happy and free before there was any government or any human in stitution. They were also equal before the government came in place. # He developed the theory of social contracts Le government are put in place by the people through a social contract. «There isa covenant between the governed and those who gover the people ar e sovereign and every individual is part of that sovereign. @ The laws of a Nation represent the desires of the people. « Nogovernment/King can take away people's power. The people have a right to revolt against the government if it becomes cruel. © Many people in France accepted the ideas of Jean Rousseau and they were th erefore persuaded to rise against the monarch. 5, Theimmediate cause of the French revolution was the near collapse of government fi nances. French government expenditures continued to grow due to costly wars and royal extravagance. On the verge of a complete financial collapse the Govemment of Louis X¥ Iwas finally forced to call a meeting of Estates General (Parliament) This was the French Parliamentary body that had not met since 1614. The estates G eneral consisted of representatives from the 3 states/orders of the French society. In the election of the Estate General the government had valued that the third estate should get double representation and they had 600 representatives while the first estate Lethe clergy and the second estate ie the Nobles had 300 representatives each. Two-thir ds of the third estate were people with legal training and three-quarter were from towns with over 2000 inhabitants i.e giving the third estate a strong legal and urban representat ion. The third estate advocated fora regular constitutional government that would aboli sh the fiscal privileges of the church and Nobility as the major way to regenerate France.a “] 1.6 THE COURSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTIOI From Estate General ta National Assembly The central issue that divided the estate participants was whether voting was to be done by order/estate or by each individual. The third Estate supported voting by individual and the first estate declared in favour by voting by order/estate. This forced the third estate t o respond in a significant fashion On June 17th 1789 the third estate voted to constitute itself into a national Assembly an d decided to draw up a constitution. Three days later on June 20th the deputies of the thi rd estate arrived at their meeting place only to find doors locked. There upon they moved to a nearby indoor tennis court and swore (in what became the t ennis court oath) that they would continue to meet until they had produced a French con stitution. This action of June 17th and 20th 1789 constituted the first step in the French Revolution since the third estate had no right to act as a national Assembly The common people in a series of urban and rural uprisings in the summer of 1789 save dithe third estate from the king's attempt to stop the revolution. The most famous of the urban uprisings led to the fall of the Bastille. Parisian organised mobs in July 14th who attacked the Bastille which was a Royal arm ory and also worked as prison. The role of the Bastille quickly became a symbol of the fa lof the Monarch. Paris was abandoned to the insugence/ revolutionalist and Louis XVI was soon informed that the Royal troops were unreliable. A growing resentment of the entire land holding sy stem with it's fees and obligations created the condition for a popular uprising. The fall of the Bastille and the King's apparent capitulation to the demands of the estate s encouraged the peasants to take matters into their own hands. In July and August of 1 789, peasants rebellions occurred throughout France. The fear of the France being invaded by the foreign troops and supported by the aristocr ats between July 20th and August 6th 1789 encouraged the revolters to form citizen milit ia -_ L Destruction of the old regime One of the first acts of the National Assembly was to destroy the relics of feudalism or a ristocratic privileges. On August 14th 1789 the National Assembly voted to abolish the fi scal privileges of the Nobles, the clergy, the towns and provinces On August 26th the National Assembly adopted the declaration of therights of man and citizen which provided for:- man's liberty to ownership of property, security and resistanc eto oppression. This went to affirm the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaimi ng an end to exemption from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men and access t © public offices based on talent/merit. The monarch was restricted and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legi slative process. Freedom of speech and press was coupled with outlawing of arbitrary ar rest. Louis XVI refused to promulgate the decree of abolition of feudalism and declaratio N of rights of man until the unexpected turn of events. On October Sth, thousands of Parisians women armed with broom sticks, swords, pistols matched to Versailles located 12 miles away where the royal family had moved to and in sisted that the Royal family retums to Paris. On 6th October the King compiled. The royal Family was escorted by women singing ‘were bringing back the baker, the bak er's wife and the baker's boy (the king, Queen and their son). The King accepted the National Assembly decrees and was virtually a prisoner in Paris. Because the Catholic Church was seen as an important pillar of the old order it soon felt the impact of reform. Most of the land of the church was taken away and the church wa salso seculatized. In July 1790, the civil constitution of the clergy was put into effect both the Bishops and the Priests of the Catholic Church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. All the clergy were also require to swear an oath of allegiance to the civil constitution. On ly 54% of the parish clergy took oath while others refused. The Catholic Church then still an important institution in the life of the French now became an enemy of the Revolutio n NEW CONSTITUTION_ L By 1791, the National Assembly had completed the Constitution which provided for limit ed constitutional Monarch. The King Enjoyed few powers for example he wasnt subject t o review by the New Legislative Assembly. The legislative Assembly in which the sovereign power was vested was to last for two ye ars and consisted of 747 representatives chosen by an indirect system of election, that p reserved power in the hands of the affluent/rich members of the society. By mid 1791, a revolution consensus had moved France into a classic reordering of the o Id regime but still it received opposition from the clergy who were angered by the civil co nstitution of the clergy. The lower classes were hurt by a tise in the cost of living. The pe asants were angry that taxes had not been stopped/abandoned. In addition, by mid 1791, the government was still facing severe financial difficulties that was due to massive tax evasion. Despite all their problems, however, the politicians in charge remained relatively unified o nthe future of the king, that is they still had trust in the king but Louis XVI disappointed t he politicians by attempting to run away from France in June 1791 before he was notice d, captured and brought back to France. In his unsettled situation with a discredited and seemingly disloyal monarch the new legi slative assembly held it's first session in October 1791. France's relation with the rest of, Europe soon led to the downfall of Louis XVI. ‘Asa result of the fear of the French revolution by other monarchs in Europe that the revol ution would spread to their countries, they thought of stopping the revolution. On August 27th 1791, emperor Leopold Il of Austria and King Fredrick William II of Prussi a invited other European Monarchs to use force to reestablish monarchical authority in F rance. insulted by these threat, the legislative Assembly declared war on Austria on April 20th 1792. The French didn't farewell in the initial stages of the war and this resulted to mistrust an d scapegoats such as the kings betraying us, the generals are betraying us, that Paris w ill be taken in the next 6 weeks by Austria e.tc ‘Asa result of the defeat in the war, coupled with economic shortage in the spring (seaso 1) reinvigorated/re-energized popular groups that had been dormant to renewed political demonstration against the king. Radical Parisian political groups declared themselves as insurrectionary commune orga “d rT_ L nised a mob attack on the Royal palace and legislative Assembly in August 1792 and to ok the King captive and forced the assembly to suspend the monarch and call for a natio nal convention chosen on the basis of universal male suffrage to decide on the future of the government. The French Revolution was about to enter a more radical stage as power passed from th e assembly to a new Paris commune composed of many people who proudly called the mselves as ordinary Patriots without fine clothes but many were merchants and better of artisans who were often the elite of their neighborhood. RADICAL REVOLUTION In September 1792, the newly elected National convention which also acted as the sover eign ruling body of France began it's session/sittings. The National convention was also dominated by lawyers, professionals and property owners. Two thirds of its deputies were under 45 years and almost all had political experience as a result of the revolution. Almost all the deputies were distrustful of the king and his acti vities. The convention first major step on September 22nd was to abolish the monarchs and es tablish a republic. At the beginning of 1793, the national convention passed a decree con demning Louis XVI to death. With the execution of Louis XVI on January 2nd 1793, the destruction of the old regime was complete. Meanwhile, the dispatch of the king produced new challenges by creating new enemies for the revolution both at home and abroad while strengthening the groups that were already opposed to the revolution. In Paris, the local government led by the newly appointed Minister for justice Gorge Dont al favoured radical changes and put constant pressure on the convention to move radica | positions. Similarly, the national convention still didn't rule the entire France. Peasants i nthe west and inhabitants of France's major provincial cities refused to accept the autho rity of the national convention. By the time the king was executed, most European power sin form of coalition of Austria, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Dutch republic had a llied against France with a view to attacking France and stopping the revolution and re-e stablish the old regime. To meet the crisis, the National convention gave broad powers to an executive committe “d rT_ L e of 12 members known as the Committee of Public safety. The committee came to bed ominated by Maximilian Robespierre the leader of the Jacobins. For the 12 months perio dthis committee gave the country leadership. It needed to weather domestic resistance o £1793. ANATION IN ARMS To meet the foreign crisis and save the republic from it's foreign enemies the committee of public safety decreed a universal mobilisation of the nation on August 23rd 1793. In less than a year, by August 23rd 1793, the French revolution government had raised an atmy of 650,000 by September 1794. It numbered 1,169,000 Therepublic army was the largest ever seen in European History. It pushed back theallie s. The new French army was the creation of a people's government. Its wars were now pe ople's war. The entire Nation was to be involved in the war. The French revolution opened the door to the total war of the modern world. The Comi e of Public Safety and the Reign of Terr¢ To meet the domestic crisis, the national convention and the committee of public safety established the reign of terror. Revolutionary council were organised to protect the revolut ionary groups or revolutionary republic from it's intemal enemies Within 9 months, 16000 people were officially killed under the guillotine (a revolutionary device for the quick and efficient separation of the heads from the body) but the true fig ure of the terror victim may have been more up to 50000. The terror demonstrated no cla ss prejudice. Estimates were that the Nobles constituted 8% of the victims, middle 25%, t he clergy 6% and the peasants and the labouring classes 6% To the committee of public safety this blood letting was a temporary expedience before t he emergence of a republic of virtue in which the declaration of rights of man and the citi zens would be fully established Military force in the form of revolutionary armies was used to bring resisting cities and di striets back under the control of the national convention. Since Lyon France's second Cit y after Paris and had defied the national convention at a time when the republic was at war, the committee of public safety decided to make an example of it. By April 1794, a total of 1880 citizens of Lyon had been executed. When the guillotine pr “d rT_ L oved too slow, Canon fire was used against condemned people. The Republic of virtue Along with terror, the committee of Public Safety took other steps both to control France and to create a new Republican order and a new Republican citizen. By the spring 1793, the committee of public safety was sending representatives on missi ons as agents of the central goverment to all parts of France to implement the laws dea ling the wartime emergence. The committee also attempted to provide some economic r elief by the law of the General maximum which established price limits on goods declare dof first necessity ranging from food and drink to fuel and clothing Unfortunately, the controls failed to work very well because the government lacked the m achinery to enforce it In it's attempt to create a new order, the national convention also pursued a policy of dic hristianisation. ‘Anew calendar was instituted in which years were no longer numbered from the birth of Jesus but from September 22nd 1792 which was the first day of the French revolution. T he new calendar in France eliminated the Sundays and church holidays. The ward saints were removed from the street names, churches were closed by revolutionary armies and priest were encouraged to marry. The Decline of the Committee of the Public Safety. Maintaining the revolutionary ideas in France proved not easy. By the summer 1794, the French had been successful on the battle front against the foreign enemies The military success meant that they no longer served much purpose but the terror conti nued because Robespierre who was now a dominant figure had become obsessed with purifying the body of the politic of fall corruption, Many deputies in the National convention feared however that they weren't safe while Ro bespiere was free to act. An antiRobespierre coalition in the National convention gather ed enough votes to condemn him Robespierre was guillotined on July 28th 1794 that is bringing an end to the reign of terr “d rT_ L or the radical stage of French Revolution The National convention and it's committee of public safety accomplished a great deal, t hey created a nation in arms which preserved French revolution and prevented it from bei rng destroyed by it's foreign enemies whom if they had succeeded would have re-establis hed the ald monarchical order. Domestically, the revolution was saved from the forces of counter-revolution. The commi tte tacties provided an example for the use of violence in domestic politics that has con tinued to be devil the world to this day. Reaction and directory ‘After the death of Robespierre, revolutionary terror begun to give way. The national conve ntion curtailed the powers of the Committee of Public Safety and shut down the Jacobin sclub and attempted to provide better protection of it's deputies against Parisian mobs. Churches were allowed to reopen for public worship. Economic regulations were dropped in favour of Leissez faire policy. In addition a new constitution was adopted in August 1 795 that reflected more conservative Republicanism and a desire for stability that didn't, sacrifice the ideals of 1789. The Constitution of 1795 established a national Assembly consisting of two Chambers i ethelower house known as the council of 500 which initiated legislation and an upper h ouse consisting of 250, called council of elders accepted or rejected the proposed laws. ‘The 750 members of the two legislative bodies were chosen by electors who had to beo wners of property ‘The council of elders elected five directors from a list presented to the council of 500 toa ctas the executive committee directory. The period of the directory was marked by stagnation, corruption and graft. The gover ment of the directory faced political enemies from both ends of the political spectrum. O nthe right the royalists dreamed of restoring the monarch and therefore continued their a gitation, On the left, the Jacobins hopes of power were revived by continuing the economic prable ms “d rT_ L Stricken by both right and left problems, the directory over relied on the military to maint ain its power. This eventually led to a coup in 1799 leading to the emergence of general Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon dominated both French and European History from 1799 to 1815. Ina sense N apoleon brought the revolution to an end in 1799 but he was a child of the revolution. He often called himself the son of the revolution. The French revolution enabled Napoleon t Oise first in the revolution and then to the supreme power of France. 1.7 RESULTS OF FRENCH REVOLUTION. Declaration of rights of man and the citizen set for a liberal agenda based on a belief in popular sovereignty -the people as the source of political power and the principles of lib erty and equality Jiberty frequently limited in practice meant in theory freedom from arbi trary powers as well as freedom to think write and worship as one chose. Equality in righ ts and equality of opportunity based in talent rather than birth in practice however, equal ity remained limited. -French revolution established Modem revolutionary concept After 1789 revolutionaries knew that the proper mobilization of masses could succeed in overthrowing unwanted g overnments. - The French revolution became a symbol of hope while for those who feared changes the revolution became a symbol of dread. “The French revolution became the classical political and social model for revolution Att he same time the liberal and national political ideas fastened by the revolution and sprea d Through Europe by Napoleon dominated landscape of the 19: and early 20% century n ew European Eva begun. -French revolution deeply affected mens ideas and conduct for many generations . Withi nthe space of 6 yeats 1789-1795, the monarchy and old privileges were swept aside a new state was created New men arose to power from class who had enjoyed little or no political the French army was completely re organized with promotion from the Ranks ,t he peasants took over theland of the nobility and the catholic church and Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette went to Guillotine. ~The other European countries were similarly affected by the French revolution . To the se rfs and poorer classes of Europe the revolution of 1789 came in time to represent their h ope of better things while naturally to the privileged classes and the kings and princes w ho supported them, It represented a horrifying specter of their own future destruction. In “d rTEurope and America the impact of the revolution created hope, enthusiasm , hatred orfe ar according to men s position in society and their intellectual convictions. Question Discuss the causes, course and results of French Revolutions of 1789 TOPIC Napoleon Bonaparte Introduction ‘Welcome to our topic on Napoleon Bonaparte. To help you unders tand the topic, you will be given exercises to help you practice wha tyou have learnt. Welcome Topic Time © Compulsory online reading, activities, selrassessments & prac tice exercises /4] © Further reading /2/ Total student input /6] Topic Leaming Re | « Participation in one chaf(at least 5 entries) quirements + Atleast two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. Yo u may also start your own discussion thread Timely submission of the assignments Learning Outcom | By the end of the topic, the student should be able to: es 1, Discuss the rise and achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte 2. Napoleonic wars and the Vienna settlement Topic Content | 2. Napoleon Bonaparte: General remarks 2.1 Rise of Napoleon 2.2 Domestic policies of Napoleon 2.3 Napoleon Empire and European Response 2.4 Legacy of Napoleon Bonaparte in France and Europe 2.5 Causes for the failure of Napoleon Bonaparte 6.6 The Vienna settlement Topic Summary | 2 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE:-General remarks He was bom in 1769 in Corsica, He was one of the greatest army general of all the times. -He was one of the five men appointed by the Assembly to guide France. HE made himself the first counsel in 1802, in 1804 the senate declared him EMPE ROR OF FRANCE up to 1814 and in 1815 he was defeated by General WILLINGTO. Nat the battle of WATERLOO, He was taken to exile at island of stHHelena where hediedin 1821 Napoleon dominated European history from 1799 to 1815 in sense Napoleon bro ght the revolution to an end in 1799 but he was also a child of the revolution he ev en called himself the "son of revolution’ The French revolution enabled Napoleon to rise first in the military and then to the supreme power of France, 2.2 DOMESTIC POLICIES OF EMPEROR NAPOLEON. In 1801 , Napoleon established peace with the aldest enemy of the revolution Le T he catholic church through the Concordat ~ agreement Napoleon greatest domestic achievernent was codification of the laws. The most important was the civil code ( or code Napoleon ). This preserved most of the revo lutionary gains. The right of individual to choose profession, religious toleration and abolition of s elfdomand feudalism, Property right continued to be carefully protected. Napoleon also worked on rationalizing the bureaucratic structure of France by dev eloping @ powerful centralized administrative machinery. Napoleon however alsa created a new aristocracy based on mei in state sence. Napoleon shut down siaty France seventy three newspapers and insisted that all manuscripts be subjected to government scrutiny 2.3 NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE AND THE EUROPEAN RESPONSE. ‘As Napoleon became the first consul in 1799, France was at war with the se cond European coalition of Russia, Great Britain and Austria. Napoleon realized the need fora pause and achieves a peace treaty in 1802 that left France with new frontier sand a number of client teritories fromthe north sea to the Adriatic. But peace di d not last and war wes renewed in 1808 with Britain which was soon joined by Au stria Russia and Prussia in third coalition In @ series of wars at ULM Austetitz Je nna and Fylau from 1805-1807, Napoleons aimny defeated the coalition giving hima 1 opportunity to create @ new world order. The grand ermpire was composed of Three major partsFrance empire , dependen ‘state andallied states. Napoleon sought acceptance of revolutionary principles including legal equality, + eligious toleration and economic freedom, IMPORTANT FACTOR IN FAILURE OF NAPOLEON WAS NATIONALISM Nationalism creed had arisen during the French revolution in the peoples emphasi' on BrotherhoodFraternity) and solidarity against other people . But Napoleon spr ead of revolutionary ideals of the French in advertently Brought the spread of natio nalism as well The French aroused nationalism in two ways By making themsel ves hated oppressors and thus arousing the patriotism of others in opposition to F rench nationalism The beginning of Napoleons down fall came in 1812 with the invasion of Russia. | 11812, a grand army of more than 600,000 Men entered Russia . Only a 1/5 of the original army managed to straggle back to Poland in January 1813. This military d isaster then led to @ war of iberation all over Europe, culminating in Napoleon's de featin April 1814, LEGACY OF NAPOLEON BONARPARTEIN FRANCE ANDEUROPE, 1. The concordat 2in the area of art = 8Thelegeon of honour, 4.He brought changes in local government. S.He improved the financial conditions of France 6.His legacy in public work 7.He cartied out many reforms inthe sector of education. B.ntellectual repressio 2.5 CAUSES OF NAPOLEON FAILURE. 1. The policy of militarism.- Many people in the areas he conquered we re bitter because of the way his solders treated them, These alliance of Prussia, Austria and Russia was too much for himto withst and, 2.The limitation of individual genious. 3.He was let down by his family members. -4\Napoleon began to depend more and more on trickery and deceit-He aban doned the principle that had made people admire him. His deception is capure d by 2 quote he once made "| know when to exchange the skin of a lion for th atof the fox because of this people began to loose faith in him, 5 He began to be arrogant. According to Fosch " He forgot that a man cannot be God in that there is @ na tion and above mankind there is amoral law. 26The Vienna settlement Napoleon had brought disorder/distabilized Europe so much so that the political m‘ap of the European continent took @ new shape. He also destroyed the foundation of the Monarch in Europe. He also created Nationalism in Europe. The Vienna settlement was based on three principles ie Restoration, Legitim acy and Co-operation. The Principle of restoration meant that the boundaries and f amilies which were in power in Europe should be restored to the way they were be fore the French revolution. Co-operation on the other hand, Napoleon had captured many terttories from. other countries at the veinna settlement. Itwas decided that those countries that had suffered because of Napoleonic wers to be compensated and those countrie 5 that had lost their regtons to be given back to them eg. Italy and Spain, An assessment of Vienna settlement The Vienna arrangement represented the efforts of a few leaders in Europe who ‘were interested in retaining the status quo ie thase who were opposed to change. The Vienna settlement was a failure because the time for monarchs in Europ Napoleon had been defeated and sent to exile but his ideas lived on, ‘The concert of Europe (the Congress system), the continental system. The concept of Europe is a major theme in European Internetional relations, twas the first major atterrpt to make European nations work together for common peac e and sta lity Iwas the product of Mettemich and Canning of Britain and Talleyrand of Fran ce. Itwas simply an experiment on peace by conferences. There were number of congresses that were held in various European cities b etween 1815-1830 i the Congress of Vienna (1815), the Congress on AlX-la-Cha pelle (1818), the Congress troppau (1820), the Congress of Laibach (1821), the Co gress of Verona (1822) The Congress of Vienna (1815): British, Austtia and Germany met afterdefea ting Napoleon, There were two main issues under discussion; frst, how to reward the Victor’ | the nations that had defeated Napoleon without creating bittemess among the French people. Second, how to prevent 2 repeat of the chaos witness ed during the Napleoni Prominent individuals of that Congress were Metternich of Austria, Talleyrant of France, Castlereagh of Bitain and also Sir Alexander of Russia. The conferencealgo discussed the matter of tenitoval arrangements in Europe. By 1820, it became impos sible for meetings to be held and this led to the coll apse of the concert of Europe. Further Reading | Beckett, 1(2001) The Great War 2nedn. London. Longman Lowe, N (2005) Mastering World History. London. Palgrave Darwin, J (2009) The Empire Project: the Rise and Fall of the Brit sh World System, 1830 ~ 1970. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press Ss TOPIC ACTIVITIE Activity Discuss the rise and effect of Napoleon Bonaparte in Europe 2 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE:-General remarks He was born in 1769 in Corsica He was one of the greatest army general of all the times -He was one of the five men appointed by the Assembly to guide France dur ing the momentoof chaos out of chaos . These five men were known as the dir ectories -HE later displaced the restand made himself the first counsel in 1802. In 1804 the senate declared him EMPEROR OF FRANCE but he declared hims elf Emperor of life -He remained emperor up to 1814 and in 1815 he was defeated by General WI LLINGTON at the battle of WATERLOO. -He was taken to exile at island of st Helena where he died in 1821 -Napoleon dominated European history from 1799 to 1815 in a sense Napoleon brought the revolution to an end in 1799 but he was also a child of the revolution he even called h imself the “son of revolution" “]