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Lecture-19

This document covers the concepts of orthogonal vectors, orthonormal vectors, and orthogonal subspaces, including definitions and examples. It explains the inner product of vectors, conditions for orthogonality, and the concept of orthogonal complements. Additionally, it presents fundamental theorems related to orthogonality in linear algebra.

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anjanasharma07850
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4 views

Lecture-19

This document covers the concepts of orthogonal vectors, orthonormal vectors, and orthogonal subspaces, including definitions and examples. It explains the inner product of vectors, conditions for orthogonality, and the concept of orthogonal complements. Additionally, it presents fundamental theorems related to orthogonality in linear algebra.

Uploaded by

anjanasharma07850
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 19

Chapter 3: Orthogonality

3.1 Orthogonal Vectors and Subspaces

Course Outcomes: Students will be acquainted with orthogonal vectors,


orthonormal vectors, orthonormal subspaces, and orthogonal compliment of
subspaces.

Length of a vector: It is denoted by ||x||.


Let x = (x1 , x2 ). p
Length in 2D = ||x|| = x21 + x22 .
Length squared=||x||2 = x21 + x22 .
Let x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ). p
Length in 3D = ||x|| = x21 + x22 + x23 .
Length squared=||x||2 = x21 + x22 + x23
Let x = (x1 , x2 , ....., xn ).p
Length in Rn = ||x|| = x21 + x22 + ....... + x2n .
Length squared=||x||2 = x21 + x22 + ....... + x2n

Inner Product:
Let x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ). Then the inner product of two vectors x
and y is denoted by xT y and defined as xT y = x1 y1 + x2 y2
Let x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ). Then xT y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3
Let x = (x1 , x2 , ......, xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , ...., yn ).
Then xT y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + ..... + xn yn

1
Note:  
x1
  x2 
xT x = x1 x2 ......xn  
 ...... 
xn
= x21 + x22 + ..... + x2n = ||x2 ||
Hence inner product of a vector with itself is equal to the length square of
the vector.

• The inner product xT y is zero if and only if x and y are orthogonal


vectors.

• If xT y > 0, their angle is less than deg 90. If xT y < 0, their angle is
greater than deg 90.

• The only vector with length zero and the only vector orthogonal to
itself is the zero vector.

Orthogonal Vectors:
Two vectors x and y are said to be orthogonal iff xT y = 0

Orthogonal Subspaces:
Two subspaces V and W of the same space Rn are orthogonal if every vector
v in V is orthogonal to every vector w in W i.e v T w = 0 for all v and w.

Examples

• x-axis and y-axis are subspaces of R2 and every vector of x-axis is


orthogonal to every vector in y-axis. So, x-axis ⊥ y-axis in R2

• y = x line ⊥ y = −x line in R2 .

• All the three axes in R3 are orthogonal to each other.

Notes

• The subspace {0} is orthogonal to all subspaces.

• A line can be orthogonal to another line, or it can be orthogonal to a


plane, but a plane cannot be orthogonal to a plane.

2
Fundamental theorem of orthogonality: The row space is orthogonal to
the nullspace (in Rn ). The column space is orthogonal to the left nullspace
(in Rm ).

Orthogonal Complement Given a subspace V of Rn , the space of all vec-


tors orthogonal to V is called the orthogonal complement of V. It is denoted
by V ⊥ = “V perp.”

Examples

• x-axis is the orthogonal complement of y-axis in R2 .

• y = x line is the orthogonal complement of y = −x line in R2 .

• x-axis is the orthogonal complement of yz-plane in R3 .

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Algebra: The nullspace is the orthog-


onal complement of the row space in Rn . The left nullspace is the orthogonal
complement of the column space in Rm .

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