SKDAV GOVT.

POLYTECHNIC
ROURKELA

COMPUTER SYSTEM
&
ARCHITECTURE

PREPARED BY
BIJAYALAXMI PADHIARY
SKDAV GOVT. POLYTECHNIC, ROURKELA
 Th-1 COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Common to (CSE/IT)
Theory 4 Periods per week Internal Assessment 20 Marks
Total Periods 60 Periods End Sem Exam 80 Marks
Examination 3hours Total Marks 100Marks

A. Topic wise distribution of periods

Sl. No. Topics Periods
1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTER HARDWARE 06
2 INSTRUCTIONS & INSTRUCTION SEQUENCING 07
3 PROCESSOR SYSTEM 10
4 MEMORY SYSTEM 10
5 INPUT – OUTPUT SYSTEM 10
6 I/O INTERFACE & BUS ARCHITECTURE 10
7 PARALLEL PROCESSING 07
9 TOTAL 60

B. RATIONAL: Now a days the usage of computer has become very essential in various
areas like education, entertainment, business, sports etc. This subject will expose the
learner to have an idea about the architecture of different components of a computer
system and their operation procedure. Further the learner will have idea how the different
components integrate to execute a task to get the result. It also gives an idea how to
improve the processing capability.

C. OBJECTIVE: After completion of this course the student will be able to:
 Understand the basic structure of a computer with instructions.
 Learn about machine instructions and program execution.
 Learn about the internal functional units of a processor and how they are interconnected.
 Understand how I/O transfer is performed.
 Learn about basic memory circuit, organization and secondary storage.
 Understand concept of parallel processing.
D. COURSE CONTENTS:

1. Basic structure of computer hardware

1.1Basic Structure of computer hardware
1.2Functional Units
1.3Computer components
1.4 Performance measures
1.5 Memory addressing & Operations

2. Instructions & instruction Sequencing

2.1 Fundamentals to instructions
2.2 Operands
2.3 Op Codes
2.4 Instruction formats
2.5 Addressing Modes

3. Processor System
3.1 Register Files
3.2 Complete instruction execution
 Fetch
  Decode
 Execution
3.3 Hardware control
3.4 Micro program control
4. Memory System
4.1Memory characteristics
4.2 Memory hierarchy
4.3 RAM and ROM organization
4.4 Interleaved Memory
4.5 Cache memory
4.6 Virtual memory
5. Input – Output System
5.1 Input - Output Interface
5.2 Modes of Data transfer
5.3 Programmed I/O Transfer
5.4 Interrupt driven I/O
5.5 DMA
5.6 I/O Processor

6. I/O Interface & Bus architecture

6.1 Bus and System Bus
6.2 Types of System Bus
 Data
 Address
 Bus
7.1 Control
6.3 Bus Structure
6.4 Basic Parameters of Bus design
6.5 SCSI
6.6 USB

7. Parallel Processing
7.1 Parallel Processing
7.2 Linear Pipeline
7.3 Multiprocessor
7.4 Flynn‟s Classification

Coverage of Syllabus upto Internal Exams (I.A.)

Chapter 1,2,3,4

Book Recommended:-

Sl.No Name of Authors Title of the Book Name of the Publisher

1 Moris Mano Computer System PHI
Architecture
Er. Rajeev Chopra Computer Architecture S.Chand
2 and Organisation
3 Parthasarthy, Senthil Kumar Fundamentals of TMH
Computer Architecture
 UNIT -1
BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTER
HARDWARE
BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTER HARDWARE
o A computer organization describes the functions and design of the various units of
a digital system.
o Computer architecture deals with the specification of the instruction set and the
hardware units that implement the instructions.
o Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, displays, magnetic and optic
storage media and also the communication facilities.
Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and calculations
called by the computer program.

FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF DIGITAL SYSTEM

o Functional units of a computer system are parts of the CPU (Central Processing
Unit) that performs the operations and calculations called for by the computer
program. A computer consists of five main components namely, Input unit, Central
Processing Unit, Memory unit Arithmetic & logical unit, Control unit and an Output
unit.
INPUT UNIT
o Input units are used by the computer to read the data. The most commonly used

input devices are keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones, etc.

o However, the most well-known input device is a keyboard. Whenever a key is
pressed, the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code and transmitted over a cable to either the memory or
the processor.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

o Central processing unit commonly known as CPU can be referred as an electronic

circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions given by a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O)
operations specified by the instructions.

MEMORY UNIT
o The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which programs are

kept which are running, and that contains data needed by the running programs.
o The Memory unit can be categorized in two ways namely, primary memory and
secondary memory.
o It enables a processor to access running execution applications and services that
are temporarily stored in a specific memory location.
o Primary storage is the fastest memory that operates at electronic speeds. Primary
memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage cells, capable of
storing a bit of information. The word length of a computer is between 16-64 bits.
o It is also known as the volatile form of memory, means when the computer is shut
down, anything contained in RAM is lost.
o Cache memory is also a kind of memory which is used to fetch the data very soon.
They are highly coupled with the processor.
o The most common examples of primary memory are RAM and ROM.
o Secondary memory is used when a large amount of data and programs have to be
stored for a long-term basis.
 o It is also known as the Non-volatile memory form of memory, means the data is
stored permanently irrespective of shut down.
o The most common examples of secondary memory are magnetic disks, magnetic
tapes, and optical disks.

ARITHMETIC & LOGICAL UNIT

o Most of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are executed in the

ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor. It performs arithmetic

operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also the logical
operations like AND, OR, NOT operations.

CONTROL UNIT
o The control unit is a component of a computer's central processing unit that

coordinates the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory,

arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program's
instructions.
o The control unit is also known as the nerve center of a computer system.
o Let's us consider an example of addition of two operands by the instruction given
as Add LOCA, RO. This instruction adds the memory location LOCA to the
operand in the register RO and places the sum in the register RO. This instruction
internally performs several steps.

OUTPUT UNIT
o The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results to the user.

Output devices display information in a way that the user can understand.
o Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to generate information or
any other response processed by the computer. These devices display information
that has been held or generated within a computer.
o The most common example of an output device is a monitor.

BASIC OPERATION CONCEPT:

 To perform a given task on the computer, and appropriate program is stored in

the memory.
  Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor which
executes the specified operations.
 Data to be used as the operand are also stored in memory , this instruction
requires the performance of several steps:
 The operation is performed using the decoded instruction and the
operant.
 The result is stored back in the memory.
 Transfer of data between the memory and processor takes place sending the
address of the memory on the address box and the appropriate control signal
on the control bus.
 The processor has no of register which are used for different purpose:
 INSTRUCTION REGISTER: it contains the instruction that is being currently
executed.
 PROGRAM COUNTER: it contains the memory address of next instruction.
 GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER: it is identified by R0-RN-1
 MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER: it contains the address of the memory
location to be accessed.
 MEMORY DATA REGISTER: it contains the data to be read / write from the
location.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS:

 The main memory stored both data and instruction in binary many ways to store
binary data to perform operation on that data.
 A configuration of logic component can be constructed to perform the particular
computation. This can be thought of as a form programming use in hardware and
named as “hardware program”.
 The general-purpose hardware Interprets each instruction and generate the
control signal. This is called” software or microprogrammed control”
.
PERFORMANCE MEASURES: -

Performance is the ability of the computer to quickly execute a program.

 The speed at which the computer executes a program is decided by the design
of its hardware and machine language instruction.
 Computer performance measures is of very big term when used in context of
the computer system.
 System that execute program in less time are called to have higher
performance.

Basic performance measures:-

The speed of operation of a system is generally decided by two fractions.
i) Response time
ii) Throughput.

Response Time:-
 Response time is the time spends to complete an event or an operation.
 It is also called as execution time or latency.

Throughput:-
 Throughput is the amount of work done per unit of time. i.e. the amount of
processing that can be accomplished during a given interval of time.
 It is also called as bandwidth of the system.
 In general, faster response time leads to better throughput.

Elapsed time:-
 Elapsed time is a time spent from the start of execution of the program to its
completion is called elapsed time.
 This performance measure is affected by the clock speed of the processor and the
concerned input output device.

Percentage of elapsed time = (user CPU time + system CPU time) / elapsed time
MIPS
 A nearly measure of computer performance has the rate at which a given machine
executed instruction.
 This is calculated by dividing the no. of instruction and the time required to run the
program

CPI/IPC
 CPI – Clock cycle per Instruction
 IPC – Instruction per cycle.
 It is another measuring that which is calculated as the number of clock cycle
required to execute one instruction (cycle per instruction) by the instruction
executed per cycle.

Speed up:-
 Computer architecture use the speed up to describe the performance of
architectural charges as different improvement is made to the system.
 It is defined as ratio of execution time before to the execution time after the charge.

Speed up = execution time before/Execution time after

= performance of system after /Execution time before

Amdahl’s law:-
 This law states that “performance improvement to be gained by using a faster
mode of execution is limited by the fraction of time the faster made can be used”.
 Amdahl’s law defines the term speed up.

Speed up = performance of entire task using enhancement /Performance of in time

task without using enhancement

Performance = 1/Execution time

Speed up = execution time without using enhancement /Execution time with using
enhancement
Performance parameter
The basic performance equation is given by

T = (N x S) / R

Where
T – Performance parameter of an application program.
N – No. of instruction required to complete the execution of a program.
R - Clock rate of the processor in cycles per second.
S - Avg. no. of basic step required to execute one machine instruction.
Clock rate:-
Clock rate is one of the important performance measures by improving in the clock
rate. There are two ways in which clock rate may be increased.
1) Improving IC technology which makes logic circuits faster thus reading
time taken to complete a basic step.
2) By reducing the processing amount in one basic step which by reduces
the clock period as
R=1/T

CPU performance Equation:-

Normally the CPUs are constructed by using a clock running at a constant rate.
This discrete time events are known as a clock cycle.

CPU time = the time of a program may be represented as

= CPU clock cycle for a program X clock cycle time
or
= CPU clock cycle/ clock rate
= instruction count X CPU
= IC X CPI X C
MEMORY ADDRESSING AND MEMORY OPERATION

 Big-endian is an order in which the "big end" (most significant value in the
sequence) is stored first (at the lowest storage address).
 Little-endian is an order in which the "little end" (least significant value in the
sequence) is stored first.
 For example, in a big-endian computer, the two bytes required for
the hexadecimal number 4F52 would be stored as 4F52 in storage (if 4F is stored
at storage address 1000, for example, 52 will be at address 1001).
 In a little-endian system, it would be stored as 524F (52 at address 1000, 4F at
1001).
 For people who use languages that read left-to-right, big endian seems like the
natural way to think of a storing a string of characters or numbers - in the same
order you expect to see it presented to you.
 Many of us would thus think of big-endian as storing something in forward fashion,
just as we read.
 An argument for little-endian order is that as you increase a numeric value, you
may need to add digits to the left (a higher non-exponential number has more
digits).
 Thus, an addition of two numbers often requires moving all the digits of a big-
endian ordered number in storage, moving everything to the right.
  In a number stored in little-endian fashion, the least significant bytes can stay
where they are and new digits can be added to the right at a higher address. This
means that some computer operations may be simpler and faster to perform.
 Note that within both big-endian and little-endian byte orders, the bits within each
byte are big-endian. That is, there is no attempt to be big- or little-endian about the
entire bit stream represented by a given number of stored bytes.
 For example, whether hexadecimal 4F is put in storage first or last with other bytes
in a given storage address range, the bit order within the byte will be:
 IBM's 370 mainframes, most RISC-based computers, and Motorola
microprocessors use the big-endian approach. TCP/IP also uses the big-endian
approach (and thus big-endian is sometimes called network order).
 On the other hand, Intel processors (CPUs) and DEC Alphas and at least some
programs that run on them are little-endian.
 There are also mixed forms of endianness. For example, VAX floating point uses
mixed-endian (also referred to as middle-endian).
 The ordering of bytes in a 16-bit word differs from the ordering of 16-bit words
within a 32-bit word.
 Bi-endian processors can operate in either little-endian or big-endian mode, and
switch between the two.

Read and Write operations in Memory

 A memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits called words.
 Data input lines provide the information to be stored into the memory, Data output
lines carry the information out from the memory.
 The control lines Read and write specifies the direction of transfer of data.

Basically, in the memory organization, there are 2I memory locations indexing

from 0 to 2l-1 where l is the address buses. We can describe the memory in terms
of the bytes using the following formula:

Where,
 l is the total address buses
N is the memory in bytes
For example, some storage can be described below in terms of bytes using the
above formula:
1kB= 210 Bytes
64 kB = 26 x 210 Bytes
= 216 Bytes
4 GB = 22 x 210(kB) x 210(MB) x 210 (GB)
= 232 Bytes

Memory Address Register (MAR) is the address register which is used to store the
address of the memory location where the operation is being performed.

Memory Data Register (MDR) is the data register which is used to store the data on
which the operation is being performed.

1. Memory Read Operation:

 Memory read operation transfers the desired word to address lines and
activates the read control line. Description of memory read operation is
given below:

 In the above diagram initially, MDR can contain any garbage value and
MAR is containing 2003 memory address.
  After the execution of read instruction, the data of memory location 2003
will be read and the MDR will get updated by the value of the 2003 memory
location (3D).

2. Memory Write Operation:

 Memory write operation transfers the address of the desired word to the
address lines, transfers the data bits to be stored in memory to the data
input lines. Then it activates the write control line.
 Description of the write operation is given below:

 In the above diagram, the MAR contains 2003 and MDR contains 3D. After
the execution of write instruction 3D will be written at 2003 memory location.
 UNIT-2
INSTRUCTIONS & INSTRUCTION SEQUENCING

FUNDAMENTAL TO INSTRUCTION

Computer instructions are a set of machine language instructions that a particular

processor understands and executes. A computer performs tasks on the basis of the
instruction provided.

An instruction comprises of groups called fields. These fields include:

o The Operation code (Opcode) field which specifies the operation to be performed.
o The Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or
memory location.
o The Mode field which specifies how the operand will be located.

A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:

1. Memory - reference instruction
2. Register - reference instruction
3. Input-Output instruction

Memory - reference instruction

In Memory-reference instruction, 12 bits of memory is used to specify an address and
one bit to specify the addressing mode 'I'.

Register - reference instruction

The Register-reference instructions are represented by the Opcode 111 with a 0 in the
leftmost bit (bit 15) of the instruction.

Input-Output instruction

Just like the Register-reference instruction, an Input-Output instruction does not need a
reference to memory and is recognized by the operation code 111 with a 1 in the leftmost
bit of the instruction. The remaining 12 bits are used to specify the type of the input-output
operation or test performed.
Note
o The three operation code bits in positions 12 through 14 should be equal to 111.
Otherwise, the instruction is a memory-reference type, and the bit in position 15 is
taken as the addressing mode I.
o When the three operation code bits are equal to 111, control unit inspects the bit
in position 15. If the bit is 0, the instruction is a register-reference type. Otherwise,
the instruction is an input-output type having bit 1 at position 15.
Instruction Set Completeness:-

A set of instructions is said to be complete if the computer includes a sufficient number of

instructions in each of the following categories:
o Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions
o A set of instructions for moving information to and from memory and processor
registers.
o Instructions which controls the program together with instructions that check status
conditions.
o Input and Output instructions

Arithmetic, logic and shift instructions provide computational capabilities for processing
the type of data the user may wish to employ.

A huge amount of binary information is stored in the memory unit, but all computations
are done in processor registers. Therefore, one must possess the capability of moving
information between these two units.

Program control instructions such as branch instructions are used change the sequence
in which the program is executed.

Input and Output instructions act as an interface between the computer and the user.
Programs and data must be transferred into memory, and the results of computations
must be transferred back to the user.

OPERANDS:-

Machine instructions operate on data. The most important general categories of

data are:

 Addresses
 Numbers
 Characters
  Logical data

1. Address:- Address are the for of number that represent specific location in
memory.
2. Numbers:- All machine languages include numeric data types. Even in
nonnumeric data processing, there is a need for numbers to act as counters, field
widths, and so forth. An important distinction between numbers used in ordinary
mathematics and numbers stored in a computer is that the latter are limited. Thus,
the programmer is faced with understanding the consequences of rounding,
overflow and underflow.
Three types of numerical data are common in computers:

 Integer or fixed point

 Floating point
 Decimal

3. Characters:- A common form of data is text or character strings. the most

commonly used character code in the International Reference Alphabet (IRA),
referred to in the United States as the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). Another code used to encode characters is the Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). EBCDIC is used on IBM
S/390 machines. It is an 8-bit code. As with IRA, EBCDIC is compatible with
packed decimal. In the case of EBCDIC, the codes 11110000 through 11111001
represent the digits 0 through 9.
4. Logical data: Normally, each word or other addressable unit (byte, half-word, and
soon) is treated as a single unit of data. It is sometimes useful, however, to
consider an n-bit unit as consisting 1-bit items of data, each item having the value
0 or I. When data are viewed this way, they are considered to be logic data.
OP CODES:-
 The number of different opcodes varies widely from machine to machine. However,
the same general types of operations are found on all machines. A useful and typical
categorization is the following:

1) Data transfer
2) Arithmetic
3) Logical
4) Conversion
5) I/O
6) System control
7) Transfer of control

1) Data transfer:

The most fundamental type of machine instruction is the data transfer instruction. The
data transfer instruction must specify several things.

 The location of the source and destination operands must be specified. Each
location could be memory. a register, or the lop of the stack.
 The length of data to be transferred must be indicated.
 As with all instructions with operands, the mode of addressing for each operand
must be specified.

In term of CPU action, data transfer operations are perhaps the simplest type. If both
source and destination are registers, then the CPU simply causes data to be transferred
from one register to another; this is an operation internal to the CPU. If one or both
operands are in memory, then (he CPU must perform some or all of following actions:

1. Calculate the memory address, based on the address mode

2. If the address refers to virtual memory, translate from virtual to actual memory
address.

3. Determine whether the addressed item is in cache.

 4. If not, issue a command lo the memory module.
2) Arithmetic:

Most machines provide the basic arithmetic operations of add, subtract, multiply, and
divide. These are invariably provided for signed integer (fixed-point) numbers, Often they
are also provided for floating-point and packed decimal numbers.

Other possible operations include a variety of single-operand instructions: for example.

• Absolute: Take the absolute value of the operand.

• Negate: Negate the Operand.

• Increment.: Add 1 to the operand.

• Decrement: Subtract 1 from the operand.

3) Logical:

Most machines also provide a variety of operations for manipulating individual bits of a
word or other addressable units, often referred to as "bit twiddling." They are based upon
Boolean operations.

Some of the basic logical operations that can be performed on Boolean or binary data are
AND, OR, NOT, XOR, …

These logical operations can be applied bitwise to n-bit logical data units. Thus, if two
registers contain the data

(R1) - 10100101 (R2) - 00001111

then

(R1) AND (R2) – 00000101

In addition to bitwise logical operations, most machines provide a variety of shifting and
rotating functions such as shift left, shift right, right rotate, left rotate.....

4) Conversion:

Conversion instructions are those that change the format or operate on the format of data.
An example is converting from decimal to binary.

5) Input/Output:

As we saw, there are a variety of approaches taken, including isolated programmed IO,
memory-mapped programmed I/O, DMA, and the use of an I/O processor. Many
implementations provide only a few I/O instructions, with the specific actions specified by
parameters, codes, or command words.

6) System Controls:

System control instructions are those that can he executed only while the processor is in
a certain privileged state or is executing a program in a special privileged area of memory,
typically, these instructions are reserved for the use of the operating system.

Some examples of system control operations are as follows.

 A system control instruction may read or alter a control register.

  Another example is an instruction to read or modify a storage protection key, such
us is used in the S/390 memory system.
 Another example is access to process control blocks in a multiprogramming
system.

7) Transfer of control:

For all of the operation types discussed so far. The next instruction to be performed is the
one that immediately follows, in memory, the current instruction. However, a significant
fraction of the instructions in any program have as their function changing the sequence
of instruction execution. For these instructions, the operation performed by the CPU is to
update the program counter to contain the address of some instruction in memory.

INSTRUCTION FORMATS:-

Computer perform task on the basis of instruction provided. A instruction in computer

comprises of groups called fields. These fields contains different information as for
computers everything is in 0 and 1 so each field has different significance on the basis of
which a CPU decide what so perform. The most common fields are:
 Operation field which specifies the operation to be performed like addition.
 Address field which contain the location of operand, i.e., register or memory
location.
 Mode field which specifies how operand is to be founded.
An instruction is of various lengths depending upon the number of addresses it contains.
Generally CPU organizations are of three types on the basis of number of address fields:
1. Single Accumulator organization
2. General register organization
3. Stack organization
In first organization operation is done involving a special register called accumulator. In
second on multiple registers are used for the computation purpose. In third organization
the work on stack basis operation due to which it does not contain any address field. It is
not necessary that only a single organization is applied a blend of various organization is
mostly what we see generally.
On the basis of number of address instruction are classified as:
Note that we will use X = (A+B)*(C+D) expression to showcase the procedure.

 Zero Address Instructions : –

A stack based computer do not use address field in instruction.To evaluate a expression
first it is converted to revere Polish Notation i.e. Post fix Notation.

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
Post fixed : X = AB+CD+*
TOP means top of stack
M[X] is any memory location

PUSH A TOP = A

PUSH B TOP = B

ADD TOP = A+B

PUSH C TOP = C

PUSH D TOP = D

ADD TOP = C+D

MUL TOP = (C+D)*(A+B)

 POP X M[X] = TOP

 One Address Instructions –

This use a implied ACCUMULATOR register for data manipulation. One operand is in
accumulator and other is in register or memory location. Implied means that the CPU
already knows that one operand is in accumulator so there is no need to specify it.

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
AC is accumulator
M[] is any memory location
M[T] is temporary location

LOAD A AC = M[A]

ADD B AC = AC + M[B]

STORE T M[T] = AC

LOAD C AC = M[C]

ADD D AC = AC + M[D]

MUL T AC = AC * M[T]

STORE X M[X] = AC

 Two Address Instructions –

This is common in commercial computers. Here two addresses can be specified in the
instruction. Unlike earlier in one address instruction the result was stored in accumulator
here result cab be stored at different location rather than just accumulator, but require
more number of bit to represent address.

Here destination address can also contain operand.

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location

MOV R1, A R1 = M[A]

ADD R1, B R1 = R1 + M[B]

MOV R2, C R2 = C

ADD R2, D R2 = R2 + D

MUL R1, R2 R1 = R1 * R2

MOV X, R1 M[X] = R1

 Three Address Instructions –

This has three address fields to specify a register or a memory location. Program created
are much short in size but number of bits per instruction increase. These instructions
make creation of program much easier but it does not mean that program will run much
faster because now instruction only contain more information but each micro operation
(changing content of register, loading address in address bus etc.) will be performed in
one cycle only.

Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location

ADD R1, A, B R1 = M[A] + M[B]

ADD R2, C, D R2 = M[C] + M[D]

MUL X, R1, R2 M[X] = R1 * R2

ADDRESSING MODES
 The addressing modes is a really important topic to be considered in
microprocessor or computer organization. The addressing modes in computer
architecture actually define how an operand is chosen to execute an
instruction. It is the way that is used to identify the location of an operand which
is specified in an instruction.
 Whenever an instruction executes, it requires operands to be operated on. An
instruction field consisting of opcode and operand. Where operand means the data
and opcode means the instruction itself. In case of operations like addition or
subtraction, they require two data. So, they are called binary instruction. On the
other hand, the increment or decrement operations need only one data and are so
called unary instruction. Now the question is how these data can be obtained.

Addressing modes in computer architecture:-

 Implicit
  Immediate
 Direct
 Indirect
 Register
 Register Indirect
 Displacement
o Relative
o Base register
o Indexing
 Stack

Implicit addressing mode:-

 The term implicit addressing mode means here we are not mentioning clearly in
details that from where the instruction can get the operand. But by default, the
instruction itself knows from where it is supposed to access the operand.
 For example, CMA stands for complement accumulator. The meaning of the CMA
instruction is whatever the value present in the accumulator will be replaced by its
1’s complement.
 In this instruction CMA or along with this instruction, we are not mentioning any
operand. So here it knows that the operand has to be accessed from the
accumulator implicitly. This is known as implicit addressing modes.

Immediate addressing mode :

 In the immediate addressing mode, the instruction contains two fields. One for the
opcode and another field contains the operand itself. That means in this
addressing mode, there is no need to go anywhere to access the operand because
of the instruction itself containing the operand. This is known as immediate
addressing mode.
Direct addressing mode :
 In the direct addressing mode, the instruction will have the two parts. One part will
contain the opcode and another one will contain the address of the memory
location at where the operand can be found.
 Here A is the address of the operand. That means at the Ath location in the
memory, the operand can be found.

Indirect addressing mode :

 Indirect addressing mode contains the opcode and address field. But unlike
direct addressing mode, it doesn’t contain the address of the operand but contains
the address of a memory location in which the actual address of the operand can
be found.
Register addressing mode:
 In case of register addressing mode, the instruction will have the opcode and a
register number. Depending upon the register number, one of the registers will
be selected from the available sets of registers by default automatically.
 The unique identification of the register can be done by the register number which
is mentioned in the instruction. In that register, the operand can be found.

Advantages

 Shorter instructions and faster instruction fetch.

 Faster memory access to the operand(s)
Disadvantages

 Very limited address space

 Using multiple registers helps performance but it complicates the instructions.

Register indirect addressing mode:

 In the register indirect addressing mode, the instruction will contain the opcode as
well as a register number. Depending upon the register number mentioned in the
instruction, the corresponding register will be accessed from the set of registers.
But here the register doesn’t contain the operand but will contain the address of
the operand in the memory at where the operand can be found.

Displacement addressing mode :

 In the displacement addressing mode, the instruction will be having three fields.
One for the opcode, one for the register number and the remaining one for an
absolute address.
 At first, depending upon the register number the register will be selected from the
register set. After that its content will be added with the absolute address and the
new address formed will be the actual physical address of the operand in the
memory.
  Displacement addressing mode in computer architecture can be categorized into
3 different modes.
 Relative
 Base register
 Indexing
In case of relative addressing mode, the register used will be a program counter.
In the base addressing mode, the register will contain the base address and the
absolute field will be the offset or displacement from the base address. After adding
both the actual physical address of the operand can be obtained and mapping this
address in the memory we can access the operand.
For example, if the base address is 3000 and the offset is 20, then after adding
both i.e. 3020 will be the actual address of the operand.
In case of Indexing mode, the absolute field will contain the starting base address of
the memory block and the register field will contain the index value. Adding both will give
the actual physical address of the operand.
Relative Addressing Mode

 It is a version of Displacement addressing mode. In this the contents of

PC(Program Counter) is added to address part of instruction to obtain the effective
address.
 EA = A + (PC), where EA is effective address and PC is program counter.
The operand is A cells away from the current cell(the one pointed to by PC).

Base Register Addressing Mode

 It is again a version of Displacement addressing mode. This can be defined as
EA = A + (R),

where A is displacement and R holds pointer to base address.

Stack addressing mode:

 In case of stack addressing mode, the instruction knows the topmost data should
be the operand. If the instruction is a unary instruction then it will select the
topmost data as the operand and if the instruction is a binary instruction then it will
select the topmost two data as the operands from the top of the stack.
 UNIT-3
PROCESSOR SYSTEM

Register File
 A register file is a means of memory storage within a computer's central
processing unit (CPU). The computer's register files contain bits of data and
mapping locations. These locations specify certain addresses that are input
components of a register file. Other inputs include data, a read and write function
and execute function.
 When a user installs a program on a computer, that software application writes a
register file on the CPU. Most software programs will contain more than one file.
Those files contain execution instructions that the CPU follows when the user
launches and uses the application. A register file also lets the CPU know where
program is located and what data is needed to perform certain functions.
 Decoders are a part of a register file. When data is extracted from a register, the
computer's hard drive refers back to the bits that are contained in the file. Part of
the extraction process involves reading and deciphering the data bits that are
contained in the register. Once a program completes a function, it may write a code
or message indicating the results of the operation.
 Register files utilize one of two technologies related to memory. The first is known
as static random access memory, or SRAM. With static random access memory
there are several bits of memory that are labeled according to binary code. The
status of each memory bit is labeled with a zero or one, indicating an active or
inactive state.
 A second type of register memory is dynamic random access memory, or DRAM.
Each section of memory contains a capacitor and transistor. Data values are
equated with different charges and must be constantly updated by the memory
chip. The update or "refreshing" will typically take up to 2 percent of the total
processing time.
 There are two components to the memory chip's ability to process data. They
include cycle and access time. The cycle time is the lowest amount of time that
 occurs between data requests. Access time is the amount of seconds or minutes
it takes for the CPU to request data from a register file and the time it takes to
actually receive that information.
 While SRAM is usually used with memory caches, its cycle time and access time
are the same. With DRAM technology, the cycle time is typically longer than its
access time. This is because memory reads or extractions involve a destroy and
re-write process.

Register Transfer Language

 The symbolic notation used to describe the micro-operation transfers amongst

registers is called Register transfer language.
 The term register transfer means the availability of hardware logic circuits that
can perform a stated micro-operation and transfer the result of the operation to the
same or another register.
 The word language is borrowed from programmers who apply this term to
programming languages. This programming language is a procedure for writing
symbols to specify a given computational process.

Following are some commonly used registers:

1. Accumulator: This is the most common register, used to store data taken out
from the memory.

2. General Purpose Registers: This is used to store data intermediate results

during program execution. It can be accessed via assembly programming.

3. Special Purpose Registers: Users do not access these registers. These

registers are for Computer system,

o MAR: Memory Address Register are those registers that holds the
address for memory unit.
 o MBR: Memory Buffer Register stores instruction and data received from
the memory and sent from the memory.

o PC: Program Counter points to the next instruction to be executed.

o IR: Instruction Register holds the instruction to be executed.

Register Transfer

 Information transferred from one register to another is designated in symbolic

form by means of replacement operator.

R2 ← R1

 It denotes the transfer of the data from register R1 into R2.

Instruction Cycle
A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of
instructions. These instructions are executed by the processor by going through a cycle
for each instruction.

In a basic computer, each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:

1. Fetch instruction from memory.

2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from memory.
4. Execute the instruction.
Complete Instruction Execution
1. Fetch cycle
The address of the next instruction to execute is in the Program Counter(PC) at the
beginning of the fetch cycle.

Step 1: The address in the program counter is transferred to the Memory Address
Register(MAR), as this is the only register that is connected to the system bus address
lines.
Step 2: The address in MAR is put on the address bus, now a Read order is provided
by the control unit on the control bus, and the result appears on the data bus and is then
copied into the memory buffer register. Program counter is incremented by one, to get
ready for the next instruction. These two acts can be carried out concurrently to save
time.

Step 3: The content of the MBR is moved to the instruction register(IR).

Instruction fetch cycle consist of four micro operation:

T1: MAR PC
T2: MBR memory
PC PC + stepsize or length of instruction
T3: IR MBR
 2. Decode instruction cycle
The next move is to fetch source operands once an instruction is fetched. Indirect
addressing (it can be obtained by any addressing mode, here it is done by indirect
addressing) is obtained by Source Operand. You don't need to fetch register-based
operands. If the opcode is executed, it will require a similar process to store the result
in main memory. Micro- operations take place:
T1: MAR IR(address)
T2: MBR Memory
T3: IR(address) (MBR(Address))
Step 1: The instruction address field is passed to the MAR. This is used to fetch the
operand 's address.

Step 2: The address field of the IR is updated from the MBR.

Step 3: The IR is now in the state. Now IR is ready for the execute cycle.

3. Execute instruction Cycle

The initial three cycles (Fetch, Indirect, and Interrupt) are predictable and quick. Each
requires simple , small, and fixed micro-operation sequences. The same micro-
operation is repeated every time around in each event. Execute instruction cycle is
different from them. Like, there is N different series of micro-operations that can occur
for a computer with different N opcodes.

Example

ADD R , X
T1: MAR (IR(address))
T2: MBR Memory
T3: R (R) + (MBR)
Step 1: The address portion of IR is loaded into the MAR.
Step 2: The address field of the IR is updated from the MBR, so the reference
memory location is read.
Step 3: Now, the contents of R and MBR are added by the ALU.
Hardwired Control
 Hardwired Control Unit is implemented using various electronic components such
as combinational logic units and gates. The circuit uses a fixed architecture. If the
instruction set is changed, the wiring should also be changed. As it is hardwired,
the instruction set is constant and does not change. Therefore, a Hardwired
Control Unit is used in processors that use simple instruction set known as the
Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC).

 Usually, these control units execute faster. However, Hardwired Control Units are
difficult to modify and implement. It is also difficult to add new features to the
existing design. Therefore, it has minimum flexibility.

Micro programmed Control

 Before talking about Micro programmed Control Unit, it is important to understand
some terms. A control variable refers to a binary variable that specifies micro-
operations. A control word is a set of ones and zeros in a control variable. The
control memory contains control words.

 Micro programmed Control Unit has a sequence of microinstructions stored in

control memory. These microinstructions refer to a control word that resides in
control memory, containing control signals for execution of micro-operations.
Furthermore, a Micro programmed Control Unit is used in processors based on
complex instruction set known as Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC).

 Overall, these control units have a simple structure. Therefore, it is easier to

design, implement and test. Moreover, Microprogrammed Control Units are easier
to modify.
Difference between Hardwired Control and Micro programmed Control

Hardwired Control Micro programmed Control

Technology is circuit based. Technology is software based.
It is implemented through flip-flops, Microinstructions generate signals to control the
gates, decoders etc. execution of instructions.
Variable instruction format (16-64 bits per
Fixed instruction format.
instruction).
Instructions are register based. Instructions are not register based.
ROM is not used. ROM is used.
It is used in RISC. It is used in CISC.
Faster decoding. Slower decoding.
Difficult to modify. Easily modified.
Chip area is less. Chip area is large.
 UNIT-4
MEMORY SYSTEM

Memory system
A memory unit is the collection of storage units or devices together. The memory unit
stores the binary information in the form of bits. Generally, memory/storage is classified
into 2 categories:

 Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.

 Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data
when power is switched off.

Different Characteristics of Memory System

The different characteristics of memory system includes,
1. Location
2. Capacity
3. Access method
4. unit of transfer
5. Performance
6. Physical types
7. Organization
8. Physical characteristics
1. Location
This characteristic represents whether the location is external or internal to the
computer. External memory is the seperate storage device such as disk and tape.
It is accessed by the processor through I/O controllers. Internal memory is mostly
embedded within the computer. It is in various forms such as registers, cache and
main memory.
2. Capacity
It is the most important characteristic of the memory system. It is different for
external and internal memory. Capacity of the external memory is measured in
 terms of bytes. Whereas the capacity of internal memory is measured in terms of
bytes or words, wherein word length may be 8, 16 or 32 bits.
3. Access method
This characteristic has four types of method.
 Direct
 Sequential
 Random
 Associative

 Direct Access Method

In this method every block has its own unique address. Here, the access is
made directly by first reaching to vicinity and then following sequential search.
Access time of this method is concerned with current and previous location of
data. An example of this method is hard disk.
 Sequential Access Method
In this method access to data is made sequentially. Like direct access method,
it also makes use of shared read-write mechanism. Tape is an example of this
method. Access time is different with that of direct access but depends on same
parameters.
 Random Access Method
In this method each block of memory has its unique and physically wired-in
addressing mechanism. Unlike direct and sequential access, the access time
of this method does not depend on location . RAM is an example of this method.
 Associative Access Method
In this method unlike other methods, access to data is made by comparing the
required bit location within a word based on the specified data element.
Therefore the access time of this method also depend on location. Cache
memory is the example of this method.
4. Unit of Transfer
This characteristic measures the transfer rate of data in and out of the memory. It
is different for both the internal and external memory.
 (a) For internal memory, it is the number of electrical lines going into and
coming out of the memory . These lines carry data of word length.
(b) For external memory, it is the number of bits read out or written into the
memory at a time.
5. Performance
It is also the most important characteristic of the memory system. The following
parameters need to be considered for performance,
(a)Transfer Rate
It can be defined as the rate at which data is transmitted into or out of the
memory. It is different for different types of memory.
(b)Memory Cycle Time
It refers to the time required for accessing a block as well as the period prior
to the start of the second access. It is mostly required for random access
memory. It is related with the system bus but not the processor.
(c)Access Time
It is different for different types of memory. In random access memory, it is
time required to carry-out read or write operation. In non-random access
memory, it is time required to place the read-write mechanism at the desired
place.
6. Physical type
There are various physical types of memory such as,
(a) Magnetic
(b) Semiconductor
(c) Magneto-optical
(d) Optical
7. Organization
It describes the physical arrangement of the bits. It is very important for random
access memory.
8. Physical characteristics
 It describes the nature of memory that whether the memory is volatile, non-volatile
erasable or non-erasable. Non-volatile memory does not ensure the persistence
of data unlike volatile memory. Erasable memory allows one to change or modify
data unlike non erasable memory.

Memory Hierarchy

 The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized by hierarchy of

components. The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices
contained in a computer system from the slow Auxiliary Memory to fast Main
Memory and to smaller Cache memory.
 Auxiliary memory access time is generally 1000 times that of the main memory,
hence it is at the bottom of the hierarchy.
 The main memory occupies the central position because it is equipped to
communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through
Input/output processor (I/O).
 When the program not residing in main memory is needed by the CPU, they are
brought in from auxiliary memory. Programs not currently needed in main memory
are transferred into auxiliary memory to provide space in main memory for other
programs that are currently in use.
  The cache memory is used to store program data which is currently being
executed in the CPU. Approximate access time ratio between cache memory and
main memory is about 1 to 7~10

Main Memory

The memory unit that communicates directly within the CPU, Auxillary memory and
Cache memory, is called main memory. It is the central storage unit of the computer
system. It is a large and fast memory used to store data during computer operations. Main
memory is made up of RAM and ROM, with RAM integrated circuit chips holing the major
share.

 RAM: Random Access Memory

o DRAM: Dynamic RAM, is made of capacitors and transistors, and must be

refreshed every 10~100 ms. It is slower and cheaper than SRAM.

o SRAM: Static RAM, has a six transistor circuit in each cell and retains data,
until powered off.

o NVRAM: Non-Volatile RAM, retains its data, even when turned off.
Example: Flash memory.

 ROM: Read Only Memory, is non-volatile and is more like a permanent storage for
information. It also stores the bootstrap loader program, to load and start the
operating system when computer is turned on. PROM(Programmable
 ROM), EPROM(Erasable PROM) and EEPROM(Electrically Erasable PROM) are
some commonly used ROMs.

Auxiliary Memory

 Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory. For
example: Magnetic disks and tapes are commonly used auxiliary devices. Other
devices used as auxiliary memory are magnetic drums, magnetic bubble memory
and optical disks.
 It is not directly accessible to the CPU, and is accessed using the Input / Output
channels.

Cache Memory

 The data or contents of the main memory that are used again and again by CPU
are stored in the cache memory so that we can easily access that data in shorter
time.
 Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If
the data is not found in cache memory then the CPU moves onto the main memory.
It also transfers block of recent data into the cache and keeps on deleting the old
data in cache to accommodate the new one.

Hit Ratio

 The performance of cache memory is measured in terms of a quantity called hit

ratio. When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache it is said to
produce a hit. If the word is not found in cache, it is in main memory then it counts
as a miss.
 The ratio of the number of hits to the total CPU references to memory is called hit
ratio.

Hit Ratio = Hit/(Hit + Miss)

Associative Memory

 It is also known as content addressable memory (CAM). It is a memory chip in

which each bit position can be compared. In this the content is compared in each
bit cell which allows very fast table lookup. Since the entire chip can be compared,
contents are randomly stored without considering addressing scheme. These
chips have less storage capacity than regular memory chips.

Main Memory
The main memory acts as the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a relatively
large and fast memory which is used to store programs and data during the run time
operations.

The primary technology used for the main memory is based on semiconductor integrated
circuits. The integrated circuits for the main memory are classified into two major units.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) integrated circuit chips

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) integrated circuit chips

RAM Integrated Circuit Chips

The RAM integrated circuit chips are further classified into two possible operating
modes, static and dynamic.

The primary compositions of a static RAM are flip-flops that store the binary information.
The nature of the stored information is volatile, i.e. it remains valid as long as power is
applied to the system. The static RAM is easy to use and takes less time performing read
and write operations as compared to dynamic RAM.

The dynamic RAM exhibits the binary information in the form of electric charges that are
applied to capacitors. The capacitors are integrated inside the chip by MOS transistors.
The dynamic RAM consumes less power and provides large storage capacity in a single
memory chip.
RAM chips are available in a variety of sizes and are used as per the system requirement.
The following block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 128 * 8 RAM chip.

 A 128 * 8 RAM chip has a memory capacity of 128 words of eight bits (one byte)
per word. This requires a 7-bit address and an 8-bit bidirectional data bus.
 The 8-bit bidirectional data bus allows the transfer of data either from memory to
CPU during a read operation or from CPU to memory during a write operation.
 The read and write inputs specify the memory operation, and the two chip select
(CS) control inputs are for enabling the chip only when the microprocessor selects
it.
 The bidirectional data bus is constructed using three-state buffers.
 The output generated by three-state buffers can be placed in one of the three
possible states which include a signal equivalent to logic 1, a signal equal to logic
0, or a high-impedance state.

Note: The logic 1 and 0 are standard digital signals whereas the high-impedance state behaves like
an open circuit, which means that the output does not carry a signal and has no logic significance.

The following function table specifies the operations of a 128 * 8 RAM chip.
From the functional table, we can conclude that the unit is in operation only when CS1 =
1 and CS2 = 0. The bar on top of the second select variable indicates that this input is
enabled when it is equal to 0.
ROM integrated circuit
The primary component of the main memory is RAM integrated circuit chips, but a portion
of memory may be constructed with ROM chips.

A ROM memory is used for keeping programs and data that are permanently resident in
the computer.

Apart from the permanent storage of data, the ROM portion of main memory is needed
for storing an initial program called a bootstrap loader. The primary function of
the bootstrap loader program is to start the computer software operating when power is
turned on.

ROM chips are also available in a variety of sizes and are also used as per the system
requirement. The following block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 512
* 8 ROM chip.

 A ROM chip has a similar organization as a RAM chip. However, a ROM can only
perform read operation; the data bus can only operate in an output mode.
 The 9-bit address lines in the ROM chip specify any one of the 512 bytes stored in
it.
 The value for chip select 1 and chip select 2 must be 1 and 0 for the unit to operate.
Otherwise, the data bus is said to be in a high-impedance state.
Types of Read Only Memory (ROM) –
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) –
It can be programmed by the user. Once programmed, the data and instructions in it
cannot be changed.
2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) –
It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To
reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) –
The data can be erased by applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light.
We can erase only portions of the chip.
4. MROM(Marked ROM) –
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set
of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which
are inexpensive.

Interleaved Memory
Interleaved memory is designed to compensate for the relatively slow speed of dynamic
random-access memory (DRAM) or core memory by spreading memory addresses
evenly across memory banks. In this way, contiguous memory reads and writes use each
memory bank, resulting in higher memory throughput due to reduced waiting for memory
banks to become ready for the operations.

It is different from multi-channel memory architectures, primarily as interleaved memory

does not add more channels between the main memory and the memory controller.
However, channel interleaving is also possible, for example, in Free scale i.MX6
processors, which allow interleaving to be done between two channels. With interleaved
memory, memory addresses are allocated to each memory bank.
Example of Interleaved Memory

It is an abstraction technique that divides memory into many modules such that
successive words in the address space are placed in different modules.

Suppose we have 4 memory banks, each containing 256 bytes, and then the Block
Oriented scheme (no interleaving) will assign virtual addresses 0 to 255 to the first bank
and 256 to 511 to the second bank. But in Interleaved memory, virtual address 0 will be
with the first bank, 1 with the second memory bank, 2 with the third bank and 3 with the
fourth, and then 4 with the first memory bank again.

Hence, the CPU can access alternate sections immediately without waiting for memory
to be cached. There are multiple memory banks that take turns for the supply of data.

In the above example of 4 memory banks, data with virtual addresses 0, 1, 2 and 3 can
be accessed simultaneously as they reside in separate memory banks. Hence we do not
have to wait to complete a data fetch to begin the next operation.

An interleaved memory with n banks is said to be n-way interleaved. There are still two
banks of DRAM in an interleaved memory system, but logically, the system seems one
bank of memory that is twice as large.
In the interleaved bank representation below with 2 memory banks, the first long word of
bank 0 is flowed by that of bank 1, followed by the second long word of bank 0, followed
by the second long word of bank 1 and so on.

The following image shows the organization of two physical banks of n long words. All
even long words of the logical bank are located in physical bank 0, and all odd long words
are located in physical bank 1.

Why do we use Memory Interleaving?

When the processor requests data from the main memory, a block (chunk) of data is
transferred to the cache and then to processor. So whenever a cache miss occurs, the
data is to be fetched from the main memory. But main memory is relatively slower than
the cache. So to improve the access time of the main memory, interleaving is used.

For example, we can access all four modules at the same time, thus achieving parallelism.
The data can be acquired from the module using the higher bits. This method uses
memory effectively.

Types of Interleaved Memory

There are two types of interleaved memory, such as:
1. High order interleaving:

In high order memory interleaving, the most significant bits of the memory address
decides memory banks where a particular location resides. But, in low order interleaving
the least significant bits of the memory address decides the memory banks.

The least significant bits are sent as addresses to each chip. One problem is that
consecutive addresses tend to be in the same chip. The maximum rate of data transfer
is limited by the memory cycle time. It is also known as Memory Banking.

2. Low order interleaving: The least significant bits select the memory bank (module) in
low-order interleaving. In this, consecutive memory addresses are in different memory
modules, allowing memory access faster than the cycle time.
Benefits of Interleaved Memory
An instruction pipeline may require instruction and operands both at the same time from
main memory, which is not possible in the traditional method of memory access. Similarly,
an arithmetic pipeline requires two operands to be fetched simultaneously from the main
memory. So, to overcome this problem, memory interleaving comes to resolve this.

 It allows simultaneous access to different modules of memory. The modular

memory technique allows the CPU to initiate memory access with one module
while others are busy with the CPU in reading or write operations. So, we can say
interleave memory honors every memory request independent of the state of the
other modules.
 So, for this obvious reason, interleave memory makes a system more responsive
and fast than non-interleaving. Additionally, with simultaneous memory access, the
CPU processing time also decreases and increasing throughput. Interleave
memory is useful in the system with pipelining and vector processing.
 In an interleaved memory, consecutive memory addresses are spread across
different memory modules. Say, in a byte-addressable 4 way interleave memory,
if byte 0 is in the first module, then byte 1 will be in the 2nd module, byte 2 will be
in the 3rd module, byte 3 will be in the 4th module, and again byte 4 will fall in the
first module, and this goes on.
 An n-way interleaved memory where main memory is divided into n-banks and
system can access n operands/instruction simultaneously from n different memory
banks. This kind of memory access can reduce the memory access time by a factor
close to the number of memory banks. In this memory interleaving memory
location, i can be found in bank i mod n.
Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk
memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory
type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data
and instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently
used main memory locations. There are various different independent caches in a CPU,
which store instructions and data.

Levels of memory:
 Level 1 or Register –
It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are immediately
stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter,
address register etc.
 Level 2 or Cache memory –
It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is temporarily
stored for faster access.
 Level 3 or Main Memory –
It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and once power
is off data no longer stays in this memory.
 Level 4 or Secondary Memory –
It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data stays
permanently in this memory.
Cache Performance:
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks for
a corresponding entry in the cache.
 If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache hit has
occurred and data is read from cache
 If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache miss has
occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and copies in data from
main memory, then the request is fulfilled from the contents of the cache.
The performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity
called Hit ratio.
Hit ratio = hit / (hit + miss) = no. of hits/total accesses

We can improve Cache performance using higher cache block size, higher associativity,
reduce miss rate, reduce miss penalty, and reduce the time to hit in the cache.

Cache Mapping:
There are three different types of mapping used for the purpose of cache memory which
are as follows: Direct mapping, Associative mapping, and Set-Associative mapping.
These are explained below.
1. Direct Mapping –
The simplest technique, known as direct mapping, maps each block of main memory
into only one possible cache line. or
In Direct mapping, assign each memory block to a specific line in the cache. If a line
is previously taken up by a memory block when a new block needs to be loaded, the
old block is trashed. An address space is split into two parts index field and a tag field.
The cache is used to store the tag field whereas the rest is stored in the main memory.
Direct mapping`s performance is directly proportional to the Hit ratio.
i = j modulo m
where
i=cache line number
j= main memory block number
m=number of lines in the cache
 For purposes of cache access, each main memory address can be viewed as
consisting of three fields. The least significant w bits identify a unique word or byte
within a block of main memory. In most contemporary machines, the address is at the
byte level. The remaining s bits specify one of the 2s blocks of main memory. The
cache logic interprets these s bits as a tag of s-r bits (most significant portion) and a
line field of r bits. This latter field identifies one of the m=2r lines of the cache.

2. Associative Mapping –
In this type of mapping, the associative memory is used to store content and addresses
of the memory word. Any block can go into any line of the cache. This means that the
word id bits are used to identify which word in the block is needed, but the tag becomes
all of the remaining bits. This enables the placement of any word at any place in the
cache memory. It is considered to be the fastest and the most flexible mapping form.
3. Set-associative Mapping –
This form of mapping is an enhanced form of direct mapping where the drawbacks of
direct mapping are removed. Set associative addresses the problem of possible
thrashing in the direct mapping method. It does this by saying that instead of having
exactly one line that a block can map to in the cache, we will group a few lines together
creating a set. Then a block in memory can map to any one of the lines of a specific
set..Set-associative mapping allows that each word that is present in the cache can
have two or more words in the main memory for the same index address. Set
associative cache mapping combines the best of direct and associative cache
mapping techniques.
In this case, the cache consists of a number of sets, each of which consists of a
number of lines. The relationships are

m=v*k
i= j mod v
where
i=cache set number
j=main memory block number
v=number of sets
m=number of lines in the cache number of sets
k=number of lines in each set
Application of Cache Memory –
1. Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks at any given
time, but this number is small compared to the total number of blocks in the main
memory.
2. The correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in the cache is
specified by a mapping function.

Types of Cache –
 Primary Cache –
A primary cache is always located on the processor chip. This cache is small and
its access time is comparable to that of processor registers.
 Secondary Cache –
Secondary cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of the memory.
It is referred to as the level 2 (L2) cache. Often, the Level 2 cache is also housed
on the processor chip.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
Virtual memory is the separation of logical memory from physical memory. This
separation provides large virtual memory for programmers when only small physical
memory is available.
Virtual memory is used to give programmers the illusion that they have a very large
memory even though the computer has a small main memory. It makes the task of
programming easier because the programmer no longer needs to worry about the amount
of physical memory available.
 A virtual memory can be configured using any of the following technique:
1. Paging technique
2. Segmentation technique

PAGING:-

 Paging is a fixed size partitioning scheme.

 In paging, secondary memory and main memory are divided into equal fixed size
partitions.
 The partitions of secondary memory are called as pages.
 The partitions of main memory are called as frames.

 Each process is divided into parts where size of each part is same as page size.
 The size of the last part may be less than the page size.
 The pages of process are stored in the frames of main memory depending upon their
availability.
Example-
Consider a process is divided into 4 pages P0, P1, P2 and P3.
 Depending upon the availability, these pages may be stored in the main memory frames
in a non-contiguous fashion as shown-
Translating Logical Address into Physical Address-
CPU always generates a logical address.

 A physical address is needed to access the main memory.

Following steps are followed to translate logical address into physical address-
Step-01:
CPU generates a logical address consisting of two parts-
1. Page Number
2. Page Offset

 Page Number specifies the specific page of the process from which CPU wants to
read the data.
 Page Offset specifies the specific word on the page that CPU wants to read.
Step-02:
For the page number generated by the CPU,

 Page Table provides the corresponding frame number (base address of the frame)
where that page is stored in the main memory.
Step-03:
The frame number combined with the page offset forms the required physical address.
  Frame number specifies the specific frame where the required page is stored.
 Page Offset specifies the specific word that has to be read from that page.

Diagram-
The following diagram illustrates the above steps of translating logical address into
physical address-

Advantages-
 It allows to store parts of a single process in a non-contiguous fashion.
 It solves the problem of external fragmentation.
Disadvantages-
 It suffers from internal fragmentation.
 There is an overhead of maintaining a page table for each process.
 The time taken to fetch the instruction increases since now two memory accesses are
required.

SEGMENTATION-
Like Paging, Segmentation is another non-contiguous memory allocation technique.
 In segmentation, process is not divided blindly into fixed size pages.
 Rather, the process is divided into modules for better visualization.

Characteristics-
Segmentation is a variable size partitioning scheme.
 In segmentation, secondary memory and main memory are divided into partitions of
unequal size.
 The size of partitions depends on the length of modules.
 The partitions of secondary memory are called as segments.
Example-
Consider a program is divided into 5 segments as-

Segment Table-
 Segment table is a table that stores the information about each segment of the process.
 It has two columns.
 First column stores the size or length of the segment.
 Second column stores the base address or starting address of the segment in the main
memory.
 Segment table is stored as a separate segment in the main memory.
 Segment table base register (STBR) stores the base address of the segment table.

For the above illustration, consider the segment table is-

 Limit indicates the length or size of the segment.

 Base indicates the base address or starting address of the segment in the main
memory.
In accordance to the above segment table, the segments are stored in the main memory
as-
 Translating Logical Address into Physical Address-
CPU always generates a logical address.
 A physical address is needed to access the main memory.
Following steps are followed to translate logical address into physical address-
Step-01:
CPU generates a logical address consisting of two parts-
1. Segment Number
2. Segment Offset

 Segment Number specifies the specific segment of the process from which CPU wants
to read the data.
 Segment Offset specifies the specific word in the segment that CPU wants to read.
Step-02:
For the generated segment number, corresponding entry is located in the segment table.
 Then, segment offset is compared with the limit (size) of the segment.
Now, two cases are possible-
 Case-01: Segment Offset >= Limit
If segment offset is found to be greater than or equal to the limit, a trap is generated.
Case-02: Segment Offset < Limit
If segment offset is found to be smaller than the limit, then request is treated as a valid
request.
 The segment offset must always lie in the range [0, limit-1],
 Then, segment offset is added with the base address of the segment.
 The result obtained after addition is the address of the memory location storing the
required word.
Diagram-
The following diagram illustrates the above steps of translating logical address into
physical address-

Advantages-
 It allows to divide the program into modules which provides better visualization.
 Segment table consumes less space as compared to Page Table in paging.
 It solves the problem of internal fragmentation.
Disadvantages-
 There is an overhead of maintaining a segment table for each process.
 The time taken to fetch the instruction increases since now two memory accesses are
required.
 Segments of unequal size are not suited for swapping.
 It suffers from external fragmentation as the free space gets broken down into smaller
pieces with the processes being loaded and removed from the main memory.
Advantages of Virtual Memory
1. The degree of Multiprogramming will be increased.
2. User can run large application with less real RAM.
3. There is no need to buy more memory RAMs.

Disadvantages of Virtual Memory

1. The system becomes slower since swapping takes time.
2. It takes more time in switching between applications.
3. The user will have the lesser hard disk space for its use.
 UNIT – 5
INPUT-OUTPUT INTERFACE
Input-Output Interface is used as a method which helps in transferring of information
between the internal storage devices i.e. memory and the external peripheral device. A
peripheral device is that which provide input and output for the computer, it is also called
Input-Output devices.
Peripherals connected to a computer need special communication links for interfacing
them with the central processing unit. The purpose of communication link is to resolve the
differences that exist between the central computer and each peripheral.

For Example: A keyboard and mouse provide Input to the computer are called input
devices while a monitor and printer that provide output to the computer are called output
devices. Just like the external hard-drives, there is also availability of some peripheral
devices which are able to provide both input and output.

The I/O bus includes data lines, address lines, and control lines. In any general-purpose
computer, the magnetic disk, printer, and keyboard, and display terminal are commonly
employed. Each peripheral unit has an interface unit associated with it. Each interface
decodes the control and address received from the I/O bus.

It can describe the address and control received from the peripheral and supports signals
for the peripheral controller. It also conducts the transfer of information between
peripheral and processor and also integrates the data flow.

The I/O bus is linked to all peripheral interfaces from the processor. The processor locates
a device address on the address line to interact with a specific device. Each interface
contains an address decoder attached to the I/O bus that monitors the address lines.

When the address is recognized by the interface, it activates the direction between the
bus lines and the device that it controls. The interface disables the peripherals whose
address does not equivalent to the address in the bus.

An interface receives any of the following four commands −

 Control − A command control is given to activate the peripheral and to inform its
next task. This control command depends on the peripheral, and each peripheral
receives its sequence of control commands, depending on its mode of operation.

 Status − A status command can test multiple test conditions in the interface and
the peripheral.

 Data Output − A data output command creates the interface counter to the
command by sending data from the bus to one of its registers.

 Data Input − The data input command is opposite to the data output command. In
data input, the interface gets an element of data from the peripheral and places it
in its buffer register.

In micro-computer base system, the only purpose of peripheral devices is just to

provide special communication links for the interfacing them with the CPU. To resolve
the differences between peripheral devices and CPU, there is a special need for
communication links.
The I/O communication is simplified to a set of requirements consisting of three parts of
Where, What and How? i.e.
  Where? - Identification of the device under communication – The device and
location within the device Ex: Select the Printer.
 What? - What is the type of communication? i.e sender? Receiver?
(Read/Write?)
 How? - How much to be communicated? ( Number of bytes to/from Memory/file)

The major differences are as follows:

1. The nature of peripheral devices is electromagnetic and electro-mechanical. The

nature of the CPU is electronic. There is a lot of difference in the mode of operation of
both peripheral devices and CPU.
2. There is also a synchronization mechanism because the data transfer rate of
peripheral devices are slow than CPU.
3. In peripheral devices, data code and formats are differing from the format in the CPU
and memory.
4. The operating modes of peripheral devices are different and each may be controlled
so as not to disturb the operation of other peripheral devices connected to CPU.
There is a special need of the additional hardware to resolve the differences between
CPU and peripheral devices to supervise and synchronize all input and output devices.

These components are called Interface Units because they interface between the
processor bus and the peripheral devices. I/O BUS and Interface Module It define the
typical link between the processor and several peripherals.

To communicate with I/O, the processor must communicate with the memory unit. Like
the I/O bus, the memory bus contains data, address and read/write control lines. There
are 3 ways that computer buses can be used to communicate with memory and I/O:

i. Use two Separate buses , one for memory and other for I/O.

ii. Use one common bus for both memory and I/O but separate control lines for each.

iii. Use one common bus for memory and I/O with common control lines.
Functions of Input-Output Interface:

1. It is used to synchronize the operating speed of CPU with respect to input-output

devices.
2. It selects the input-output device which is appropriate for the interpretation of the input-
output device.
3. It is capable of providing signals like control and timing signals.
4. In this data buffering can be possible through data bus.
5. There are various error detectors.
6. It converts serial data into parallel data and vice-versa.
7. It also converts digital data into analog signal and vice-versa.

Bus Design Characteristics

Few of the important characteristics of interest are Bus Type, Bus Width, Clock Rate,
Protocol and Arbitration mechanism.

 Bus Type - Dedicated or Multiplexed

Dedicated - The address and data lines are separate.

Multiplexed - The address and data lines are sent on the same physical cable but
at different timings.

 Width – The number of lines that carry Data and Address. More width on address
lines increases the addressing range. More width on data lines increases Data
Bandwidth.
 Access Protocol - Synchronous or Asynchronous

Synchronous Asynchronous

One of the control line is Clock There is no common clock

All activities in the bus are synchronized to the The bus transfers information based on
clock and at predefined clock cycles handshake protocol.
 Synchronous Asynchronous

Useful when all the devices in the bus are in Since there is a handshake, any device may
the same speed range. interact with any other device.

Internal system bus is an example of Generally used for slow speed device
synchronous bus. communications.

 Arbitration - The protocol to gain access to the bus amongst the eligible
competing devices is called bus arbitration. During the bus operation, there is a
Bus Master (Initiator) and a Bus Slave (Responder). Thus a device wanting to
initiate communication has to become bus master. Always, the communication
happens between two devices. Since there are more devices connected on a bus,
there is a bus arbitrator and an identified arbitration mechanism.
 Clock Rate – The speed of the bus is determined by the Synchronous clock. It is
a design decision to fix the clock rate.

There are few other physical parameters like how the wires are to be run, what type of
connectors to be used, length of the wires, etc. The electrical characteristics define the
voltage levels of the signals and the power source.

I/O System Organization

The CPU executes a program in a Fetch-Decode –Execute mode by bringing instructions
from Memory. So your program has to get loaded into memory, from the Disk. Generally,
both program and executables file is stored in the Disk. This is where the I/O comes into
the picture. It is interesting to know the functional requirements of I/O communication with
CPU and Memory.

I/O is also a Slave component in the computer. An I/O operation is initiated by CPU and
the I/O controllers take care of transferring and completing the I/O operation.

An analogy to this is a classroom environment, wherein a teacher (CPU) assigns work;

the student (I/O) submits the solution in a Notebook or uploads at the prescribed
place(Memory). Probably the student informs the teacher that it is done or it is done for
some reason(Interrupt).

I/O Controllers

 The devices operate at wide-ranging data transfer speed and also many different
interface standards. The Keyboard, Mouse have very small data rates and are
asynchronous in data transfer to computer. Disk, Solid State Disks have high data
rates. USB has a mediocre data rate. And we know each one has a different
connector and interface standard.
 It is overloading on the part of CPU to deal with these devices directly. I/O
controllers play a bridging role between CPU, Memory and I/O Device by taking
care of all kinds of communication.
 Due to heterogeneity of the devices, each device /type of interface requires an I/O
Controller
 I/O controllers also act as a buffer during data transfer

A data transfer from an I/O device involves:

 Initiate the operation (i.e. addressing the device)

 Direct the device (i.e. communicate the operation to be done and control the data
transfer)
 Closing of the IO operations ( i.e notifying the CPU that it is done or not done with
status).

To do the above, each IO Controller will typically have Data Register(s), Status
Register(s), Control Register(s), Address decoding logic and Control Circuitry. The I/O
Controller is connected to the system bus. Whenever the I/O controller wants to use the
bus, it has to contend and obtain. All communication from the CPU and Memory happens
via these registers shown in the diagram. These registers are given a unique address for
each I/O controller.
 I/O Controller

The address decoding logic is connected to the address bus. The value on the address
bus indicates the register to be accessed. The decoding logic converts this as an address
selection signal to one of these registers.

The control circuitry is connected to the control signals of the system bus. These signals
are MEMW, MEMR, IOR, IOW, INTERRUPT, BREQ, etc. These signals ensure the
synchronization and validation of address and Data on the bus, demanding the Bus for
data transfer, sending interrupt after the normal or abnormal end operation.

The Data Registers take care of Data Transfer. There may be Data In and/or Data Out
Registers depending on the device. Also, fast devices like Disk will have a Buffer so that
the fast bulk data from the disk is stored and then sent to Memory when the system bus
is available.
The Control Register has information like:

 Which is the device to be accessed? (Address of the device)

 What is the Operation (Command) to be carried out on the device?
o Printer Commands – Form Feed for a new page, Print, Line Feed, status
check, etc.
o Disk – Seek, Write, Read, Reset, status check
 How this operation is to be carried out?
o Number of Bytes in case of Data Transfer
o What communication is expected by CPU after data transfer to memory
o Mode Settings applicable to devices, etc.

The purpose of Status Register is:

 To have the information about the device being selected

o Whether the device is online and ready?
o If not online have the information about the error from the device. Example
- a) Printer may not have a cartridge or paper. This error status is collected
in the status register. b) The Disk may not be getting ON
 The status of the data transfer on the device side is stored as a flag in the Status
Register.
o Whether the data transfer was successful?
o Data Overrun or Underrun may occur with fast devices like DISK. The buffer
operates on PUSH – PULL mode. So in case of an error in PUSH or PULL
side Data Overrun or Underrun occurs.
o The status register keeps track of the Word Count pending to be transferred
from/to Memory. A Counter is maintained in the I/O controller for this
purpose. When Word Count becomes ZERO, it is implied that the data
transfer is successfully done.
o Interrupt bit is part of the Status Register. An Interrupt is reasoned with the
content of the status register.
I/O Addressing Schemes
This is essentially about allocating addresses to the I/O registers. Each Controller has a
set of registers. Two methods in practice are I/O mapped I/O and Memory-mapped I/O.

I/O Mapped I/O

The registers are assigned port numbers and accessed via special instructions namely
IN and OUT. This is also Intel’s method. IN is for reading from the Data or Status
Registers. OUT is for writing onto the DATA or Command Registers.

Memory-Mapped I/O

Portions of the Memory address space are assigned to I/O device. This method reduces
the number of control signals required on the System Bus for READ/WRITE.

I/O Mapped I/O Memory-Mapped I/O

Exclusive I/O Address space for I/O addressing Part of memory address space is reserved for I/O
which are called port addresses addressing

Total addressable space is available for Available memory is addressable memory space
Memory less the reserved space I/O addressing

On the Control bus, I/O or Memory operation is On the Control bus, there is only one set of control
differentiated by a separate set of control signals i.e. MEMR/MEMW. Memory or I/O
signals like IOR/IOW, MEMR/MEMW. operation is differentiated by decoding the
address.

The number of lines required for addressing I/O The number of lines used for addressing is equal
ports is less. Hence address decoding logic on to the maximum addressable space; hence
the I/O controllers is smaller and simpler. address decoding logic on the I/O controller is
larger.

Separate I/O instructions like IN/OUT are used No such separate instructions used; the same set
for I/O communication. of STORE/LOAD instructions that are used for
 I/O Mapped I/O Memory-Mapped I/O

memory operations are used for I/O operations

too.

More opcodes needed in the CPU Does not increase the opcodes.

Input/output Data Transfer

Data from Peripherals have to reach Memory so that the CPU can use it. Similarly, the
processed output has to reach peripherals like printer, internet devices, DISK, etc.

Thus, I/O data transfer is about how the three subsystems i.e. CPU, Memory and I/O
Controller, are involved in achieving the data exchange with peripherals. The word Data
Exchange means successful Data in/Data Out with necessary handshake and
coordination.

Data Exchange with a peripheral involves few steps and not straight forward as devices
are mostly electromechanical and/or operate at a different speed than CPU and Memory.

 The device to be initiated and checked for status whether it is ready for Data
Exchange.
 The data transfer has to happen at the acceptable capsule and speed of the device
using the applicable protocol.
 This may happen in more than one sequence, as necessitated.
 If the device status is an Error status, it is to be suitably handled.

I/O Controller's role is to ensure seamless data exchange by ensuring the following :

 Processor/Memory Communication
 Device Communication
 Control timing and Status processing – Coordination of the data traffic between
CPU, Memory and Io devices
 Data Buffering – To manage the data transfer speed mismatch
  Error management ( Transmission errors are corrected other status errors are
communicated)

I/O Data Transfer Techniques

CPU can be used very efficiently in Multitasking. Ideally, the involvement CPU in I/O data
transfer is expected to be minimal. There are three possibilities for I/O Data exchange.

 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt driven I/O
 Direct Memory Access

I/O Data exchange methods and features

Programmed I/O
A program controls the I/O Operation; hence CPU is fully involved. CPU Monitors the
status of the device and the I/O data transfer. This keeps the CPU hooked until the I/O
operation is completed for the desired number of bytes. In the case of READ from I/O
device, the final destination for Data is Memory. CPU writes the data collected from the
device into Memory. It happens vice versa in the case of WRITE onto the device.

Programmed I/O is used for tiny data transfer i.e. few bytes. Before an actual Data transfer
to a device, selecting, readying the device and verifying the status are to be done. Ex:
Selecting the Printer and initialization before printing. This is shown by the decision box
loop in figure 20.2.
In the diagram, at each step, the direction of information flow between the subsystems is
marked to reinforce your understanding.

The CPU loop during status check is eliminated in the Interrupt Driven I/O Operation.

Programmed I/O and Interrupt Driven I/O

Interrupt Driven I/O data transfer

The steps involved in I/O data transfer are the same but for a change in freeing the CPU
until the device is ready for data transfer.

 The CPU initiates the command on the device and takes up other tasks.
 Once the device is ready with data, the I/O controller generates an Interrupt.
 On recognizing the pending Interrupt signal from I/O controller, the CPU
temporarily suspends the ongoing execution, goes in for interrupt service routine
and collects the data and stores in memory or vice versa and then resumes the
 suspended execution. In this mode also, it is the CPU which interacts with memory
for storing the device data.

Most of the devices are electromechanical and have high latency. The period for which
the CPU is freed is proportional to this. Hence the benefit achieved is reasonable. The
interrupt is asynchronous. The I/O controller waits until the interrupt is serviced by CPU.
Thus, what we have achieved is the I/O controller is made to wait instead of the CPU.
CPU time is more precious. Details of Interrupt servicing will be dealt with in the next
chapter.

Interrupt service routine is also a complex and costly matter involving OS. This method is
also feasible for a small quantum of data transfer. Direct Memory access can resolve the
CPU availability in a hardware environment.

Direct Memory Access (DMA) Data Transfer

Interrupt servicing of the device is still accomplished using the software. This may not be
fast enough for a large chunk of data transfer from DISK. Recall that the Virtual memory
implementation is supported by Disk. This involves large data exchange to memory. The
software routine is replaced with a specialized hardware processor, called the Direct
Memory Access Controller (DMAC). DMA technique facilitates I/O data transfer between
Main Memory and devices connected to DMAC, Fast data rate devices are connected to
DMAC.

 The CPU passes necessary information to DMA and goes on with any other work.
 The DMA takes care of data transfer to Memory.
 On completion, DMA generates an Interrupt to inform the CPU of the job done.

Note that the CPU as a boss gives the work and informed of Job done but not involved
for doing the job. It is independently taken care of by DMAC.
The DMA method improvises the interrupt method with optimal efficiency as the data is
not routed via CPU. Thus DMA unburdens CPU.

Direct Memory Access controller

DMA is Direct Memory Access. As the name implies, DMA facilitates data transfer
between I/O and Memory directly, instead of involving CPU as in the other two cases of
I/O data transfer. DMA is faster and bulk data transfer technique. The system bus is
common between CPU, Memory, DMA and maybe few I/O controllers. At an instant, the
system bus can be used for communication between any two members only. Further, at
a time, a resource can be used by only one entity. Thus when DMA communicates with
Memory, the CPU will be on hold to use the System Bus. However, the CPU may do any
other machine cycle internally using ALU and other resources. DMA Controller (DMAC)
is special hardware which manages the above functions.
DMAC operation
In the below figure, the DMAC is connected to the system bus. The I/O devices are
connected to the DMA ports called Channels. A DMAC can generally support 4 I/O
devices. The coordination between CPU and DMA happens with DMA raising DMA HOLD
signal and the CPU responding with DMA HOLD ACK signal.

A System configuration with DMAC

The sequence of events described below clarifies how an end to end data transfer
happens between I/O device and Memory using DMA.

 CPU delegates the responsibility of data transfer to DMA by sending the following
details:
o A device on which I/O to be carried out
o What is the command (R/W) to be carried out
o The starting address of Memory location for Data Transfer
 o Length of the Data Transfer (Byte Count) - The first two information is given
to the device controller while the last two information is stored in the channel
register in DMAC.
 The I/O controller initiates the necessary actions with the device and requests
DMAC when it is ready with data.
 DMAC raises the HOLD signal to CPU conveying its intention to take the System
bus for data transfer.
 At the end of the current machine cycle, the CPU disengages itself from the system
bus. Then, the CPU responds with a HOLD ACKNOWLEDGE signal to DMAC,
indicating that the system bus is available for use.
 DMAC places the memory address on the address bus, the location at which data
transfer is to take place.
 A read or write signal is then generated by the DMAC, and the I/O device either
generates or latches the data. Then DMA transfers data to memory.
 A register is used as a byte count, decremented for each byte transferred to
memory.
 Increment the memory address by the number of bytes transferred and generate
new memory address for the next memory cycle.
 Upon the byte count reaches zero, the DMAC generates an Interrupt to CPU.
 As part of the Interrupt Service Routine, the CPU collects the status of Data
transfer.

DMA to Memory Data Transfer Modes

The data transfer modes are about how does the CPU acquires the system bus for its
activity. There are three options available in the DMAC, namely Cycle Stealing, Burst
Mode and Hidden Mode.

Cycle Stealing: The DMAC steals the system bus (Memory cycles) from the CPU, during
its non-memory machine cycles like Decode or execute, to transfer a byte/word to/from
memory. Cycle stealing is possible when there is a separate arbitrator logic for the system
bus. It is to be noted that, in the case of HOLD and HOLD ACK sequence, CPU acts as
bus arbitrator. The DMAC steals the bus for every transaction, hence the name cycle
stealing.

Burst Mode: Once the DMAC takes the bus, it completes the data transfer with the
necessary number of cycles. Holds the system bus until the Byte Count reaches zero,
after which it releases the bus. The CPU is halted during the data transfer. Since the
intended block is transferred in one bus access, Burst mode is also called Block Transfer
Mode. In this case, the DMAC is assigned an equal priority with CPU.

Transparent or Hidden Mode: There are some internal states during which the CPU
frees the bus, disengaging itself. At these times, DMA takes up data transfers to memory.
In this mode, the DMA is assigned the lowest priority, rather it never contends for the bus.
The CPU speed is never affected by DMA. Not only DMA requires extra logic to detect
the floating bus but also CPU requires extra logic to indicate its status. The throughput of
DMA is poor and the data transfer is slowest of all the modes. In the below figure explains
when the CPU can recognise DMA or Interrupt. These points are called breakpoints.

Breakpoints in CPU
DMA Controller Functional Components
It has all the functional components of any I/O controller. Since DMA communicates on
the system bus, required additional logic is in-built. The bus control logic generates R/W
signal and Interrupt. Depending on the DMA data transfer mode, bus arbitration signals
are generated. The bus arbitration signals are DMAHOLD or Bus Request, DMA HOLD
ACK or BUS GRANT as the case may be.

DMAC functional components

Byte Count Register is an important register which holds and tracks the byte transfer
taking place with Memory. CPU sets the value. It is decremented for every byte
transferred and the Memory address register is updated to show the next location for data
transfer. When the byte count becomes zero, it indicates End of Data Transfer. This status
is used for generating an interrupt signal to CPU.

Buffered Data Transfer takes place at the device end. The required control signals are
generated. This part is very much similar to I/O Controller.

Generally, DMA has more than one channel to facilitate more I/O devices connection. In
such a case, we will have duplicity of Memory Address Register, Data Buffer, Status and
Control Registers and Byte Count register. The interface logics remain common.
Advantages of DMAC

 Certainly speeds up the data transfer to memory with minimal bus holding
 Relieves the CPU for its task

In the case of DMAC, the CPU is involved to initiate every single IO Operation. Although
the DMA method is better than the Programmed IO and Interrupt driven IO, overall system
performance can be improved if there is a design methodology which will take care of
total I/O with simple initiation from CPU. The IO Processor (IOP) design supports this
requirement.

I/O Processors
I/O processors (IOP) are an extension to the DMA concept of I/O Operation. As the name
implies, I/O processors have some processing capacity for serving the device controllers
connected to it. IOPs can decode and execute I/O instruction. These instructions are
brought from Main Memory by the IOP. Data transfer happens with Memory directly. Thus
an IOP has a fair amount of control over IO Operations with very minimal initiation from
CPU.

IOPs are also called Peripheral Processing Unit (PPU). I/O Channels is a name used
in Mainframe to mean IOP.
 A System configuration with IOP

Characteristics of IOP

 Has Instruction set catered to IO operations

 It can execute a sequence of instructions called "I/O Program" on a device
connected to it.
 Ability to decode and execute IO instructions for a variety of devices. Each device
has unique commands that can be executed on them.
o DISK – RESET, SEEK, READ, WRITE, FORMAT, Error Checking, etc
o TAPE – REWIND, FORWARD, WRITE, READ, BOT, EOT, etc
o PRINTER – LINE FEED, FORM FEED, WRITE, PRINT, etc
 High-Speed Data transfer to increase the IO Performance
 Variety of devices can be connected
 Multiplexed IOP connects slow speed device controllers
 Selector IOP for high-speed device controllers
 Similar to DMA channels, IOP also has channels to connect Device controllers
 IOP is connected to System Bus
 Possible to have more than one IOP in a system configuration
Functioning of IOP
IOP frees CPU from I/O data transfer operations. The CPU is involved to the extent of
informing the address of the I/O program in memory. And the IOP is expected to get the
IO Program, decode and execute. After the data transfer is complete, the IOP raises an
Interrupt to CPU. The communication steps between CPU, IOP and Memory in
completing data transfer is depicted in below .

Communication steps in IOP operation

CPU – IOP Instruction

The instruction issued by CPU to IOP has three parts:

 CPU Opcode indicating that the instruction is to instruct IOP

 IO Device Address – it is the target device on which the IO program is to be
executed
 IO Program Address – It is a Main Memory Address where the set of commands
to be executed on the IO Device is stored.
 Components of CPU instruction to IOP
From the third part, it is clear that the CPU does not get involved in instructing the IO
devices. Corresponding to each IO Device, an IO Program is stored in Memory. The IO
program consists of a set of instructions to be executed on the device notified by the CPU
Instruction to IOP.

IO Program
A typical IO program is much like any other program, except that it has IO Instructions to
be executed on a select device.

IO Program in Memory

An I/O instruction received by IOP from memory as part of the IO Program has four parts
as below:

IOP Instruction from Memory

 IO Opcode – the IO instruction to be executed on the device

  If it is a Data Transfer instruction, the memory address for data transfer. For data
transfer, IOP accesses memory via the system bus. It contends on the bus based
on the bus arbitration logic design.
 If it is a Data Transfer instruction, the size of the data transfer – Data transfer count
 Control information – how this instruction to be executed in terms off error handling,
interrupts etc. and also, whether any more instructions are chained and hence
follows this instruction. This is a very useful feature. IT has bits assigned to indicate
End of IO Program

Any data transfer operation on DISK is preceeded by a SEEK command to position the
heads on the place where the file is located. Command chaining helps.

Also if data transfer is to happen from more than one area of disk, chaining of SEEK +
data transfer is done easily with IO program.

Many such examples in the case of printer, tape and other devices can be given.

For CPU it is too costly to get involved in these scenario. Thus, IOP improves the IO and
CPU performance.

IOP Instruction Categories

The IOP is likely to receive the following categories of instructions.

 Data transfer instructions - for doing data transfer.

 Branch instructions - allow the IOP to fetch the next CCW form a specified
memory location instead of from the contiguous location
 Arithmetic and logical instructions – facilitate the calculation of memory
addresses, IO Device priorities and so on
 IO Device Control instructions - These are not data transfer ones; these are
transmitted to the device and specify functions peculiar to that device. Ex: seek,
rewind, Top of form etc.
We have seen the IOP fetching instructions from memory, decoding, controlling,
calculating, etc. This is as much a mini CPU. It requires most of the functional logic of
CPU like program counter, decoder, flags, etc. Thus the name IO Processor is justified.

CPU Interrupts and Interrupt Handling

Interrupts are Interruption to CPU. CPU is a busy taskmaster. Any subsystem requiring
the attention of the CPU generates Interrupt. INTERRUPT (INT) is both a control and
status signal to the CPU. Generally, the memory subsystem does not generate Interrupt.
The Interruption alters the CPU execution flow. Recognizing and servicing Interrupts is
fundamental to any processor design.

Interrupts are generated by I/O subsystem, CPU or Software. Interrupts categorization

and details are shown below.

Interrupts Categorization

An Interrupt handling mechanism has the following characteristics:

 Able to identify that an interrupt is pending

  Identify the type of interrupt
 Identify the source of Interrupt
 Control the interrupt mechanism
 Identify or calculate the ISR address
 Context switching mechanism

Interrupt Service Routine

Most of the Interrupts are asynchronous. When an Interrupt occurs,

 The execution flow control is transferred to the corresponding Interrupt Service

Routine (ISR)
 Once the ISR is completed, the original execution flow restarts from the interrupted
point as shown in below figure. ISR is also called Interrupt Handler.
 Interrupts are recognized and serviced by CPU at the end of the current instruction
execution.
 Context switching of the Processor happens while breaking for ISR. This part is
common to all kinds of interrupts.
 What happens in the ISR routine is specific to the Interrupt. For example, if divide
overflow error, the ISR block may send a msg to the user informing the error and
terminate the program. If page fault, page swapping happens. If I/O interrupt,
status reading first happens; based on the status further course is taken up.

Template of ISR
In the case of I/O interrupt, the cause is analysed in the ISR. Any remedial action to be
taken is also part of the ISR. For example, if an interrupt is caused for informing an error
in the device, the same needs to be informed to the user and any possible retry to be
done for recovery from the error.

Context switching
Essentially, an Interrupt alters the flow of the program execution. Context switching is
about the CPU taking necessary steps to store the current status of the CPU so that on
return the CPU status is restored for resumption. Context switching helps the CPU to
switch processes or tasks and is an essential feature supported by the Operating System.

Identifying the ISR Location

By now you would have guessed the increasing complexity of information regarding
Interrupt handling especially the puzzle about the CPU getting ISR location address. The
ISR location depends on the source of Interrupt. The interrupting device or process
provides the CPU with this information about ISR. This information is provided in the form
of type code, or a vector, or an address where the vector can be found. Generally, the
type codes are translated into a vector by the processor. Interrupt vectors are either the
address of the ISR or pointer in a vector table where the relevant ISR address is found.
Although the vector table composition is implementation-specific, an example of a vector
table is shown below.
 Interrupt Vector ISR Address
1 (Page Fault) 1234
2 (Divide Overflow) 1658
3 (IO Interrupt) 2340
* *
* *
* *
n (Floating Point Error) 5240

Interrupt Identification
In the below figure the I/O Interrupt is conveyed to CPU by asserting the signal INTR.
When the CPU recognizes the INTR, it returns the signal INTR ACK as an
acknowledgement. From figure, you may understand that the line INTR is a summation
of interrupts from all the I/O controllers. The issue is how is the interrupting device
identified. The possibilities for a pending interrupt are

 Only one of the I/O controller has raised the Interrupt

 More than one I/O controller has raised the Interrupt

The hardware is designed to handle the second case of as many I/O controllers may raise
interrupts asynchronously but conveyed to CPU on a single line.

Interrupt and Interrupt Acknowledgment between I/O and CPU

The Points to be noted in identifying the interrupting device are:

 The CPU services all the interrupts one by one as it finds the chance to service the
interrupt.
  Amongst the I/O controllers, Interrupt priority is assigned in the hardware. So the
highest priority one gets serviced first and cleared of pending interrupt. This
method is called Daisy Chaining. Generally, the slow speed device controllers are
assigned lower interrupt priority. Starvation may be a possibility. The INTR and
INT ACK signals are passed through all the controllers in the order of the pre-
assigned priority
 Yet the question of which device is not answered. The identification is done by one
of the following methods
o Polling - As part of the ISR by reading the various status registers, the
interrupting device is identified. In this case, the I/O ISR always starts from
a particular common vector address. Polling is a Software method.
o Vectored Interrupts – Extra signal lines between CPU and I/O are run to
indicate the INT CODE (type code) of the interrupt. Every controller is
assigned an INT CODE. For example, if there are eight I/O controllers, 3
lines are used so that the INT CODE is presented in binary coded form. This
type code, as said earlier is useful in generating the vector for ISR.
 Multiple Interrupts Handling – Two possibilities exist:
o Simultaneously more than one interrupt could be pending necessitating
some priority assignment and identification mechanism. We have just
discussed this case.
o During an ISR, another interrupt could come in. A decision to deal with (as
Nested Interrupt) or to defer (Masking the Interrupts) is required. Not all
interrupts are mask able.

Internal interrupts have higher priority over I/O interrupts. Internal interrupts are vectored
interrupts. In the case of software interrupts too, the instruction code will help identify the
ISR vector.
 UNIT – 6
I/O INTERFACE & BUS ARCHITECTURE

Bus
 Bus is a group of wires that connects different components of the computer. It is
used for transmitting data, control signal and memory address from one
component to another. A bus can be 8 bit, 16 bit, 32 bit and 64 bit. A 32 bit bus
can transmit 32 bit information at a time. A bus can be internal or external.

 The bus in the computer is the shared transmission medium. This means multiple
components or devices use the same bus structure to transmit the information
signals to each other. At a time only one pair of devices can use this bus to
communicate with each other successfully. If multiple devices transmit the
information signal over the bus at the same time the signals overlap each other
and get jumbled.

Bus Structure
A system bus has typically from fifty to hundreds of distinct lines where each line is meant
for a certain function. These lines can be categories into three functional groups i.e., data
lines, address lines, and control lines.
1. Data Lines

 Data lines coordinate in transferring the data among the system components. The
data lines are collectively called data bus. A data bus may have 32 lines, 64 lines,
128 lines, or even more lines. The number of lines present in the data bus defines
the width of the data bus.

 Each data line is able to transfer only one bit at a time. So the number of data lines
in a data bus determines how many bits it can transfer at a time. The performance
of the system also depends on the width of the data bus.

2. Address Lines

 The content of the address lines of the bus determines the source or destination
of the data present on the data bus. The number of address lines together is
referred to as address bus. The number of address lines in the address bus
determines its width.
 The width of the address bus determines the memory capacity of the system. The
content of address lines is also used for addressing I/O ports.
 The higher-order bits determine the bus module and the lower ordered bits
determine the address of memory locations or I/O ports.
 Whenever the processor has to read a word from the memory it simply places the
address of the corresponding word on the address line.

3. Control Lines

 The address lines and data lines are shared by all the components of the system
so there must some means to control the use and access of data and address
lines.
 The control signals placed on the control lines. The control bus lines are used to
control access to address and data lines of the bus. The control signal consists of
the command and timing information.
  Here the command in the control signal specify the operation that has to be
performed. And the timing information over the control signals specify till when the
data and address information is valid.

A Typical Bus Interconnection

The control signal can be classified into:

 Memory Write: This command causes the data on the data bus to be placed over the
addressed memory location.
 Memory Read: This command causes the data on the addressed memory location to be
placed on the data bus.
 I/O Write: The command over this control line causes the data on the data bus to be
placed over the addressed I/O port.
 I/O Read: The command over this control line causes the data from the addressed I/O
port to be placed over the data bus.
 Transfer ACK: This control line indicates the data has been received from the data bus
or is placed over the data bus.
 Bus Request: This control line indicates that the component has requested control over
the bus.
 Bus Grant: This control line indicates that the bus has been granted to the requesting
component.
 Interrupt Request: This control line indicates that interrupts are pending.
 Interrupt ACK: This control line provides acknowledgment when the pending interrupt is
serviced.
 Clock: This control line is used to synchronize the operations.
 Reset: The bit information issued over this control line initializes all the modules.

If a component connected to the bus wishes to send data to another connected

component, it first has to acquire control over the bus, and then it can transfer the data to
another component over the bus. The same happen when a component request data
from another component.

During the transfer of data between two components, one component act as a master
and other act as a slave. The device initiating the data transfer is referred to
as master and usually, it is a processor, or sometimes it may be some other device or
component. The component addressed by the master component is referred to as
a slave.

Multiple bus architecture

Most computer systems employ multiple bus architecture, which can use different buses
depending on the data rate of the connected device.

Two typical bus architectures based on the above considerations are:

 Traditional bus architecture

 High performance bus architecture

Traditional bus architecture

 The above figure shows the traditional bus architecture of interconnecting different
modules of the computer.
 This consists of three buses: local bus, system bus & expansion bus.
 The local bus connects the processor to the cache memory as well as one or more
local devices.
 The cache controller also connects to a system bus to which all main memory
modules are attached. The use of cache structure insulates the processor from
accessing the main memory frequently.
 This way the main memory can be connected to the system bus instead of the
local bus & I/O transfers to and from the main memory will not interfere with the
processor activity.
 The I/O controllers can be directly connected onto the system bus, but a more
efficient way is to connect them through an expansion bus.
 This arrangement not only allows the system to support a wide variety of I/O
devices, but also insulates the processor to memory traffic from I/O traffic.
 The expansion bus can be utilized to attach different I/O devices such as SCSI
(small computer system interface), LAN (local area network such as 10 mbps
Ethernet), and serial interface to support printers or scanners.
High performance bus architecture

 The above figure shows the high performance integrated bus architecture. It is
similar to the traditional bus architecture, this too contains a local bus that connects
the processor to a cache controller.
 This in turn is connected to the main memory through the system bus.
 The cache controller is integrated into a bridge or buffering device that connects
to the high speed bus. This bus supports connections to high speed LANs, such
as fast Ethernet at 100 mbps, video & graphics work station controllers & interface
controllers to local peripheral controllers like SCSI & Fire Wire.
 The Fire Wire is a high speed bus specially designed for high capacity I/O devices.
 The lower speed devices are still supported by the expansion bus with an interface
buffering traffic between the expansion & high speed buses.

This way the high speed devices are more closely integrated with the processor through
the high speed bus & at the same time leaving the processor independent. Additionally
the speed differences between the processor, the high speed bus & the single line
connections are easily managed without pulling down the overall performance. Also the
processor & high speed bus become independent, making design changes easy.
Basic Parameters Of Bus Design

Basic Parameters Of Bus Design Table

Type of bus  Dedicated
 Multiplexed
Width of bus  Data
 Address
 Control
Method of arbitration  Centralized
 Distributed
Method of timing  Synchronous
 Asynchronous
Type of data transfer  Read/write
 Read-modify-write
 Read-after-write
 Block transfer

1) Bus Types
Bus lines can be classified into two generic types: dedicated & multiplexed.
 Dedicated
 A line is permanently assigned either to one function.
 An example of functional dedication is the use of separate dedicated
address and data line.
 Multiplexed
 Using the same lines for multiple purpose.
 Eg:- Address and data information may be transmitted over the same set of
lines.
 At the beginning of the data transfer the address is placed on the bus and
the address valid line is activated.
 The address is then remove from the same bus line is used for data
transfer.
 Multiple buses are also called Physical Dedication, which connects each
module by a subset of bus lines.
2) Method of Arbitration
As there are the many modules connected to the buses, more than one module may need
control of the bus.
 Centralized
 A single hardware device called the bus controller or arbiter is responsible
for allocating time on the bus.
 The device may be a separate or a part of a processor.
 Distributed
 There is no centralized controllers.
 Each module contains assess control logic and the modules act together to
share the bus.
In both centralized & distributed schemes, one device, the processor or an I/O module, is
designated as master. The master will then initiate a data transfer to/ from some other
device, which will act as the slave.

3) Timing
 Synchronous Timing
 In this method of timing, a clock controls the occurrence of events on the
bus.
 Bus includes a clock line upon which a clock transmits a regular sequence
of alternating 1's and 0's of equal duration.
 A single 1-0 transition is referred to as a clock cycle or bus cycle.
 All other devices on the bus can read the clock line.
 All events start at the beginning of a clock cycle.
 For read operation, a read command is issued at the start of the second
cycle. The addressed memory module places the data on the data lines
after a delay on one clock cycle.
 For write operation, the processor puts the data on the data lines at the start
of the second cycle & once the data lines stabilize, issues a write command.
 The memory module copies the information available on the data lines in
the third clock cycle.
 Asynchronous Timing
 The occurrence of one event on a bus follows and depends on the occurrence
of a previous event.
 In this method, the processor places the address & the status signals on the
bus. After these signals stabilize, it issues a read command, signifying the
presence of valid address & control signals.
 The addressed memory responds by placing the data on the data lines. After
the data lines stabilize, the memory module asserts the acknowledge line to
signal to the processor that the data are available.
4) Bus Width
 The width of data bus has an impact on the data bus has an impact on the
system performance.
 The wider data bus, the greater number of bit transferred at one time.
 The wider address bus, the greater range of location that can be referenced.

5) Data Transfer Type

A bus provides several data transfer types as shown in the figure.

 All buses provide both write (master to slave) and read (slave to master) assigns.

 Read-Modify-Write: A read-modify-write is simply a read followed immediately

by a write to the same address.
  Read-After-Write : A read-after-write is also an invisible operation consisting
of a write followed immediately by a read from the same address (for error
checking purposes).
Some bus systems support a Block Data Transfer operation in which
 One address cycle is followed by n data cycles.
 The First data item is transferred to or from the specified address.
 The Remaining data items are transferred to or from the subsequent addresses.

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

 SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is an ANSI standard
that has become one of the leading I/O buses in the computer industry.
 The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of variants. The oldest
and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires.
 Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with differential signals. Because of
these various options, the SCSI connector may have 50, 68, or 80 pins. The
maximum transfer rate in commercial devices that are currently available varies
from 5 megabytes/s to 160 megabytes/s.
 The SCSI bus is connected to the processor bus through a SCSI controller. This
controller uses DMA to transfer data packets from the main memory to the device,
or vice versa.
 A controller connected to a SCSI bus is one of two types - an initiator or a target.
An initiator has the ability to select a particular target and to send commands
specifying the operations to be performed.
 The disk controller operates as a target. It carries out the commands it receives
from the initiator.
 Data transfers on the SCSI bus are always controlled by the target controller. To
send a command to a target, an initiator requests control of the bus.
 Then the controller starts a data transfer operation to receive a command from the
initiator.
 The processor sends a command to the SCSI controller, which causes the
following sequence of events to take place:

1. The SCSI controller, acting as an initiator, contends for control of the bus.
2. When the 'initiator wins the arbitration process, it selects the target controller
and hands over control of the bus to it.
3. The target starts an output operation (from initiator to target); in response
to this, the initiator sends a command specifying the required read
operation.
4. The target, realizing that it first needs to perform a disk seek operation,
sends a message to the initiator indicating that it will temporarily suspend
the connection between them. Then it releases the bus.
 5. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to move the read
head to the first sector involved in the requested read operation. Then, it
reads the data stored in that sector and stores them in a data buffer. When
it is ready to begin transferring data to the initiator, the target requests
control of the bus. After it wins arbitration, it res elects the initiator controller,
thus restoring the suspended connection.
6. The target transfers the contents of the data buffer to the initiator and then
suspends the connection again. Data are transferred either 8 or 16 bits in
parallel, depending on the width of the bus.
7. The target controller sends a command to the disk drive to perform another
seek operation. Then, it transfers the contents of the second disk sector to
the initiator, as before. At the end of this transfer, the logical connection
between the two controllers is terminated.
8. As the initiator controller receives the data, it stores them into the main
memory using the DMA approach.
9. The SCSI controller sends an interrupt to the processor to inform it that the
requested operation has been completed.

Bus signals
The main phases involved in the operation of the SCSI bus are:

 Arbitration
 Selection
 Information Transfer
 Reselection
Arbitration

The bus is free when the -BSY signal is in the inactive (high voltage) state. Any controller
can request the use of the bus while it is in this state. Since two or more controllers may
generate such a request at the same time, an arbitration scheme must be implemented.
A controller requests the bus by asserting the -BSY signal and by asserting its associated
data line to identify itself. Each controller in the bus is assigned a fixed priority, with
controller 7 having highest priority. When -BSY becomes active, all controllers that are
requesting the bus examine the data lines and determine whether a higher priority device
is requesting the bus at the same time. The controller using the highest numbered line
realizes that it has won the arbitration.
Selection

Having won arbitration, controller 6 continues to assert -BSY and -DB6 (its address). It
indicates that it wishes to select controller 5 by asserting the -SEL and then the -DB5 line.
The selected target controller responds by asserting -BSY. This informs the initiator that
the connection it is requesting has been established, so that it may remove the address
information from data lines. The selection process is now complete, and the target
controller is asserting -BSY.

Information Transfer

The information transferred between two controllers may consist of commands from the
initiator to the target, status responses from the target to the initiator, or data being
transferred to or from the I/O device. Handshake signaling is used to control information
transfers. The target asserts -I/O during an input operation (target to initiator) and it
asserts -C/D to indicate that information is a command or status response. At the end of
the transfer, the target controller releases -BSY signal, thus freeing the bus for use by
other devices.

Reselection

When a logical connection is suspended and the target is ready to restore it, the target
must first gain control of the bus. It starts an arbitration cycle, and after winning arbitration,
it selects the initiator. The initiator is now asserting -BSY. The initiator waits for short
period after being selected to make sure that target has asserted -BSY, and then releases
the -BSY line. The connection between the two controllers has now been reestablished,
with the target in control of the bus as required for data transfer to proceed. The SCSI
standard defines the structure and contents of various types of packets that the controllers
exchange to handle different situations.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a simple and low cost mechanism to connect the
devices such as keyboards, mouse, cameras, speakers, printer and display
devices to the computer.
 The USB supports two speeds of operation, called low-speed (1.5 megabits/s) and
full speed (12 megabits/s). The most recent revision of the bus specification (USB
2.0) introduced a third speed of operation, called high-speed (480 megabits/s).
 The USB is quickly gaining acceptance in the market place, and with the addition
of the high-speed capability it may well become the interconnection method of
choice for most computer devices.
 The USB has been designed to meet several key objectives:

1. Provide a simple, low-cost, and easy to use interconnection system that

overcomes the difficulties due to the limited number of I/O ports available
on a computer
2. Accommodate a wide range of data transfer characteristics for I/O
devices, including telephone and Internet connections
3. Enhance user convenience through a "plug-and-play" mode of operation

Port limitation:

 Only a few ports are provided in a typical computer. To add new ports, a user must
open the computer box to gain access to the internal expansion bus and install a
new interface card.
 The user may also need to know how to configure the device and the software.
  An objective of the USB is to make it possible to add many devices to a computer
system at any time, without opening the computer box.

Device Characteristics:

 The different kinds of devices may be connected to a computer cover a wide range
of functionality.
 The speed, volume, and timing constraints associated with data transfers to and
from such devices vary significantly.
 In the case of a keyboard, one byte of data is generated every time a key is
pressed, which may happen at any time. These data should be transferred to the
computer promptly.
 Since the event of pressing a key is not synchronized to any other event in a
computer system, the data generated by the keyboard are called asynchronous.
 Furthermore, the rate at which the data are generated is quite low. It is limited by
the speed of the human operator to about 100 bytes per second, which is less than
1000 bits per second.

Plug-and-play:

 The plug-and-play feature means that a new device, such as an additional

speaker, can be connected at any time while the system is operating.
 The system should detect the existence of this new device automatically, identify
the appropriate device-driver soft- ware and any other facilities needed to service
that device, and establish the appropriate addresses and logical connections to
enable them to communicate.
 The plug-and-play requirement has many implications at all levels in the system,
from the hardware to the operating system and the applications software.
 One of the primary objectives of the design of the USB has been to provide a plug-
and-play capability.
USB Architecture:

 A serial transmission format has been chosen for the USB because a serial bus
satisfies the low-cost and flexibility requirements. Clock and data information are
encoded together and transmitted as a single signal. Hence, there are no
limitations on clock frequency or distance arising from data skew. Therefore, it is
possible to provide a high data transfer bandwidth by using a high clock frequency.
As pointed out earlier, the USB offers three bit rates, ranging from 1.5 to 480
megabits/s, to suit the needs of different I/O devices.
 To accommodate a large number of devices that can be added or removed at any
time, the USB has the tree structure shown in Figure 5.33.
 Each node of the tree has a device called a hub, which acts as an intermediate
control point between the host and the I/O devices. At the root of the tree, a root
hub connects the entire tree to the host computer. The leaves of the tree are the
I/O devices being served (for example, keyboard, speaker, or digital TV), which
are called functions in USB terminology.

Figure 5.33 Universal Serial Bus tree structure.

 The tree structure enables many devices to be connected while using only simple
point –to-point serial links. Each hub has a number of ports where devices may be
connected, including other hubs.
 The USB enables the host to communicate with the I/O devices, but it does not
enable these devices to communicate with each other.
 The tree makes it possible to connect a large no. of devices to a computer through
a few ports (the root hub) & each i/o devices is connected through a serial point-
to-point connection. This is an important consideration in facilitating the plug & play
feature.
 The USB operates strictly on the basis of polling. A device may send a message
only in response to a poll message from the host. Hence, upstream messages do
not encounter conflicts or interfere with each other, as no two devices can send
messages at the same time. This restriction allows hubs to be simple, Low-cost
devices.

Figure 5.34 USB Split bus operations.

 Consider the situation in Figure 5.34. Hub A is connected to the root hub by a high-
speed link. This hub serves one high-speed device, C, and one low-speed device,
D. Normally, a message to device D would be sent at low speed from the root hub.
At 1.5 megabits/s, even a short message takes several tens of microseconds.
  For the duration of this message, no other data transfers can take place, thus
reducing the effectiveness of the high-speed links and introducing unacceptable
delays for high-speed devices.
 The purpose of the USB software is to provide bidirectional communication links
between application software and I/O devices. These links are called pipes. Any
data entering at one end of a pipe is delivered at the other end. Issues such as
addressing, timing, or error detection and recovery are handled by the USB
protocols.

Addressing:

 I/O devices are normally identified by assigning them a unique memory address.
In fact, a device usually has several addressable locations to enable the software
to send and receive control and status information and to transfer data.
 When a USB is connected to a host computer, its root hub is attached to the
processor bus, where it appears as a single device. The host software
communicates with individual devices attached to the USB by sending packets of
information, which the root hub forwards to the appropriate device in the USB tree.
 Each device on the USB, whether it is a hub or an I/O device, is assigned a 7 -bit
address. This address is local to the USB tree and is not related in any way to the
addresses used on the processor bus.
 A hub may have any number of devices or other hubs connected to it, and
addresses are assigned arbitrarily. When a device is first connected to a hub, or
when it is powered on, it has the address 0.
 The hardware of the hub to which this device is connected is capable of detecting
that the device has been connected, and it records this fact as part of its own status
information.
 Periodically, the host polls each hub to collect status information and learn about
new devices that may have been added or disconnected.
USB Protocol:

 All information transferred over the USB is organized in packets, where a packet
consists of one or more bytes of information.
 The information transferred on the USB can be divided into two broad categories:
control and data.
 Control packets perform such tasks as addressing a device to initiate data transfer,
acknowledging that data have been received correctly, or indicating an error. Data
packets carry information that is delivered to a device.
 For example, input and output data are transferred inside data packets.
 A packet consists of one or more fields containing different kinds of information.
The first field of any packet is called the packet identifier, PID, which identifies the
type of that packet. There are 4 bits of information in this field, but they are
transmitted twice. The first time they are sent with their true values, and the second
time with each bit complemented, as shown in Figure 5.35(a).
 This enables the receiving device to verify that the PID byte has been received
correctly.

Figure 5.35. USB packet format.

 The four PID bits identify one of 16 different packet types. Some control packets,
such as ACK (Acknowledge), consist only of the PID byte. Control packets used
for controlling data transfer operations are called token packets.
 They have the format shown in Figure 5.35(b). A token packet starts with the PID
field, using one of two PID values to distinguish between an IN packet and an OUT
packet, which control input and output transfers, respectively.
 The PID field is followed by the 7 -bit address of a device and the 4-bit endpoint
number within that device. The packet ends with 5 bits for error checking, using a
method called cyclic redundancy check (CRC). The CRC bits are computed based
on the contents of the address and endpoint fields.
 By performing an inverse computation, the receiving device can determine whether
the packet has been received correctly.
 Data packets, which carry input and output data, have the format shown in Figure
4.45c. The packet identifier field is followed by up to 8192 bits of data, then 16
error-checking bits. Three different PID patterns are used to identify data packets,
so that data packets may be numbered 0, 1, or 2.
 Note that data packets do not carry a device address or an endpoint number. This
information is included in the IN or OUT token packet that initiates the transfer.
 Consider an output device connected to a USB hub, which in turn is connected to
a host computer. An example of an output operation is shown in Figure 5.36.
 The host computer sends a token packet of type OUT to the hub, followed by a
data packet containing the output data. The PID field of the data packet identifies
it as data packet number o.
 The hub verifies that the transmission has been error free by checking the error
control bits, and then sends an acknowledgment packet (ACK) back to the host.
The hub forwards the token and data packets downstream. All I/O devices receive
this sequence of packets, but only the device that recognizes its address in the
token packet accepts the data in the packet that follows.
 After verifying that transmission has been error free, it sends an ACK packet to the
hub.
  Successive data packets on a full-speed or low-speed pipe carry the numbers 0
and 1, alternately. This simplifies recovery from transmission errors. If a token,
data, or acknowledgment packet is lost as a result of a transmission error, the
sender resends the entire sequence.
 By checking the data packet number in the PID field, the receiver can detect and
discard duplicate packets. High-speed data packets are sequentially numbered 0,
1, 2, 0, and so on. Input operations follow a similar procedure.

Electrical characteristics:

The cables used for USB connections consist of four wires. Two are used to carry power,
5 V and Ground. Thus, a hub or an I/O device may be powered directly from the bus, or
it may have its own external power connection. The other two wires are used to carry
data.
 UNIT – 7
PARALLEL PROCESSING
Parallel Processing
Parallel processing can be described as a class of techniques which enables the system
to achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to increase the computational speed of a
computer system.

A parallel processing system can carry out simultaneous data-processing to achieve

faster execution time. For instance, while an instruction is being processed in the ALU
component of the CPU, the next instruction can be read from memory.

The primary purpose of parallel processing is to enhance the computer processing

capability and increase its throughput, i.e. the amount of processing that can be
accomplished during a given interval of time.

Parallel processing mechanism:-

A number of parallel processing mechanisms have been developed in uniprocessor
computers. We identify them in the following six categories.

 Multiplicity of functional units.

 Parallelism and pipeline within the CPU
 Overlapped CPU and I/O
 Use of hierarchical memory system
 Balancing of subsystem bandwidths.
 Multiprogramming and time sharing.

A parallel processing system can be achieved by having a multiplicity of functional units

that perform identical or different operations simultaneously. The data can be distributed
among various multiple functional units.
Parallel processing can be viewed from various levels of complexity. At the lowest level,
we distinguish between parallel and serial operations by the type of registers used. At the
higher level of complexity, parallel processing can be achieved by using multiple
functional units that perform many operations simultaneously.

The following diagram shows one possible way of separating the execution unit into eight
functional units operating in parallel.

The operation performed in each functional unit is indicated in each block if the diagram:

o The adder and integer multiplier performs the arithmetic operation with integer
numbers.
o The floating-point operations are separated into three circuits operating in parallel.
 o The logic, shift, and increment operations can be performed concurrently on
different data. All units are independent of each other, so one number can be
shifted while another number is being incremented.

Data Transfer Modes of a Computer System

According to the data transfer mode, computer can be divided into 4 major groups:

1. SISD

2. SIMD

3. MISD

4. MIMD

SISD (Single Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream)

 It represents the organization of a single computer containing a control unit,

processor unit and a memory unit. Instructions are executed sequentially.
 It can be achieved by pipelining or multiple functional units.

SIMD (Single Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream)

 It represents an organization that includes multiple processing units under the

control of a common control unit.
 All processors receive the same instruction from control unit but operate on
different parts of the data.
 They are highly specialized computers.
 They are basically used for numerical problems that are expressed in the form of
vector or matrix. But they are not suitable for other types of computations
MISD (Multiple Instruction Stream, Single Data Stream)

 It consists of a single computer containing multiple processors connected with

multiple control units and a common memory unit.
 It is capable of processing several instructions over single data stream
simultaneously.
 MISD structure is only of theoretical interest since no practical system has been
constructed using this organization.

MIMD (Multiple Instruction Stream, Multiple Data Stream

 It represents the organization which is capable of processing several programs at

same time.
 It is the organization of a single computer containing multiple processors
connected with multiple control units and a shared memory unit.
 The shared memory unit contains multiple modules to communicate with all
processors simultaneously.
 Multiprocessors and multicomputer are the examples of MIMD. It fulfills the
demand of large scale computations.

PIPELINING
Pipelining is the process of accumulating instruction from the processor through a
pipeline. It allows storing and executing instructions in an orderly process. It is also known
as pipeline processing.

Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during execution.

Pipelining organizes the execution of the multiple instructions simultaneously.

Pipelining improves the throughput of the system. In pipelining the instruction is divided
into the subtasks. Each subtask performs the dedicated task.
The instruction is divided into 5 subtasks: instruction fetch, instruction
decode, operand fetch, instruction execution and operand store. The instruction
fetch subtask will only perform the instruction fetching operation, instruction decode
subtask will only be decoding the fetched instruction and so on the other subtasks will do.

For example, take a car manufacturing plant. At the first stage, the automobile chassis is
prepared, in the next stage workers add body to the chassis, further, the engine is
installed, then painting work is done and so on.

The group of workers after working on the chassis of the first car don’t sit idle. They start
working on the chassis of the next car. And the next group take the chassis of the car and
add body to it. The same thing is repeated at every stage, after finishing the work on the
current car body they take on next car body which is the output of the previous stage.

Here, though the first car is completed in several hours or days, due to the assembly line
arrangement it becomes possible to have a new car at the end of an assembly line in
every clock cycle.

Similarly, the concept of pipelining works. The output of the first pipeline becomes the
input for the next pipeline. It is like a set of data processing unit connected in series to
utilize processor up to its maximum.

An instruction in a process is divided into 5 subtasks likely,

1. In the first subtask, the instruction is fetched.

2. The fetched instruction is decoded in the second stage.
3. In the third stage, the operands of the instruction are fetched.
4. In the fourth, arithmetic and logical operation are performed on the operands
to execute the instruction.
 5. In the fifth stage, the result is stored in memory.

Now, understanding the division of the instruction into subtasks. Let us understand, how
the n number of instructions in a process, are pipelined.

Look at the figure below the 5 instructions are pipelined. The first instruction gets
completed in 5 clock cycle. After the completion of first instruction, in every new clock
cycle, a new instruction completes its execution.

Observe that when the Instruction fetch operation of the first instruction is completed in
the next clock cycle the instruction fetch of second instruction gets started. This way the
hardware never sits idle it is always busy in performing some or other operation. But, no
two instructions can execute their same stage at the same clock cycle.

Types of Pipelining
In 1977 Handler and Ramamoorthy classified pipeline processors depending on their
functionality.
1. Arithmetic Pipelining

 It is designed to perform high-speed floating-point addition, multiplication and

division.

 Here, the multiple arithmetic logic units are built in the system to perform the
parallel arithmetic computation in various data format.

 Examples of the arithmetic pipelined processor are Star-100, TI-ASC, Cray-1,

Cyber-205.

For example: The input to the Floating Point Adder pipeline is:

X = A*2^a

Y = B*2^b

Here A and B are mantissas (significant digit of floating point numbers), while a and b are
exponents.
The floating point addition and subtraction is done in 4 parts:

1. Compare the exponents.

2. Align the mantissas.
3. Add or subtract mantissas
4. Produce the result.
Registers are used for storing the intermediate results between the above operations.
2. Instruction Pipelining

 Here, the number of instruction are pipelined and the execution of current
instruction is overlapped by the execution of the subsequent instruction. It is also
called instruction lookahead.
3. Processor Pipelining

 Here, the processors are pipelined to process the same data stream.

 The data stream is processed by the first processor and the result is stored in the
memory block. The result in the memory block is accessed by the second
processor.

 The second processor reprocesses the result obtained by the first processor and
the passes the refined result to the third processor and so on.

4. Unifunction Vs. Multifunction Pipelining

 The pipeline performing the precise function every time is unifunctional pipeline.

 On the other hand, the pipeline performing multiple functions at a different time or
multiple functions at the same time is multifunction pipeline.

5. Static vs Dynamic Pipelining

 The static pipeline performs a fixed-function each time. The static pipeline is
unifunctional.

 The static pipeline executes the same type of instructions continuously. Frequent
change in the type of instruction may vary the performance of the pipelining.

 Dynamic pipeline performs several functions simultaneously. It is a multifunction

pipelining.

6. Scalar vs Vector Pipelining

 Scalar pipelining processes the instructions with scalar operands.

 The vector pipeline processes the instruction with vector operands.
Pipelining Hazards

Whenever a pipeline has to stall due to some reason it is called pipeline hazards. Below
we have discussed four pipelining hazards.

1. Data Dependency

Consider the following two instructions and their pipeline execution:

In the figure above, you can see that result of the Add instruction is stored in the
register R2 and we know that the final result is stored at the end of the execution of the
instruction which will happen at the clock cycle t4.

But the Sub instruction need the value of the register R2 at the cycle t3. So the Sub
instruction has to stall two clock cycles. If it doesn’t stall it will generate an incorrect result.
Thus depending of one instruction on other instruction for data is data dependency.

2. Memory Delay

When an instruction or data is required, it is first searched in the cache memory if not
found then it is a cache miss. The data is further searched in the memory which may
take ten or more cycles. So, for that number of cycle the pipeline has to stall and this is
a memory delay hazard. The cache miss, also results in the delay of all the subsequent
instructions.

3. Branch Delay

Suppose the four instructions are pipelined I1, I2, I3, I4 in a sequence. The instruction I1 is
a branch instruction and its target instruction is Ik. Now, processing starts and instruction
I1 is fetched, decoded and the target address is computed at the 4 th stage in cycle t3.

But till then the instructions I2, I3, I4 are fetched in cycle 1, 2 & 3 before the target branch
address is computed. As I1 is found to be a branch instruction, the instructions I2, I3, I4 has
to be discarded because the instruction Ik has to be processed next to I1. So, this delay
of three cycles 1, 2, 3 is a branch delay.

Prefetching the target branch address will reduce the branch delay. Like if the target
branch is identified at the decode stage then the branch delay will reduce to 1 clock cycle.
4. Resource Limitation

If the two instructions request for accessing the same resource in the same clock cycle,
then one of the instruction has to stall and let the other instruction to use the resource.
This stalling is due to resource limitation. However, it can be prevented by adding more
hardware.

Advantages

 Pipelining improves the throughput of the system.

 In every clock cycle, a new instruction finishes its execution.
 Allow multiple instructions to be executed concurrently.

Disadvantages

 The design of pipelined processor is complex and costly to manufacture.

 The instruction latency is more.
Multiprocessor
 A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central processing units
(CPUs) share full access to a common RAM.
 The main objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost the system’s execution
speed, with other objectives being fault tolerance and application matching.
 There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called shared memory
multiprocessor and another is distributed memory multiprocessor.

 In shared memory multiprocessors, all the CPUs shares the common memory
but in a distributed memory multiprocessor, every CPU has its own private
memory.

Applications of Multiprocessor
1. As a uniprocessor, such as single instruction, single data stream (SISD).
2. As a multiprocessor, such as single instruction, multiple data stream (SIMD), which
is usually used for vector processing.
3. Multiple series of instructions in a single perspective, such as multiple instruction,
single data stream (MISD), which is used for describing hyper-threading or pipelined
processors.
4. Inside a single system for executing multiple, individual series of instructions in
multiple perspectives, such as multiple instruction, multiple data stream (MIMD).

Benefits of using a Multiprocessor

 Enhanced performance.
 Multiple applications.
 Multi-tasking inside an application.
 High throughput and responsiveness.
 Hardware sharing among CPUs.

Types of Multiprocessors
There are mainly two types of multiprocessors i.e. symmetric and asymmetric
multiprocessors.

Symmetric Multiprocessors

 In these types of systems, each processor contains a similar copy of the operating
system and they all communicate with each other.

 All the processors are in a peer to peer relationship i.e. no master - slave
relationship exists between them.

 An example of the symmetric multiprocessing system is the Encore version of Unix

for the Multimax Computer.

Asymmetric Multiprocessors

 In asymmetric systems, each processor is given a predefined task. There is a

master processor that gives instruction to all the other processors.

 Asymmetric multiprocessor system contains a master slave relationship.

 Asymmetric multiprocessor was the only type of multiprocessor available before

symmetric multiprocessors were created.
Communication architecture of a multiprocessor:

 Message Passing

o Independent address space for every processor

o Processor communication by means of message passing
o Processors include private memories
o Concentrates attention on high-priced, non-local operations

 Shared Memory

o Processor communication is done by means of a shared address space

o Processor communication is done by means of shared memory read/write
o Convenient on small-scale devices
o Lower latency
o Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) or symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)

Disadvantages of Multiprocessor Systems

 Increased Expense

Even though multiprocessor systems are cheaper in the long run than using multiple
computer systems, still they are quite expensive. It is much cheaper to buy a simple
single processor system than a multiprocessor system.

 Complicated Operating System Required

There are multiple processors in a multiprocessor system that share peripherals,

memory etc. So, it is much more complicated to schedule processes and impart
resources to processes than in single processor systems. Hence, a more complex and
complicated operating system is required in multiprocessor systems.

 Large Main Memory Required

All the processors in the multiprocessor system share the memory. So a much larger
pool of memory is required as compared to single processor systems.
Flynn's Classical Taxonomy
 M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by
the number of instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously.
 The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction
stream.
 The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.
 There are different ways to classify parallel computers.
 One of the more widely used classifications, in use since 1966, is called Flynn's
Taxonomy.
 Flynn's taxonomy distinguishes multi-processor computer architectures according
to how they can be classified along the two independent dimensions of Instruction
Stream and Data Stream. Each of these dimensions can have only one of two
possible states: Single or Multiple.

Flynn's classification
1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)
 The matrix below defines the 4 possible classifications according to Flynn:

Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD):

 An SISD computing system is a uniprocessor machine which is capable of
executing a single instruction, operating on a single data stream.
 In SISD, machine instructions are processed in a sequential manner and
computers adopting this model are popularly called sequential computers.
 Most conventional computers have SISD architecture.
 All the instructions and data to be processed have to be stored in primary
memory.
 The speed of the processing element in the SISD model is limited (dependent)
by the rate at which the computer can transfer information internally.
 Dominant representative SISD systems are IBM PC, workstations.

********************************************

 A serial (non-parallel) computer

 Single Instruction: Only one instruction stream is being acted on by the CPU during any one
clock cycle
 Single Data: Only one data stream is being used as input during any one clock cycle
 Deterministic execution
 This is the oldest type of computer
 Examples: older generation mainframes, minicomputers, workstations and single
processor/core PCs.
Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD):
 An SIMD system is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing the same
instruction on all the CPUs but operating on different data streams.
 Machines based on an SIMD model are well suited to scientific computing since
they involve lots of vector and matrix operations.
 So that the information can be passed to all the processing elements (PEs)
organized data elements of vectors can be divided into multiple sets(N-sets for
N PE systems) and each PE can process one data set.

 Dominant representative SIMD systems is Cray’s vector processing machine.

*************************************
  A type of parallel computer
 Single Instruction: All processing units execute the same instruction at any given clock cycle
 Multiple Data: Each processing unit can operate on a different data element
 Best suited for specialized problems characterized by a high degree of regularity, such as
graphics/image processing.
 Synchronous (lockstep) and deterministic execution
 Two varieties: Processor Arrays and Vector Pipelines
 Examples:
o Processor Arrays: Thinking Machines CM-2, MasPar MP-1 & MP-2, ILLIAC IV
o Vector Pipelines: IBM 9000, Cray X-MP, Y-MP & C90, Fujitsu VP, NEC SX-2, Hitachi
S820, ETA10
 Most modern computers, particularly those with graphics processor units (GPUs) employ
SIMD instructions and execution units.

Multiple Instruction, Single Data (MISD):

 An MISD computing system is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing
different instructions on different PEs but all of them operating on the same
dataset .
 Example Z = sin(x)+cos(x)+tan(x)
 The system performs different operations on the same data set.
 Machines built using the MISD model are not useful in most of the application, a
few machines are built, but none of them are available commercially.

*********************************
 A type of parallel computer
 Multiple Instruction: Each processing unit operates on the data independently via separate
instruction streams.
 Single Data: A single data stream is fed into multiple processing units.
 Few (if any) actual examples of this class of parallel computer have ever existed.
 Some conceivable uses might be:
o multiple frequency filters operating on a single signal stream
o multiple cryptography algorithms attempting to crack a single coded message.
Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD):
 An MIMD system is a multiprocessor machine which is capable of
executing multiple instructions on multiple data sets.
 Each PE in the MIMD model has separate instruction and data streams;
therefore machines built using this model are capable to any kind of
application.
 Unlike SIMD and MISD machines, PEs in MIMD machines work
asynchronously.

 MIMD machines are broadly categorized into shared-memory

MIMD and distributed-memory MIMD based on the way PEs are coupled to the
main memory.

Shared Memory MIMD

 In the shared memory MIMD model (tightly coupled multiprocessor systems), all
the PEs are connected to a single global memory and they all have access to it.
 The communication between PEs in this model takes place through the shared
memory, modification of the data stored in the global memory by one PE is visible
to all other PEs.
 Dominant representative shared memory MIMD systems are Silicon Graphics
machines and Sun/IBM’s SMP (Symmetric Multi-Processing).
Distributed Memory MIMD
 In Distributed memory MIMD machines (loosely coupled multiprocessor
systems) all PEs have a local memory.
 The communication between PEs in this model takes place through the
interconnection network (the inter process communication channel, or IPC).
 The network connecting PEs can be configured to tree, mesh or in accordance
with the requirement.

 The shared-memory MIMD architecture is easier to program but is less tolerant

to failures and harder to extend with respect to the distributed memory MIMD
model.
 Failures in a shared-memory MIMD affect the entire system, whereas this is not
the case of the distributed model, in which each of the PEs can be easily isolated.
 Moreover, shared memory MIMD architectures are less likely to scale because
the addition of more PEs leads to memory contention.
 This is a situation that does not happen in the case of distributed memory, in
which each PE has its own memory.
 As a result of practical outcomes and user’s requirement , distributed memory
MIMD architecture is superior to the other existing models.

*********************
 A type of parallel computer
 Multiple Instruction: Every processor may be executing a different instruction stream
 Multiple Data: Every processor may be working with a different data stream
 Execution can be synchronous or asynchronous, deterministic or non-deterministic
 Currently, the most common type of parallel computer - most modern supercomputers fall
into this category.
 Examples: most current supercomputers, networked parallel computer clusters and "grids",
multi-processor SMP computers, multi-core PCs.
 Note: many MIMD architectures also include SIMD execution sub-components