*****8085 processor hardware architecture:

The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1976. It is

a part of the MCS-85 family of microprocessors and is widely used in various applications

such as embedded systems and small-scale devices. Let's explore the hardware architecture of the
8085 processor:

1.Accumulator: The 8085 has an 8-bit accumulator (AC) that is the primary register for arithmetic and
logical operations.

It stores one of the operands during arithmetic and logical operations.

2.Registers: The 8085 has six general-purpose registers, each 8 bits wide: B, C, D, E, H, and L.

These registers can be used individually or combined as register pairs:BC, DE, and HL. The register
pairs

are used for addressing memory locations and various data operations.

3.Program Counter (PC): The program counter is a 16-bit register that holds the memory address of
the next instruction to be executed.

It is automatically incremented after each instruction fetch.

4.Stack Pointer (SP): The stack pointer is a 16-bit register used to point to the top of the stack.

The stack is a portion of memory used for storing data during subroutine calls and interrupts.

5.Instruction Register (IR): The instruction register holds the current instruction being executed.

It fetches the opcode from memory during the fetch cycle.

6.Flags: The 8085 has five flags that indicate the status of the arithmetic and logical operations:

Sign (S), Zero (Z), Auxiliary Carry (AC), Parity (P), and Carry (CY).

These flags are used for conditional branching and decision-making.

7.Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data stored
in the accumulator and other registers.

It supports operations like addition, subtraction, AND, OR, XOR, etc.

8.Control Unit: The control unit coordinates and controls the operation of various components of the
microprocessor. It generates the necessary control signals to execute instructions and control the
data flow.

9.Address and Data Buses: The 8085 has a 16-bit address bus and an 8-bit data bus. The address bus
is used to specify the memory locations for read/write operations, while the data bus is used to
transfer data between the microprocessor and memory or I/O devices.
10.Timing and Control Signals: The 8085 processor receives various timing and control signals to
synchronize its operation. These signals include clock signals, control signals for memory and I/O
operations, and interrupt signals.

*****pinouts — Functional Building Blocks of Processor:

The pinout or pin configuration of the 8085 microprocessor refers to the arrangement and functions
of the various pins on the chip. Here are the functional building blocks of the 8085 processor along
with their corresponding pin numbers:

1.Data Bus (D0-D7): These are the bidirectional pins that transfer data between the microprocessor
and external devices. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor, so it has an 8-bit data bus.

2.Address Bus (A0-A15): These are the unidirectional pins that carry the memory address of the data
being accessed or the location of the next instruction to be executed. The 8085 has a 16-bit address
bus.

3.Control Signals:

a.ALE (Address Latch Enable): This signal is used to latch the lower address byte from the address bus
into an external latch.

b.RD (Read): This signal indicates that the microprocessor is reading data from memory or an
external device.
c.WR (Write): This signal indicates that the microprocessor is writing data to memory or an external
device.

d.IO/M (Input/Output, Memory): This signal distinguishes between memory and I/O operations.

e.HLDA (Hold Acknowledge): This signal indicates that the microprocessor is in a hold state.

f.INTA (Interrupt Acknowledge): This signal indicates that the microprocessor has acknowledged an
interrupt request.

4.Power Supply and Ground Pins:

Vcc (power supply) and Ground (GND) pins provide the necessary power and ground connections to
the microprocessor.

5.Clock Signals:

a.CLK (Clock): This signal provides the clock pulses that synchronize the internal operations of the
microprocessor.

b.X1, X2: These are the external clock input pins used to connect an external crystal oscillator for
providing the system clock.

6.Interrupt Signals:

a.INTR (Interrupt Request): This signal is used to request an interrupt from an external device to the
microprocessor.

b.INT (Interrupt): This signal is used to enable or disable interrupts.

7.Control and Status Signals:

a.RESET: This signal is used to reset the microprocessor and initialize its operations.

b.READY: This signal indicates that the external devices are ready to communicate with the
microprocessor.

c.HOLD: This signal is used to put the microprocessor on hold to allow another device to use the
system buses.

d.SOD (Serial Output Data): This signal provides the serial output data during serial communication.

These are the primary pinouts associated with the functional building blocks of the 8085
microprocessor. The exact pin configurations may vary depending on the specific manufacturer and
package type of the microprocessor.

******Memory organization —

The memory organization of the 8085 processor consists of three main types of memory: program
memory, data memory, and I/O memory. Here's a breakdown of each:

1.Program Memory:
->The 8085 processor has a 16-bit address bus, which allows it to address a maximum of 64 KB
(2^16) of program memory.

->Program memory typically consists of ROM (Read-Only Memory) or EPROM (Erasable

->The program counter (PC) holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched from the
program memory.

->Instructions are fetched from program memory and stored in the instruction register (IR) for
decoding and execution.

2.Data Memory:

->The 8085 processor has an 8-bit data bus, allowing it to access 8 bits of data at a time.

->Data memory includes RAM (Random Access Memory) where variables, data, and stack are stored.

->The data memory can address a maximum of 64 KB (2^16) of data storage, but the actual amount
of available data memory may vary based on the system configuration.

->The general-purpose registers (B, C, D, E, H, and L) are used for temporary storage of data during
program execution.

->The accumulator (A) is a special register used for arithmetic and logical operations.

->The stack pointer (SP) is used to keep track of the top of the stack in memory during subroutine
calls and interrupts.

3.I/O Memory:

->The 8085 processor uses I/O memory to communicate with external devices, such as peripherals
and I/O ports.

->I/O memory is typically separate from the program and data memory and is often accessed
through specific input and output instructions.

->I/O addresses are assigned to different devices or ports, and the microprocessor can read from or
write to these addresses to exchange data with external devices.

->It's important to note that the exact memory organization of the 8085 processor can vary
depending on the specific system design and implementation. The size and type of memory used, as
well as the memory mapping and addressing scheme, can be customized to suit the requirements of
the particular system.

*****I/O ports and data transfer concepts,Interrupts.

The 8085 processor has a dedicated I/O (Input/Output) system that allows it to communicate with
external devices. The I/O ports and data transfer concepts of the 8085 processor involve the
following:
1.I/O Ports:

->The 8085 microprocessor has a separate address space for I/O operations. It uses specific I/O port
addresses to read from or write to external devices.

->I/O ports are typically used to interface with peripherals such as keyboards, displays, sensors, and
other input/output devices.

->The I/O ports are mapped in the memory address space, and specific instructions are used to
access and transfer data between the microprocessor and the I/O devices.

2.IN and OUT Instructions:

->The IN and OUT instructions are used to transfer data between the microprocessor and the I/O
devices.

->The IN instruction reads data from an I/O port into an accumulator (A) or a specific register.

->The OUT instruction writes data from an accumulator (A) or a specific register to an I/O port.

3.I/O Addressing:

->I/O addressing involves specifying the I/O port address to perform data transfer with a particular
device.

->The I/O addresses are typically 8 bits wide, as the 8085 microprocessor has an 8-bit data bus.

->The I/O port addresses are specified as immediate values in the instruction or as values stored in
registers.

4.I/O Read and Write Timing:

->The timing for I/O read and write operations is crucial for proper communication with external
devices.

->The control signals generated by the microprocessor, such as the RD (Read) and WR (Write) signals,
are used to synchronize the data transfer between the microprocessor and the I/O devices.

->The microprocessor generates control signals to indicate the start and end of I/O operations,
ensuring proper data transfer and synchronization.

5.Interrupt-Driven I/O:

->The 8085 processor supports interrupt-driven I/O, where external devices can request attention
through interrupt signals.

->When an interrupt is requested, the microprocessor suspends its current operation, saves its
context, and transfers control to an interrupt service routine (ISR).
->The ISR handles the I/O operation and returns control to the main program after completing the
task.

*****Interrupts:

The 8085 microprocessor supports five types of interrupts, which allow external devices to request
attention from the processor. Here are the different interrupts of the 8085 processor:

1.TRAP Interrupt:

->The TRAP interrupt has the highest priority among all interrupts in the 8085 processor.

->It is a non-maskable interrupt (cannot be disabled) and is triggered by the TRAP signal on the TRAP
pin (pin 12) of the processor.

->The TRAP interrupt is primarily used for critical events requiring immediate attention, such as
power failure or system reset.

2.RST Interrupts:
->The 8085 processor provides three maskable RST (Restart) interrupts: RST 7.5, RST 6.5, and RST 5.5.

->These interrupts are triggered by the falling edge of the corresponding RST signals on the RST pins
(pins 5, 6, and 7) of the processor.

->RST 7.5 has the highest priority among the RST interrupts, followed by RST 6.5 and RST 5.5.

->These interrupts are generally used for specific events or subroutines and provide predefined jump
addresses in the interrupt vector table.

3.Interrupt Request (INT):

->The INT interrupt is a maskable interrupt that is triggered by the INT signal on the INT pin (pin 10)
of the processor.

->It has the lowest priority among the maskable interrupts.

->The INT interrupt is generally used for general-purpose interrupt requests from external devices,
such as I/O devices or peripherals.

4.Interrupt Enable (INTE):

->The INTE instruction is used to enable or disable maskable interrupts in the 8085 processor.

->When the INTE instruction is executed with the appropriate operands, maskable interrupts become
enabled, and the processor starts responding to them.

->Disabling the INTE instruction masks all maskable interrupts, preventing their execution.

5.Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):

->An Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is a specific subroutine that is executed when an interrupt is
received.

->The ISR is responsible for handling the interrupt request and performing the necessary tasks
associated with the interrupt.

->After the ISR completes its execution, the processor resumes the interrupted program from the
point it was interrupted.

->Interrupts in the 8085 processor allow external devices to request the processor's attention and
initiate specific actions or interrupt the program flow. By using interrupts, the processor can
efficiently handle time-critical tasks, prioritize events, and enhance the overall system performance.