WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Week 8, October 23rd, 2023

2009/5/22

http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/trad/hi/newsid_8060000/newsid_8064500/8064501.stm
 HISTORY

sailboats and dhows

wind turbine to grind wheat (Holland)

wind-driven water pumps, cereal grinders, sawmills

(American West)
 http://climatechange1.wordpress.com/

INTRODUCTION

The amount of energy available in the wind around

the planet at any one moment in time is vast.
However, much of it is too far from the earth’s
surface to be accessible using currently available
technology.

Intermittent nature
extremely high wind: required means of protection from damaging the
wind energy conversion device

little or no wind: required alternative energy supplies

 BRAKE FAILURE

Nordtank NKT 600-180/43

maximum generation capacity: 600 kW
diameter: 43 m
February 22, 2008. Hornslet, Denmark
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbCs7ZQDKoM

ADVANTAGES

Relatively cheap (current charge for household:

NT1.63-7.69/kWh)
NT3.92/kWh for Taipower wind farms

NT7/kWh for privately-owned wind farms

Emit no CO2

Operation leaves behind no dangerous residues

Land occupied by wind farms can find other uses

such as in agriculture or...... herding
 WIND MAP

http://www.nrel.gov/gis/wind.html

Wind power density at 50 m

×100 W/m2
http://www.atm.ncu.edu.tw/93/wind/main.asp
 728 CHAPTER 15 Wind Energy

which horizontal radial arms were attached. Near the extremities of these
arms, a vertical curtain was installed, and this was the surface on which
the wind exerted its useful force. Two walls channeled the wind, forcing it
to blow on only one side of the device, thus creating a torque. Notice that
one wall forms a funnel concentrating the collected wind.
The bucket wind turbine, sketched in Figure 15.3, is another vertical
axis drag-type device. It rotates because the convex surface offers less wind
drag than the concave one. This device can be cheaply built by amateurs
using an oil barrel cut along its vertical axis. It operates inefficiently.
Improved performance can be obtained by staggering the buckets
as shown in Figure 15.4 so that a gap is left between them. The air is

CONFIGURATIONS
728 CHAPTER 15 Wind Energy

which horizontal radial arms were attached. Near the extremities of these
arms, a vertical curtain was installed, and this was the surface on which
the wind exerted its useful force. Two walls channeled the wind, forcing it
to blow on only one side of the device, thus creating a torque. Notice that
one wall forms a funnel concentrating the collected wind.
The bucket wind turbine, sketched in Figure 15.3, is another vertical
Drag-type wind turbine
axis drag-type device. It rotates because the convex surface offers less wind
drag than the concave one. This device can be cheaply built by amateurs
using an oil barrel cut along its vertical axis. It operates inefficiently.
Improved performance can be obtained by staggering the buckets
as shown in Figure 15.4 so that a gap is left between them. The air is Savonius rotor
桶形轉⼦
A 2-bucket wind turbine.
Figure 15.3

Figure 15.3 A 2-bucket wind turbine.

Figure 15.4 Air flow in a Savonius rotor.

wind exerts a force in the direction it is blowing.

surface on which the wind impinges cannot move faster than the wind
itself.
Figure 15.4 Air flow in a Savonius rotor.
 Lift-type wind turbines
troposkein to minimize
bending stress

propeller turbine Gyromill turbine Darrieus turbine

打蛋形轉⼦
wind generates a force perpendicular to the direction in which it is
blowing

the blade of the turbine can move substantially faster than the wind itself

WIND POWER
If the average wind velocity is v, p(v) is the
probability of wind having a velocity v. 15.3 Measuring the Wind 733

(Continued )

Rayleigh distribution: 8
✓ ◆
occurrence (%)

2
⇡v ⇡v
Probability of

p(v) = exp 4

2v 2 4v 2 Rayleigh distribution
0
0 10 20 30
Weibull distribution:  ⇣ ⌘ Wind speed, v, (m/s)

k ⇣ v ⌘k 1 v k Figure 15.6 When only the average wind velocity is known, the best guess
one can make is that the wind obeys a Rayleigh distribution.
p(v) = exp
c c c
Simply plot p(v) as a function of v, using
✓ ◆ !1 " # ! "$ 2
k: shape factor c 0.433p(v) = π2 9.6kv exp − π4 9.6v . (15.5)
2

= 0.568 +From the tabulation used to plot the graph, we find that there is
c: scale factor v k
a 6% probability of having a 12-m/s wind. However, this is not a very
useful piece of information. A better question would be, “how many
hours per year does the wind blow faster than 12 m/s?”
To answer this question, we must use the formula for the cumu-
lative Rayleigh function,
# $
π ! v "2
F (v) = exp − = 0.29, (15.6)
4 9.6

where F (v) is the probability of experiencing a wind larger than or

equal to v; that is, there is a 29% probability of the wind being faster
Scaling formula for the variation of wind velocity
with height:
✓ ◆1/7
h
v(h) = v(h0 )
h0

Power in the wind:

φ [#/m2⋅s] = flux of a fluid as the number of molecules that cross a unit

area (normal to the flow) in unit time (n = number density [#/m3])

= nv
Pw [W/m2] = energy transported across a unit area in unit time
1 1
Pw = mv 2 = ⇢v 3
2 2

Betz Limit
ṁ = ⇢A1 v1 = ⇢Av2 = ⇢A3 v3
Force
dv
F =m = ṁ v = ⇢Av2 (v1 v3 )
dt
Power

P = F v2 = ⇢Av22 (v1 v3 )
1 1
P = ṁ(v12 v32 ) = ⇢Av2 (v12 v32 )
2 2
1 1
⇢Av22 (v1 v3 ) = ⇢Av2 (v12 v32 ) ) v2 = (v1 + v3 )
2 2
1
P = ⇢A(v1 + v3 )(v12 v32 )
4
 To find the extremum of P, set ∂P/∂v3 = 0
2
) v3 = v1 /3 v2 = v1
3
Power
1 8 16 1 3
P = ⇢Av2 (v12 v32 ) = ⇢Av13 = ⇢v A
2 27 27 2 1
Betz limit applies to any type of wind-driven machine

16
⌘Betz = = 59.3%
27

v2
p2f p2b
The Rankine-Froude v1, p1 v3, p1
theorem
swept area A
The force exerted on the disk F
744 CHAPTER 15 Wind Energy

F = (p2f p2b )A = pA pp22f1

From Bernoulli’s principle, p
p11 pp11

1 1
p1 + ⇢v12 = p2f + ⇢v22 pp2b 22
2 2 Disk

1 Figure 115.122 Although the static pressure around a wind turbine is mostly
p1 + ⇢v32 = p2bthat
+of the⇢vundisturbed
2 atmosphere, the presence of the rotor causes the pressure
2 to rise 2
upstream and fall downstream so that a ∆p is established.
1 2 downstream side of1the disk, 2
=) p = ⇢(v12 Onvthe 3) ) F = ⇢A(v1 v32 )
2 12 1
p + ρv 2 = p + ρv 2 . (15.33)
1 3 22 21
2 2

The pressure difference, ∆p = p1 − p2 (subtracting Equation 15.33

from Equation 15.32), is

1
∆p = ρ(v12 − v32 ), (15.34)
2
 Also, the force F is equal to the product of the mass flow rate interacted
with the disk ρA(v1 - v3) and its velocity v2.

1
F = A(v1 v3 )v2 = A(v12 v32 )
2
v1 + v3
=) v2 =
2
From the results of Betz analysis, maximum power occurs when
downstream velocity is 1/3 of the upstream velocity (w = v/3, or v3 = v1/3
herein). Therefore, when a wind turbine extracts maximum power from a
wind of velocity v1, the velocity at the swept area is 2v1/3 and at the far
downstream is v1/3.

EFFICIENCY
For a wind turbine with swept area A and efficiency
η, the delivered power [W] is
16 1 3
PD = ⇢v A⌘
27 2
ρv3/2 = power density in the wind

(16/27) ρv3/2 = available power density from the wind

Analogy to a heat engine:

ηbetz ~ Carnot efficiency

η (can reach 0.7, but most often 0.4-0.6) ~ isentropic efficiency

 The swirling motion of748theCHAPTER 15 Wind Energy

wake results in losses. 0.6

Betz
)
mitz
ch
(S
solidity: ratio of total area occupied by

n
tio
ota
the blades to the swept area

ke r
Efficiency

With wa
⇒ lower solidity leads to lower torque 0.5
and lower wake rotation loss.

tip speed ratio (葉尖速比) λ: ratio of the

tip velocity to wind velocity
0.4 AVR
$R 0 10 20
= Tip speed ratio, !
v1 Figure 15.13 Wake efficiency is low in slow rotating turbines such as the tra-
⇒ increase in λ results in reducing wake15.10
ditional vane type. Wind
ModernTurbine Analysis 757
electricity-generating turbines, which typically use
rotation losses because the higherλ ≈the
7, approach the Betz efficiency.

angular velocity is, the smaller the torque

Just as in any other device, wind turbines are plagued by a number
for a given power. of additonal losses including wing tip losses that, somewhat counterin-
!
tuitively, tend to decrease when the number of blades—hence, the number
of tips—increases. See Section 15.9, for an explanation. In addition, there
are losses associated with the gear train, the generator, the bearings, and
so on.
r

15.7 Airfoils
Airplane wings,
K helicopter rotors, empennage surfaces, and propeller blades
u
are examples of aerodynamic surfaces (airfoils) that must generate a great
dr
deal of lift with a correspondingly small drag. The performance of an airfoil
depends greatly on the shape of its cross section.
Figure 15.14 shows a section through an airfoil. The line (A.A! ) rep-
resents the trace of an arbitrary reference plane. The region above this
plane
y differs from the one below it—the airfoil is asymmetric. In sym-
metric airfoils, the reference plane is the plane of symmetry, and the region
above itx is a mirror image of that below.

PROPELLER TURBINE
Figure 15.20 One blade of aforce
When air flows relative to the airfoil along the x-axis in the figure, a
horizontal axisonwind
is exerted
clockwise when driven by a windcomponent
blowing into
the turbine.
the page.
(normal
foil. SuchThis
forceone rotates decomposed into a lift
is usually
to the velocity) and a drag component (parallel to the
velocity). The corresponding pressures are indicated by the vectors, pL and
pD , in the figure. The angle between the wind direction and the reference
line is called the angle of attack, α.
15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis 757

LL
F

!
# w
"
FD
D
v2
$
r $ 2u
FL
CFx D
FCBx

K
u
dr
Different sections of the blade contribute different amounts to the
Figure 15.21 Aerodynamic forces on a section of a horizontal axis wind turbine
blade. power because of the varying velocities. Considering the ith zone,
the generated torque Γi:
A reasonable guess for the realizable efficiency, η, of a modern system
y
is about 45%. Using ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 and the selected value of v1 = 14 m/s,
x we find that we need a swept area of 6833 m2 , which corresponds
x,i i a blade
to L = L sin i
= (L
length of somei 46.6 m and x,i D
x,i ofi440 W/m2 .
a rotor loading )r
Figure 15.20 One blade of a horizontal axis wind turbine. This one rotates
Next,
clockwise when driven by a wind blowing into the page.we should select the airfoil to be used. Itx,i
does not need i to be D = D cos i
the same all along the blade. As a matter of fact, it may make sense to use
thin airfoils near the tip of the blade where the air flow is fast, and thicker,
sturdier, ones near the hub where the flow is relatively slow and the stresses

FL

# w
"
L = lift and D = drag, and from the definition of the lift coefficient CL and
drag coefficient CD:

L 2
CL = =) L i = C L ⇢w i Ki dr/2
⇢U 2 A/2 i

D
CD = 2
=) Di = CDi ⇢wi2 Ki dr/2
⇢U A/2

Assume CLi sin ψi >> CDi cos ψi because otherwise the airfoil losses too much
from drag,

⇢wi2 15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis 757

i = (CLi sin i CDi cos i )Ki ri dr

2
!
⇢wi2
⇡ (CLi sin i )Ki ri dr
2 r
Ki = chord length of the ith zone of airfoil

K
u
dr

y
x

Figure 15.20 One blade of a horizontal axis wind turbine. This one rotates
clockwise when driven by a wind blowing into the page.

From Betz analysis, v2 = 2/3 v1 so that

FL
2
wi sin i = v2 = v1 # w
3 "
FD
$
v2

⇢wi 2
) i=
$ 2u
FCF FCB
v1 CLi Ki ri dr
2 3
The power generated by the ith zone Pi is
Figure (n =Aerodynamic
15.21 number forces
of blades, ϖof=a horizontal
on a section angularaxis wind turbine
blade.
velocity)
1is about
A reasonable guess for the realizable efficiency, η, of a modern system
Pi = n$ i = n$ we⇢w v45%.
findithat
CUsing
1we Li K
need i riarea
drof 6833 m , which corresponds to a blade
3
ρ = 1.2 kg/m and the selected value of v = 14 m/s,
a swept 2
1

3length of some 46.6 m and a rotor loading of 440 W/m . 2

Also, the swept area is Ai = 2π ri dr soNext, we should selectavailable

the maximum the airfoil topower
be used.PItmax,i
does: not need to be
the same all along the blade. As a matter of fact, it may make sense to use

16 1 3thin airfoils near the tip of the blade where the air flow is fast, and thicker,
sturdier, ones near the hub where the flow is relatively slow and the stresses
Pmaxi = ⇥v (2 ri dr)
27 2 1
1 16 1 3
n$ ⇢wi v1 CLi Ki ri dr = ⇢v (2⇡ri dr)
3 27 2 1
 ✓ ◆
16 ⇥v12 16 ⇥⇤R2 1 ⇤R
Ki = = , =
9 n⇤wi CLi 9 n 2 C Li w i v1

Note that the quantity in parentheses does not depend on the particular zone
of the blade being considered. Also, wi = (v22+ri2ϖ2)1/2.

✓ ◆
16 ⇡$R2 1
Ki = ⇣ ⌘1/2
9 n 2 4v12
CLi 9 + ri2 $2

Use the same airfoil design all along the blade with the same angle of
attack, CL is independent of r. Neglecting 4v12/9 in the parentheses leads to

16 ⇡R2 1
K⇡
9 n 2 CL r

15.10 Wind Turbine Analysis 757

Hence, if r0 is the distance from the hub at which the blade starts, the area of
each blade Ab is: !

Z R
16 ⇡R2 1 1 16 ⇡R2 1 R
Ab = 2
dr = 2
r
ln
9 n CL r0 r 9 n CL r0
K
u
dr
solidity (固性) S = nAb/πR2

16 1 R y

S= 2
ln x

9 CL r0
Figure 15.20 One blade of a horizontal axis wind turbine. This one rotates
clockwise when driven by a wind blowing into the page.
In case to ensure the correct angle of attack α for each zone, setup angle ξ
should vary along r.
⇣v ⌘
2 1
⇤= ⌅= tan FL

✓ ◆ r⇧ # w
2R "
FD v2

tan 1
$
= $ 2u
3⇥r FCF FCB

Figure 15.21 Aerodynamic forces on a section of a horizontal axis wind turbine

blade.

A reasonable guess for the realizable efficiency, η, of a modern system

is about 45%. Using ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 and the selected value of v1 = 14 m/s,
we find that we need a swept area of 6833 m2 , which corresponds to a blade
length of some 46.6 m and a rotor loading of 440 W/m2 .
Next, we should select the airfoil to be used. It does not need to be
the same all along the blade. As a matter of fact, it may make sense to use
thin airfoils near the tip of the blade where the air flow is fast, and thicker,
 AIRFOIL DESIGN
⇢v2 K
NACA 4412 airfoil, Re = 9 × 106 Re =
µ
1.8

1.35
Lift coefficient

0.9

0.45

-0.45

-0.9
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

angle of attack α (°)

OFF-SHORE WIND FARM

 NEW BLADE DESIGN

⽇本福島⼤學島⽥邦雄教授
http://www.sss.fukushima-u.ac.jp/
welcome/compendium/56
Front Cover of Science, vol. 324, 2009.

NEW HARVEST METHOD

technews.tw/2015/05/18/vortex-bladeless-wind-turbines/
 https://fb.watch/9ZpTn75AQX/

REFERENCE

[1] 余勝雄, 2007, 我國風⼒發電現況及展望，永續產業

發展雙⽉刊, 35期, pp.16-21.

[2] Global Wind Report, 2013, Annual Market Update

2012, GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council).

[3] Aldo Vieira da Rosa, 2009, Fundamentals of

Renewable Energy Processes, 2nd ed., Academic Press.