Géométrie semi-riemannienne

Éric Loubeau
Master 2 de mathématiques fondamentales · Université de Rennes
Notes prises par Téofil Adamski (version du 5 avril 2023)
 i

Sommaire

1 Differentiable manifolds
1.1 Differentiable manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Tangent spaces and tangent bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Semi-riemannian manifolds
2.1 First definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Connection and Levi-Civita connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Curvature and Ricci tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Killing vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Geodesics
3.1 First definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Examples
5 Calculus of variations
 1

Chapitre 1
Differentiable manifolds

1.1 Differentiable manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Tangent spaces and tangent bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1. Differentiable manifolds

Let S be a topological connected Hausdorff and paracompact space. A chart is a homeomor-
phism ξ from and open subset of S in a open subset η(U ) ⊂ Rn . It can be written

ξ(P ) = (x1 (p), . . . , xn (p)), ∀p ∈ U

where the maps xi are called the coordinates functions of ξ and we will denote ξ = (x1 , . . . , xn ).
Two charts ξ and η of dimension n intersect in a smooth manner if the maps ξ ◦ η −1 and η ◦ ξ −1
are of classe C ∞ .
An atlas is a collection of charts of dimension n such that

– for all point p ∈ S, there exist an open subset U such that p ∈ U ;

– two charts intersect in a smooth manner.

An atlas is complete if it contains all the charts of S which intersect in a smooth manner. Any atlas
admits a completion.

Définition 1.1. A differentiable manifold is a topological space equipped with a complete atlas.

Exemples. – The euclidean space is a differentiable manifold.

– The sphere Sn ⊂ Rn+1 is a differentiable manifold of dimension n.
– A cartesian product of differentiable manifolds is also a differentiable manifold.

Définition 1.2. Let M be a differentiable manifold. A function f : M −→ R is of class C ∞ if, for

any chart (U, η), the maps
f ◦ η −1 : η −1 (U ) −→ R
is of class C ∞ .
The sum, product and inverse are of class C ∞ .

Définition 1.3. Let M and N be two differentiable manifolds. A map ϕ : M −→ N is of class C ∞

if, for any charts (U, ξ) of M and (V, η) of N , the map
η ◦ ϕ ◦ ξ −1 : ξ(U ) −→ η(V ).
is of class C ∞ .
 2 1.2. Tangent spaces and tangent bundle

1.2. Tangent spaces and tangent bundle

Définition 1.4. Let p ∈ M a point. Let F (M ) be the space of functions of class C ∞ on M . A
tangent vector at the point p is a R-linear map v : F (M ) −→ R satisfying the Leibniz rules
v(f g) = f (p)v(g) + g(p)v(f ).
The space of all tangent vectors at the point p is the tangent space at the point p, denoted Tp M .

Let (U, ξ) a chart, p ∈ U a point and f ∈ F (M ) a function. We denote η = (x1 , . . . , xm ) and

∂f ∂(f ◦ η −1 )
(p) := (η(p)).
∂xi ∂ui
where the notation ui are the coordinates on Rm . The map
∂
∂i |p := : F (M ) −→ R
∂xi p

are a tangent vector at the point p. The vectors ∂i |p form a basis of Tp M .

Définition 1.5. Let ϕ : M −→ N be a map of class C ∞ . For all point p ∈ M , we define the R-linear
map
dϕp : Tp M −→ Tϕ(p) N
by the equality
dϕp (v) = vϕ ∈ Tϕ(p) N
where
vϕ (g) := v(g ◦ ϕ).

With coordinate (x1 , . . . , xm ) on M and (y 1 , . . . , y n ), we have

n
X ∂(y i ◦ ϕ) ∂
dϕ(p)(∂j |p ) = (p) .
i=1
∂xj ∂y i ϕ(p)

Remarque. If the maps ϕ : M −→ N and ψ : N −→ P are smooth, then the composition ψ ◦ ϕ is

also a smooth map.
Définition 1.6. A vector field is a a map V which send each point p ∈ M on a tangent vector
V p ∈ Tp M .

If f ∈ F (M ), we denote V (f )(p) := Vp (f ).

Définition 1.7. If V (f ) is of class C ∞ for all f ∈ F (M ), then V is of class C ∞ .

The sum of two vector fields is a vector field. The multiplication of a vector field by a function
is a vector field. The bracket of two vector fields V and W is defined by
[V, W ]p (f ) := Vp (W (f )) − Wp (V (f )).
It is skew-symmectric R-bilinear. It satisfies the Jacobi identity
[X, [Y, Z]] + [Y, [Z, X]] + [Z, [X, Y ]] = 0.
We have
[f X, gY ] = f g[X, Y ] + f (X(g))Y − g(Y (f ))X.

Exemple. We have [∂i , ∂j ] = 0.

Définition 1.8. A differentiable manifold P is a sub-manifold of M if
– P ⊂M;
– the injection map j : P ,−→ M is a map of class C ∞ ;
– it differential djp : Tp P −→ Tj(p) M is injective for all p ∈ P .
Chapitre 1. Differentiable manifolds 3

Théorème 1.9 (Whitney). Let M be a C ∞ -differentiable manifold of dimension n. Then there

exists an immersion M −→ R2n .
F
The tangent bundle of M is TM := p∈M Tp M . With TM = {(p, v) | p ∈ M, v ∈ Tp M }, we
have a natural map π : TM −→ M which satisfies π −1 (p) = Tp M . We can show that the tangent
bundle is a manifold of dimension 2n. Indeed, let be (U, ξ) a chart on M with ξ = (x1 , . . . , xn ).
Let v ∈ Tp M . We can write
X ∂
v= vi i
∂x p

with v i ∈ R. We consider
π −1 (U ) ⊂ TM −→ R2n ,
η̃ :
(p, u) 7−→ (x1 (π(p, u)), . . . , xn (π(p, u)), v 1 , . . . , v n ).
where v i = v(xi ) =: ẋi (u). This defines a atlas on TM . If (u1 , . . . , u2n ) are the coordinates on R2n ,
the transition functions are given by
ui ξ˜ ◦ η̃ −1 = xi ◦ π ◦ η̃ −1 (a, b) = xi η −1 (a),
X ∂xi
ui ξ˜ ◦ η̃ −1 = ẋi ◦ η̃ −1 (a, b) = bk k (η −1 (a)).
∂y
So the map ξ˜ ◦ η̃ −1 are of class C ∞ .

Remarque. A vector field X : M −→ TM is a map of class C ∞ such that π ◦ X = IdM .

Remarque. In general, we have TM ̸= M × Rn . This is the case for S3 .

Exemple. We consider the sphere S2 . It is a manifold of dimension 2. We want to calculate it

tangent space at a point p ∈ S2 . Let γ : ]−ε, ε[ −→ S2 be a curve of class C ∞ on S2 with γ(0) = p.
It acts on functions on S2 . For a function f : S2 −→ R, we denote
d
γ̇(0) · f := (f ◦ γ)(t)
dt t=0

We have
dγ
= γ̇(0) ∈ Tp S2
dt t=0

and all tangent vector can be obtained this way. As |γ| = 1, we find
d
|γ(t)|2 = 0 = 2⟨p, γ̇(0)⟩.
dt
Thus we conclude
Tp S2 = {X ∈ R3 | ⟨X, p⟩ = 0}.

Exemples. Open subsets of Rn are differentiable manifolds. The half-plane H2 := R × R∗+ has the
tangent space Tp H2 = R2 and so its tangle bundle is TH2 = H2 × R2 .

Exemples. – The image of the map

]−1, 1[ −→ R2 ,
t 7−→ (t, |t|)

is a differentiable manifold but not a submanifold of R2 .

– The map
R −→ R2 ,
t 7−→ (t3 , t2 )

is differentiable but not an immersion.

 4 1.3. Tensors

– The map
R −→ R2 ,
t 7−→ (t3 − 4t, t2 − 4)
is differentiable and an immersion, but there is a self-intersection sot it is not an embedding.
– The map t 7−→ (t, sin(1/t)) is an immersion with no self-intersecting point, but it is not an
embedding.
– The cone x2 + y 2 − z 2 = 0 is not a submanifold of R3 for connectivity reasons.


1.3. Tensors
Let V be a module over a ring K.
Définition 1.10. Let r, s ∈ N be integers with rs > 0. A tensor of type (r, s) is a K-multilinear
function
(V ∗ )r × V s −→ K.
We denote Tr,s (V ) the set of tensors of type (r, s).
A tensor field is a tensor on the ring X (M ) which denotes the set of vectors field on a
differentiable manifold M . The set X (M ) is a module on the ring F(M ) of functions on M . So a
tensor field of type (r, s) is a F(M )-linear map
A : X ∗ (M )r × X (M )s −→ F(M ).

Exemple. The map

X ∗ (M ) × X (M ) −→ F(M ),
C:
(θ, X) 7−→ θ(X)
is a tensor.

Counter-example. Let ω ∈ X ∗ (M ) a linear form. The map

X (M ) × X (M ) −→ F(M ),
F:
(X, Y ) 7−→ X(ω(Y ))
is not a tensor field.
′ ′ ′ ′
Remarque. When A ∈ Tr,s (V ) and B ∈ Tr ,s (V ), we can define the tensor A × B ∈ Tr+r ,s+s (V )
with the equality
′ ′
A⊗B(θ1 , . . . , θr+r , X1 , . . . , Xs+s′ ) = A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )A(θr+1 , . . . , θr+r , Xs+1 , . . . , Xs+s′ ).
i
Proposition 1.11. Let p ∈ M and A ∈ Tr,s (M ). Let θ and θi be 1-forms which agree on p. Let X i
and Xi be vector field which agree on p. Then
1 r
A(θ , . . . , θ , X 1 , . . . , X s )(p) = A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )(p).
Thus we can define the map
Ap : (T∗p M )r × (Tp M )s −→ R.

Démonstration. We show that, if θi0 (p) = 0 or Xi0 (p) = P 0, then A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )(p) = 0.
n
1
Let (U, (x , . . . , x )) be a chart. Then we can write Xj0 = X i ∂i . Let f be a bump function on U
i 2
with f (p)P= 1. We have Xj0 (p) = 0 ⇔ X (p) = 0, ∀i and f Xj0 is a vector field and we can write
f 2 Xj0 = f X i (f ∂i ). So
f 2 A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs ) = A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , f 2 Xj0 , . . . , Xs )
X
= f xI A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , f ∂i , . . . , X s )
i
1 r
and A(θ , . . . , θ , X1 , . . . , Xs )(p) = 0. ⋄
Chapitre 1. Differentiable manifolds 5

Let (U, (x1 , . . . , xn )) be a map. Let p ∈ U . On U , we denote

Aij11,...,i s i1 ir
,...,js := A(dx , . . . , dx , ∂ji , . . . , ∂js )

and we have X
A= Aij11,...,i i1 ir
,...,js ∂ji ⊗ · · · ⊗ ∂js ⊗ dx ⊗ · · · ⊗ dx .
s

The contraction of A on the indices i and j is the tensor field Cji A of type (r − 1, s − 1) which is
the composition of C and the tensor
(θ, X) 7−→ A(θ1 , . . . , θ, . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , X, . . . , Xs ).
The component of Cji A are Aij11,...,m,...,i
,...,m,...,js with m ∈ {1, . . . , n}.
r

Définition 1.12. Let ϕ : M −→ N a differentiable map. If A ∈ T0,s (N ), we set

ϕ∗ A(X1 , . . . , Xs ) := A(dϕ(X1 ), . . . , dϕ(Xs )).
The tensor ϕ∗ A ∈ T0,s (M ) is the pull-back of A by ϕ.
Définition 1.13. A derivation of tensor is a R-linear map
D : Tr,s (M ) −→ Tr,s (M )
such that
D(A ⊗ B) = DA ⊗ B + A ⊗ DB
and
D(CA) = C(DA).

For a function f ∈ F(M ) ⊂ T0,0 (M ), we set f ⊗ A = f A and we have D(f A) = f DA + (Df )A.
The derivation D is a derivation of functions so there exists a V ∈ X (M ) such that Df = V (f ).
The chain rule becomes

D(A(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )) = (DA)(θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )
X r Xs
+ A((θ1 , . . . , Dθi , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , Xs )) + (θ1 , . . . , θr , X1 , . . . , DXj , . . . , Xs ).
i=1 i=1

Théorème 1.14. Given a vector field V and an R-linear map δ : X (M ) −→ X (M ) such that
δ(f X) = V (f )W + f (δX),
there exists a unique derivation of tensors which equals to δ on X (M ) and V on F(M ).
Définition 1.15. Let V ∈ X (M ). Then we set the derivation LV as
LV (f ) := V (f ) et LV (X) := [V, X]
for all f ∈ F(M ) and X ∈ X (M ). It is called the Lie’s derivation.
Définition 1.16. Let V be a vector space. The index of a bilinear form b is the dimension of the
largest subspace W ⊂ V such that the restriction b|W ×W is negative definite.
A vector v ∈ V is null or isotropic if v ̸= 0 and b(v, v) = 0.
Lemme 1.17. Let V and W be two linear spaces of the same dimension. Then they are equipped
with inner products with the same indices if and only if the exists a linear isometry V −→ W .
 7

Chapitre 2
Semi-riemannian manifolds

2.1 First definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Connection and Levi-Civita connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Curvature and Ricci tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Killing vector field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1. First definitions

Définition 2.1. A metric on a differentiable manifold M is a tensor field g on M of type (0, 2)
which is symmetric, non-degenerate and with a constant index. A semi-riemannian manifold is a
manifold M equipped with a metric g.
In general, two different metrics on a same manifold M gives two different semi-riemannian
structures on M . If the index is zero, then we say that the semi-riemannian manifold (M, g) is
riemannian. If the index is one, then we will call it lorentzian.
In local coordinates (U, (x1 , . . . , xn )), we can write g = gi,j dxi ⊗ dxj with gi,j = g(∂i, ∂j).
P
i,j
The matrix (gi,j ) is invertible, the inverse will be denoted (g ).

Exemple. Let ν ⩽ n be a natural integer. On the space Rn , we have the semi-riemannian

structure Rnν with the metric
ν
X n
X
⟨u, v⟩ = − ui wi + v i wi .
i=1 i=ν+1

Définition 2.2. Let p ∈ M . Let (M, g) be a semi-riemannian manifold. A tangent vector v ∈ Tp M

is
– space-like if v = 0 or g(v, v) = 0 ;
– null if v ̸= 0 and g(v, v) = 0 ;
– time-like if g(u, u) < 0.
Null vectors form the null cone.
If P ⊂ M is a submanifold and M is equipped with a riemannian metric g, the P is a riemannian
manifold. For example, the sphere S2 admits a riemannian metric. But this is not always true for
semi-riemannian metrics.
Lemme 2.3. Let (M, gM ) and (N, gN ) two semi-riemannian manifolds. Let π : M × N −→ M
and σ : M × N −→ N the two projections. Then the map g := π ∗ gN + σ ∗ gN is a semi-riemannian
metric on M × N .
Définition 2.4. An isometry between two semi-riemannian manifolds (M, g) and (N, h) is a
diffeomorphism ϕ : M −→ N which preserves the metrics, that is ϕ∗ g = h or
∀p ∈ M, ∀u, w ∈ Tp M, hϕ(p) (dϕp (u), dϕp (v)) = gp (u, v).
 8 2.2. Connection and Levi-Civita connection

Exemple. Let (u1 , . . . , P

un ) be the natural coordinates on Rnν .PLet V and W two vector fields
on R . We denote W =
n
W i ∂i . We define DV W := dW (V ) = V (W i )∂i . This is the covariant
derivative of W with respect to V .

2.2. Connection and Levi-Civita connection

Définition 2.5. A connection on a manifold M is a map
X (M ) × X (M ) −→ X (M ),
D:
(X, Y ) 7−→ DX Y
such that
– DV W is F(M )-linear in V ;
– DV W is R-linear in W ;
– DV (f W ) = V (f )W + f DV W .

Proposition 2.6. Let (M, g) be a semi-riemannian manifold. Let V ∈ X (M ) a vector field. Let V ∗
be the 1-form defined by
V ∗ (X) := g(V, X).
Then the map V 7−→ V ∗ is a F(M )-linear isomorphism.

Exemples. – We take the sphere S2 . For a point p ∈ S2 and two tangent vectors X, Y ∈ Tp S2 ,
we can define
gp (X, Y ) := ⟨X, Y ⟩
where the notation ⟨·, ·⟩ is the standard inner product on R3 . This gives a riemannian metric
on S2 . If we replace the inner product ⟨·, ·⟩ by another semi-riemannian metric on R3 , then
this metric is no longer semi-riemannian in general.
– If g is a riemannian metric, then a another riemannian metric is given by
g̃p (X, Y ) := ef (p) gp (x, y)
for a smooth function f ∈ C ∞ (M, R).
– There exists three vector fields Ei on S3 which form a orthonormal family where the semi-
riemannian is the same as the first example. Then we can define a new semi-riemannian
metric by
◦ ⟨Ei , Ej ⟩ = 0 for all i ̸= j ;
◦ |E1 |2 = −1 and |E2 |2 = |E3 |2 = 1.
– On the half-plane H2 , we can define the metric
dx2 + dy 2
g := .
y2

Question. When can we equip M with a semi-riemannian metric ? It is not always the case for a
semi-riemannian metric with strictly positive index. But it is always the cases for a riemannian
metric. There is two ways to do that :
– by using the Withney’s theorem : the exists an immersion ι : M −→ RN for a large enough
integer N and we take the pullback of the euclidean matric on RN , that is
gp (X, Y ) := ⟨dιp (X), dιp (Y )⟩;
– if (Ui , xi ) are an atlas of M , we define
X
gp := αi x∗i ⟨·, ·⟩Rn .
i

Théorème 2.7. Let (M, g) be a semi-riemannian manifold. Then there exists a unique connection D
such that, for all vector fields V and W , we have
 Chapitre 2. Semi-riemannian manifolds 9

– [V, W ] = DV W − DW V ;
– Xg(V, W ) = g(DX V, W ) + g(V, DX W )
Moreover, the connection D is characterized by the Koszul formula
2g(DV W, X) = V (g(X, W )) + W (g(X, V )) − Xg(V, W )
− g(V, [W, X]) + g(W, [X, V ]) + g(X, [V, W ]).
It is called the Levi-Civita connection.

Démonstration. Let D be a connection satisfying these two points. In the right-hand side of the
Koszul formula, using the two points, we obtain 2g(DV W, X). This proves the uniqueness because
of the one-to-one correspondance between vector fields and 1-forms.
Let proves the existence. Let F (V, W, X) the right-hand side of the Koszul formula. Then if we
take two vector fields V and W , then the map F (V, W, ·) : X (M ) −→ R is F(M )-linear. So it is
a 1-form. Thus there exists a unique vector field DV W such that
g(DV W, X) = F (V, W, X), ∀X ∈ X (M ).
This show the Koszul formula and that the map D is a connection. With this formula, we can prove
the two points. ⋄

Notation. We will write ∇ for the Levi-Civita connection. With this notation and g(·, ·) = ⟨·, ·⟩,
the two points of the theorem are
X⟨Y, Z⟩ = ⟨∇X Z, Y ⟩ + ⟨∇X Y, Z⟩,
[X, Y ] = ∇X Y − ∇Y X.

Définition 2.8. The Christoffel symbols for the chart (U, xi ) are the functions on U given by
n
X
D∂i (∂j ) = Γki,j ∂k .
k=1

Recall that [∂i , ∂j ] = 0 = D∂i (∂j ) − D∂j (∂i ) by the Schwarz theorem, so Γki,j = Γkj,i . Moreover,
P j
if W = W ∂j on U , then
X X
D∂i (W ) = (∂i (W j )∂j + W j Γki,j ∂k )
j k
X X
= (∂i (W j ) + W j Γki,j )∂k
k j

By Koszul formula, we have

 
1 X k,ℓ ∂gℓ,j ∂gℓ,i ∂gi,j
Γki,j = g + − .
2 ∂xi ∂xj ∂xℓ
ℓ

Exemple. On Rnν , we have Γki,j = 0.

2.3. Curvature and Ricci tensor

Definition-proposition 2.9. Let (M, g) a semi-riemannian manifold and ∇ its Levi-Civita connection.
The the map
X (M ) × X (M ) × X (M ) −→ X (M )
R:
(X, Y, Z) 7−→ R(X, Y )Z := ∇[X,Y ] Z − ∇X ∇Y Z + ∇Y ∇X Z
is a tensor field of type (1, 3), called the riemannian curvature.

There is a version of type (0, 4) given by

R(X, Y, Z, W ) = g(R(X, Y )Z, W ).
10 2.3. Curvature and Ricci tensor

Démonstration. We need to check that R(f X, Y )Z = f R(X, Y )Z and R(X, Y )(f Z) = f R(X, Y )Z.
We have [f X, Y ] = f XY − Y (f )X − f Y X and
∇[f X,Y ] Z = f ∇X ∇Y Z
which prove the formula. ⋄

Proposition 2.10. We have the following properties :

1. R(X, Y )Z = −R(X, Y )Z ;
2. g(R(X, Y )Z, W ) = −g(R(X, Y )W, Z) ;
3. R(X, Y )Z + R(Y, Z)X + R(Z, X)Y = 0 ;
4. g(R(X, Y )Z, W ) = g(R(Z, W )X, Y ).

Démonstration. 2. With g(·, ·) = ⟨·, ·⟩, one has

g(R(X, Y )Z, Z) = ⟨∇[X,Y ] Z − ∇X ∇Y Z + ∇Y ∇X Z, Z⟩
= ⟨∇[X,Y ] Z, Z⟩ − ⟨∇X ∇Y Z, Z⟩ + ⟨∇Y ∇X Z, Z⟩
 
⟨Z, Z⟩
= [X, Y ] − X⟨∇Y Z, Z⟩ + ⟨∇Y Z, ∇X Z⟩ + Y ⟨∇X Z, Z⟩ − ⟨∇X Z, ∇Y Z⟩
Z
      
⟨Z, Z⟩ ⟨Z, Z⟩ ⟨Z, Z⟩
= [X, Y ] − XY +Y X = 0.
Z Z Z
So g(R(X, Y )(Z + W ), Z + W ) = 0 and we conclure by bilinearity. ⋄

Remarque. The map R is a tensor. For X, Y, Z ∈ X (M ) and p ∈ M , the quantity (R(X, Y )Z)p
only depend on the values X(p), Y (p) and Z(p). So we can define Rp (u, v)w for u, v, w ∈ Tp M .
Proposition 2.11. Let X, Y and Z be three vector fields. Then
(∇Z R)(X, Y ) + (∇X R)(Y, Z) + (∇Y R)(Z, X) = 0.
Remarque. We have
(∇X R)(Y, Z)W = ∇X (R(Y, Z)W ) − R(∇X Y, Z)W − R(Y, ∇X Z)W − R(Y, Z)∇X W.
Moreover, we have
(∇X g)(Y, Z) = X(g(Y, Z)) − g(∇X Y, Z) − g(X, ∇X Z) = 0.

Démonstration. We prove the identity on a basis. We choose X = ∂i , Y = ∂j and Z = ∂k . So

(∇Z R)(X, Y )W = [∇Z , R(X, Y )]W − R(∇Z X, Y )W − R(X, ∇Z Y )W
and then
(∗) = (∇Z R)(X, Y ) + (∇X R)(Y, Z) + (∇Y R)(Z, X)
= [∇Z , R(X, Y )]W + [∇X , R(Y, Z)]W + [∇Y , R(Z, X)]
− R(∇Z X, Y )W − R(X, ∇Z Y )W
− R(∇X Y, Z)W − R(Y, ∇X Z)W
− R(∇Y Z, X)W − R(Z, ∇Y X)W
= [∇Z , R(X, Y )]W + [∇X , R(Y, Z)]W + [∇Y , R(Z, X)]
+ R([X, Z], Y )W + R([Z, Y ], X)W + R([Y, X], Z)W.
But
[∇Z , R(X, Y )] = [∇Z , [∇X , ∇Y ]] − [∇Z , ∇[X,Y ] ]
where the last term is null on U and so
(∗) = [∇Z , [∇X , ∇Y ]] = [∇X , [∇Y , ∇Z ]] + [∇Y , [∇Z , ∇Y ]] = 0. ⋄

Let p ∈ M be a point and Π be a plane in Tp M . For two tangent vectors v, w ∈ Tp M not null
and not colinear, we define
Q(v, w) := ⟨v, v⟩⟨w, w⟩ − ⟨v, w⟩2 .
Chapitre 2. Semi-riemannian manifolds 11

This gives a semi-riemannian metric. The plane Π is nondegenerate if

Q(v, w) ̸= 0, ∀v, w ∈ Π \ {0}, v ̸∝ w.
The quantity |Q(v, w)| is the volume of the parallelogram defined by the vectors v and w. If Π is
not degenerate, then we define the sectional curvature of Π bu
g(R(v, w)v, w)
K(Π) := .
Q(v, w)
This definition does not depend on the choice of the vectors v and w.
Proposition 2.12. If K(Π) = 0 for all plane Π ⊂ Tp M , then R = 0 at the point p.

Démonstration. 1. If v and w define a nondegenerate plane Π, then it suffices to apply the

implication K(Π) = 0 ⇒ ⟨R(v, w)v, w⟩ = 0.
2. If they define a degenerate plane, then v and w can be approximated by vectors which define
a nondegenerate plane. If v is null, let x be a tangent vector such that ⟨u, x⟩ ̸= 0. If not, let
x be the opposite of the causal type of v. Then Q(u, x) < 0. Let δ ̸= 0 a small real number
such that the vectors v and w + δx define a nondegenerate plane. We assume δ = 1. So thank
to the first case, we get
⟨R(u, w)u, x⟩ + ⟨R(u, x)u, w⟩ = 0
which implies ⟨R(u, w)u, x⟩ = 0 for all x and so R(u, w)u = 0. Thus R(v + x, w)(v + x) = 0
and R(v, w)x + R(x, w)v = 0, so R(u, w)x = R(w, x)u. If we do u ←→ w, we get R(w, u)x =
R(u, x)u. So we have R(u, w)x = R(w, x)u = R(x, v)w. But the first Bianchi identity gives
R(u, w)x + R(w, x)u + R(x, u)w = 0
and so R(u, w)x = 0. Thus R = 0.
⋄
Corollaire 2.13. If the sectional curvature of M is, at a point p, constant to c, then
∀x, y, z ∈ Tp M, R(x, y)z = c(⟨y, z⟩x − ⟨x, z⟩y).

Définition 2.14. – The Ricci tensor is a (0, 2)-tensor obtainned by contraction of

n
X
Ric(X, Y ) := εm g(R(X, Em ), Em )
m=1

where (Ei ) is a orthonormal frame (whe g(Ei , Ej ) = 0 if i ̸= j and g(Ei , Ei ) = εi = ±1). This
defines a symmetric form.
– The scalar curvature is the function
n
X
scal := εm Ric(Em , Em ).
m=1

Proposition 2.15. We have dscal = 2 div(Ric).

Démonstration. We set the notations.

– If f is a function, then df is a 1-form defined by df (X) := X(f ).
Pn
– If T is a (0, 2)-tensor, then div T is a 1-form defined by div T (X) := m=1 εm ∇Em T (Em , X).
– We work with a vector field X such that (∇Y X)p = 0 for Y ∈ X (M ).
– We work with an orthonormal basis (Em ) such that (∇Y Em )p = 0 for Y ∈ X (M ).
At p, we have
dscal = X(scal)
X
= εm εj X(g(R(Em , Ej )Ej , Em ))
m,j
X
= εm εj [g(∇X (R(Em , Ej )Ej ), Em ) + g(R(Em , Ej )Ej , ∇X Em )]
m,j
12 2.3. Curvature and Ricci tensor

X
= εm εj g((∇X R)(Em , Ej )Ej + R(∇X Em , Ej )Em + R(Em , ∇X Ei )Em + R(Em , Ej )∇X Em , Em )
m,j
X
= εm εj g((∇X R)(Em , Ej )Ej , Em )
m,j
X
= εm εj [−g((∇Ej R)(X, Em )Ej , Em ) − g((∇Em R)(Ej , X)Ej , Em )]
m,j
X
=− εm εj [(∇Em R)(Ej , X, Ej , Em ) + ∇Ej R(X, Em , Ej , Em )]
m,j
X
= εm εj [(∇Ej R)(Ej , Em , Em , X) + ∇EM R(Em , Ej , Ej , X)]
m,j
X
=2 εm εj (∇Ej R)(Ej , Em , Em , X)
m,j
X
=2 εm εj ∇Ej (R(Ej , Em , Em , X)) because ∇g = 0
m,j
X
=2 εm εj ∇Ej (Ric(Ej , X))
m,j
X
=2 εm εj ∇Ej (Ric(X, Ej ))
m,j
X
=2 εm εj (∇Ej Ric)(Ej , X)
m,j

= 2 div(Ric)X. ⋄

Definition-proposition 2.16. A semi-riemannian manifold (M, g) is an Einstein manifold if there

exists a function f on M such that
Ricp = f (p)gp , ∀p ∈ M. (∗)
If the dimension is greater than 3, then the function f is constant.

Démonstration. The idea is to take the divergence of the equation (∗). We have

X
div(f g)(X) = εi (∇Ei (f g))(Ei , X)
i
X
= εi [Ei (f g(Ei , X)) − f g(∇Ei Ei , X) − f g(Ei , ∇Ei X)]
i
X
= εi [Ei (f )g(X, Ei ) + f (Ei g(X, Ei )) − f g(∇Ei Ei , X) − f g(Ei , ∇Ei X)]
i
X
= εi Ei (f )g(X, Ei )
i
X 
= εi g(X, Ei )Ei (f )
i
= X(f ) = df (X)

and so div(f g) = df . Taking the divergence of the equation (∗), we obtain div(Ric) = df and, by
the last proposition, we have df = dscal/2. Taking its trace, we get scal = (dim M )f . Then we have
scal = 2f + K for a constant K. As dim M ⩾ 2, the function scal is a constant and so does the
function f . ⋄
 Chapitre 2. Semi-riemannian manifolds 13

2.4. Killing vector field

Définition 2.17. A Killing vector field is a vector field such that the Lie derivative of the matrix g
with respect to X is zero, that is
L X g = 0.
The associated flow of a vector field is the map
M × I −→ M,
Ψ:
(p, t) 7−→ Ψt (p)
such that
dΨ(t, p)
Ψ(p, 0) = p et = X(p).
dt t=0

Proposition 2.18. A vector field X is a Killing vector field if and only if its flow is by isometries.

Démonstration. First, we show that

1 ∗
L X g = lim [Ψ g − g]. (1)
t−→0 t t
By the chain rule, one has
(L X g)(A, B) = X(g(A, B)) − g(L X A, B) − g(A, L X B)
= X(g(A, B)) − g([X, A], B) − g(A, [X, B])
= g(∇X A, B) + g(A, ∇X B) − g(∇X A − ∇A X, B) − g(A, ∇X B − ∇B X)
= g(∇A X, B) + g(∇B X, A).
So X is a Killing vector field if and only if
∀A, B, g(∇A X, B) = −g(A, ∇B X).
But we have
(Ψ∗t g − g)(A, B) = g(dΨt (A), dΨt (B)) − g(A, B)
= g(dΨt (A), dΨt (B)) − g(AΨt , BΨt ) + g(AΨt , BΨt ) − g(A, B).
On the one hand, with F = G ◦ α, α(t) = Ψt and G = g(A, B), we get
lim [g(AΨt , BΨt ) − g(A, B)] = F ′ (0)
t−→0
= Xg(A, B).
On the other hand, with à = AΨt and A ←→ AΨt , we have
g(dΨt (A), dΨt (B)) − g(AΨt , BΨt ) = g(Ã, B̃) − g(A, B)
= g(Ã − A, B̃) + g(A, B̃ − B)
with
1
lim g(Ã − A, B̃) = lim[g(dΨt (A) − AΨt , dΨt (B))]
t−→0 tt−→0
1
= lim g(dΨt (A − dΨ−t (AΨ(t) )), dΨt (B))
t−→0 t
1
= − lim g(dΨt (dΨ−t (AΨ(t) ) − A), dΨt (B))
t−→0 t
1
= −g( lim [dΨt (dΨ−t (AΨ(t) ) − A)], lim dΨt (BΨt )).
t−→0 t t−→0

But limt−→0 dΨt (BΨt ) = B and

1
lim [dΨt (dΨ−t (AΨ(t) ) − A)] = −[A, X]. (∗)
t−→0t
If we conclude the equality (∗), then we will get the formula (1). Let proove the equality (∗).
14 2.4. Killing vector field

Let Ψ be the flow of a vector field V . We must prove

1
[V, W ] = lim [dΨ−t (WΨt − W )] (2)
t−→0 t

Let Fp (t) = dΨ−t (WΨt (p) . The right-hand side of the equation (2) is exactly Fp′ (0). Assume Vp ̸= 0.
Let (xi ) a system of local coordinates such that ∂/∂xi = V . Then locally
x1 (Ψt (q)) = x1 (q) + t et xj (Ψt (q)) = xj (q), j⩾2
and 
∂
 X ∂Ψj ∂ ∂
dΨt = = (Ψt ).
∂xi j
∂xi ∂xj ∂x i

∂
W i ∂x
P
Let W = i i
. Thus
X ∂
Fp (t) = W i (Ψt (p)) .
i
∂xi

and so
X d(W i ◦ Ψt (p)) ∂
Fp′ (0) =
i
dt t=0 ∂xi
X ∂
= Vp (W i )
i
∂xi
X ∂W i
= ∂i .
i
∂x1
So
[V, W ] = (∂1 , W )
X
= [∂1 , W i ∂i ]
X
= ∂1 (W 1 )∂i + W i [∂1 , ∂i ]
X ∂X i
= ∂i = Fp′ (0). ⋄
∂x1
Lemme 2.19. Let X be a Killing vector field on a connected manifold M such that, for all
point p ∈ M , we have
X(p) = 0 et (∇X)p = 0.
Then X = 0 on M .

Démonstration. The set

A := {q ∈ M | X(q) = 0 et (∇X)q = 0}
is closed and nonempty. To conclude, we show that this set is open. Take p ∈ A et Ψt the associated
flow.
Since X(p) = 0, we have Ψt (p) = 0 for all t. Indeed, the flow satisfies Ψt ◦ Ψs = Ψt+s . Thus we
get
dΨt+s dΨt
(p) = (p) = X(p) = 0
dt t=0 dt t=0
which concludes Ψt (p) = Ψ0 (p) = p.
Let proves that dΨt : Tp M −→ Tp M is the identity. We have [X, Y ]p = (∇X Y )p − (∇Y X)p . But
the points (∇X Y )p depends only on X(p) = 0, so (∇X Y )p = 0. So we have (X(Y ) − Y (X))p = 0
and
dΨt (YΨt ) − Yp
= 0.
t
Let Fp (t) := dΨt (YΨt ). Then Fp′ (0) = 0. With Y = dΨs (u), the function t 7−→ dΨ−t (YΨt ) has a
null derivative, so dΨt = 0. Finally, the flow acts by isométries, so the flow acts by the identity. ⋄
Chapitre 2. Semi-riemannian manifolds 15

Remarque. Klling vector fields form a Lie algebra of finite dimension because [L X , L Y ] = L [X,Y ] .
Moreover, the dimension is less then n(n + 1)/2 where n = dim M .

Proposition 2.20. Let X be a Killing vector field and f := |X|2 /2. Then
∆f = − Ric(X, X) + |∇X|2 .

Démonstration. Only calculus. ⋄

Remarque. We compute grad f = −∇X X.

Définition 2.21. The divergence of a vector field X is
div V := tr(∇V ).
Théorème 2.22 (Bochores). Let M be a compact riemannian manifold with Ric(X, X) ⩽ 0 for
all X. Then a Killing vector field is parallel, that is ∇X = 0 on M . If Ric < 0, then there are no
nonzero Killing vector field.

Démonstration. But the Stokes theorem, we have

Z
div V = 0.
M

Let f = |X|2 /2. We get Z Z

∇f = 0 = − Ric(Y, X) + |∇X|2
M M

and so ∇X = 0. Moreover, if Ric < 0, then Ric(Y, X) = 0 for all Y and so X = 0. ⋄

Théorème 2.23 (Berger). Let M a compact riemannian manifold of even dimension with positive
sectional curvature. The any Killing vector field has a zero.

Démonstration. Let X be a vector field. Let f := |X|2 /2. Then grad f = −∇X X. If X has no
zero, then f has a positive minimum at a point p ∈ M . Then Hess f (p) ⩾ 0. Let V be a vector field.
Ten
Hess f (V, V ) := ⟨∇V (∇f ), V ⟩ = ⟨−∇V ∇X X, V ⟩
= ⟨R(V, X)X, V ⟩ + ⟨∇V X, ∇V X⟩.
But B : X 7−→ ∇X X is skew symmetric, so (∇X X)(p) = (grad f )p = 0, so B admits λ = 0 as
an eigenvalue with X(p) as a eigenvector. As dim M is even, there exists another eigenvector V
corresponding to λ = 0. ⋄
 17

Chapitre 3
Geodesics

3.1 First definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.1. First definitions

Définition 3.1. Let M be a differential manifold. Let I := ]−ε, ε[ ⊂ R be a interval centered at the
origin and γ : I −→ M a curve. A vector field along the curve γ is a map X : I −→ TM such that
∀t ∈ I, X(t) ∈ Tγ(t) M.

Exemple. The map t 7−→ (γ(t), γ ′ (t)) is a vector field along the curve γ.
Proposition 3.2. Let M a semi-riemannian manifold et γ : I −→ M a curve. Then there exists a
unique R-linear operator
D
: {vector fields along γ} −→ {vector fields along γ}
dt
such that
D df D
– dt (f X) = dt X + f dt X;
D
– If X(t) = Y (γ(t)), then dt X = (∇γ Y ) ◦ γ.

Démonstration. Let t0 ∈ I. Let (U, x) a chart on M and J ⊂ I an interval such that γ(J) ⊂ U .
Let Xi := ∂/∂xi . If Y is a vector field along γ, we have
X
Tγ(t) M ∋ Y (t) = αj (t)(Xj )γ(t).
j

With the first two conditions, we get

D X D X
Y = αj (Xi ◦ γ) + αk′ Xk (γ)
dt j
dt
k

and, by the third condition, we obtain

X
γ̇t = γ̇i Xi (◦γ)
and
D X
(Xi ◦ γ) = (∇j Xj ) ◦ γ = γ̇i (∇Xi Xj ) ◦ γ.
dt i

Put everything together

D X X 
Y = αk′ Γki,j,◦γ γi′ αj Xk ◦ γ.
dt i,j
k

Therefore the operator exists and is unique. ⋄

Remarque. The quantity (∇γ ′ X)(t) depends only on γ̇(t). We denote D

dt Y by ∇γ̇ Y .
18 3.1. First definitions

Définition 3.3. Let M be a semi-riemannian manifold and γ : I −→ M a curve of class C ∞ . A

vector field X along the curve γ is parallel if ∇γ̇ X = 0.
Définition 3.4. A curve γ is a geodesic if ∇γ̇ γ̇ = 0.

Théorème 3.5. Let M be a semi-riemannian manifold and γ : ]a, b[ −→ M be a curve. Let t0 ∈ I

be a real number and X0 ∈ Tγ(t0 ) M a tangent vector. Then there exists a unique vector field Y
along the curve γ such that Y (t0 ) = X0 .

Démonstration. Let (U, x) be a chart such that γ(t0 ) ∈ U . Let Xi := ∂/∂xi . Let J ⊂ I be a
interval such that γ(J) ⊂ U . We denote
X X
γ̇(t) = γ̇ i (t)Xi (γ(t)) et Y (t) = αj (t)Xj (γ(t)).
j

Then
DY Xh X i
(t) = α̇k (t) + αj (t)γ̇i (t)Γki,j (γ(t)) Xk (γ(t))
dt i,j
k

and so
DY X
(t) = 0 ⇐⇒ ∀k, α̇k (t) + αj (t)γ̇i (t)Γki,j (γ(t)) = 0. (∗)
dt i,j

Let admits the Picard-Lindelöf-Cauchy theorem :

Let f : I × U −→ Rn a continuous function which is Lipschitz in x. Then there exists
an unique solution x : I −→ Rn of the system
x′ (t) = g(t, x(t)) et x(t0 ) = x0 .
So there exists a solution to the equation (∗) for any initial data. One can extend Y (t) to I because
the coefficients in the equation (∗) are bounded for t ∈ I. ⋄

Lemme 3.6. Let X and Y be two parallel vector field along a curve γ. The the map
t 7−→ gγ(t) (X(t), Y (t))
a constant. For X = Y = γ̇, if γ is a geodesic, then g(γ̇, γ̇) = |γ|2 is constant.
Remarque. So causal type of geodesics is preserve on frame (Xi ).
Théorème 3.7. Let M be a semi-riemannian manifold. Let p ∈ M and v ∈ Tp M . Then there exists
an open interval I and a unique geodesic γ : I −→ M such that
γ(0) = p et γ̇(0) = v.

Démonstration. Let (U, x) be a chart such that γ(t0 ) ∈ U . Let Xi := ∂/∂xi . Let J ⊂ I be a
interval such that γ(J) ⊂ U . We write
X
γ̇ = γ̇i (Xi ◦ γ).
i

We have Xh X i
∇γ̇ γ̇ γ̈k (t) + γ̇j (t)γ̇j (t)Γki,j ◦ γ Xk (γ(t)).
k i,j

So γ is a geodesic if and only if

X
γ̈k (t) + γ̇j (t)γ̇j (t)Γki,j ◦ γ, ∀k
i,j

if on only if its components satisfy the systems of second order nonlinear ordinary differential
equation. Existence is given, for any initial data p and v, by the Picard-Lindelöf-Cauchy theorem. ⋄
 19

Chapitre 4
Examples

Exemple. The euclidean space Rn is a semi-riemannian manifold. The geodesics are straight lines.
Indeed, we have Γki,j = 0 and a path γ must verify the equation
γ̈ k + Γki,j γ̇ i γ̇j = 0

Exemple. The sphere Sn is a riemannian manifold. Indeed, it is a differentiable manifolds by the

charts
Sn \ {N } −→ Rn ,
πN :
 
x1 xn
(x1 , . . . , xn ) 7−→ ,...,
1 − xn+1 1 − xn+1
and
Sn \ {S} −→ Rn ,
πS :
 
x1 xn
(x1 , . . . , xn ) 7−→ ,...,
1 + xn+1 1 + xn+1
where the points N and S are the north and south poles. These two charts are bijective and we can
verify that there compositions are C ∞ maps.
We find the tangent spaces. Let p ∈ Sn . Take a curve γ : ]−ε, ε[ −→ Sn with γ(0) = p. Then we
have |γ(0)|2 = 1 and thus γ̇(0) ∈ Tp Sn . We can prove Tp Sn = {X ∈ Rn+1 | ⟨p, X⟩ = 0}.
We must equip the sphere with a metric. For X, Y ∈ Tp Sn , we set
gSn ,p (X, Y ) := ⟨X, Y ⟩Rn+1 .
Then the tensor g is a metric on the sphere Sn . We get a riemannian manifold.
We must understand the Levi-Civita connection. We define the connection ∇ on Sn by
∇X Y := (∂X Y )tangent
and we will check that it is indeed the Levi-Civita connection. Here, the « tangent » is the projection
on the tangent space according the decomposition Rn+1 = Rp⊕Tp Sn and we denote ∂X Y = dY (X).
First, we prove that
∇X Y = ∂X Y + ⟨X, Y ⟩p.
The normal part of ∂X Y is ⟨∂X Y, p⟩p. But ⟨Y, p⟩ = 0, so X⟨Y, p⟩ = 0 and ⟨∂X Y, p⟩ + ⟨Y, ∂Y p⟩ = 0
and ∂X p = dp(X) = X. So the normal part of ∂X Y is −⟨X, Y ⟩p. Next, we observe that
⟨Z, ∇X Y ⟩ = ⟨Z, ∂X Y ⟩.
By the Koszul formula, we have
2⟨Z, ∂X Y ⟩ = X⟨Z, Y ⟩ − Z⟨X, Y ⟩
and
⟨Z, ∂X Y ⟩ = ⟨Z, ∇X Y ⟩ + Y ⟨X, Y ⟩ − ⟨X, [Y, Z]⟩ + ⟨Y, [Z, X]⟩ + ⟨Z, [X, Y ]⟩.
So we get the Koszul formula. By the uniqueness, this is the Levi-Civita connection.
20

Let us find the curvature. We have

−R(X, Y )Z = ∇X ∇Y Z − ∇Y ∇X Z − ∇[X,Y ] Z
= ∇X (∂Y Z + ⟨Z, Y ⟩p) − ∇Y (∂X Z + ⟨Z, X⟩p) − (∇[X,Y ] Z + ⟨Z, [X, Y ]⟩p)
= ∂X ∂Y z − ∂Y ∂X Z − ∂[X,Y ] z) + (⟨X, ∂Y Z⟩p − ⟨Y, ∂X Z⟩p − ⟨[X, Y ], Z⟩p) + (∂X ⟨Y, Z⟩p − ⟨X, ⟨Y, Z⟩p⟩p −
= ⟨Y, ∂Y Z⟩p − ⟨Y, ∂X Z⟩p − ⟨[X, Y ], Z⟩p + ∂X (⟨Y, Z⟩p) − ∂Y (⟨X, Z⟩p).
But ∂X (⟨Y, Z⟩p) = ⟨∇X Y, Z⟩p + ⟨Y, ∇X Z⟩p + ⟨Y, Z⟩p and so
−R(X, Y )Z = ⟨∇X Y, Z⟩p − ⟨∇Y X, Z⟩p − ⟨[X, Y ], Z⟩p + ⟨Y, Z⟩p − ⟨X, Z⟩p
= ⟨Y, Z⟩X − ⟨X, Z⟩Y.
The sectional curvature is K = +1. The Ricci tensor is
Ric(X, Y ) = (n − 1)⟨X, Y ⟩
and the scalar curvature is
scal = n(n − 1).
Let us find the geodesics. Let γ a geodesics. Then ∇γ̇ γ̇ = 0. But
∇γ̇ γ̇ = (∂γ γ̇)
= γ̈ tangent
= γ̈ − γ̈ normal
= γ̈ − ⟨γ̈, γ⟩γ.
After calculus, we find that the geodesics are great circles.

Exemple. The hyperbolic space is Hm := R∗+ × Rm−1 . Its tangent spaces are Tp Hm ≃ Rm . We
equip this manifold with the metric
⟨X, Y ⟩
g(X, Y ) = .
x21
It is a riemannian manifold with sectional curvature equal to −1.
We can choose others models of the hyperbolic space such as
Hm = {(x0 , . . . , xm ) ∈ Rm+1 | x0 > 0, −x20 + x21 + · · · + x2m = −1}.
Equipped with the induce metric, it is a riemannian manifold. An other model is the Poincaré
model
Dm := {x ∈ Rm | |x| < 1}
with the metric
4
g(X, Y ) = ⟨X, Y ⟩.
(1 − |x|2 )2
The sectional curvature is also equal to −1.

Exemple. The curvature of Rm

1 is zero, its geodesics are straight lines.

Exemple. We set the pseudo-sphere Sn−1

ν ⊂ Rnν . The tangent space is
Tp Sn−1
ν = {X ∈ Rn | ⟨p, X⟩Rnν = 0}.
The pseudo-spere equipped with the metric ⟨·, ·⟩Rnν is a riemannian manifold of signature (ν, n−1−ν).
It is diffeomorphic to Rν × Sn−1−ν and it sectional curvature is +1. The geodesics are branches
of hyperboloids, straight line or periodic curves on ellipsoids : we can prove this by considering
different cases (the vectors to join are time, space or light like). More over, a curve γ is a geodesic
if and only iff the curves γ̈ and γ are parallel.
 21

Chapitre 5
Calculus of variations

Let M be a semi-Riemannian manifold. Let γ : I −→ M be a curve. We recall that the set Aγ

is the set of maps Y : I −→ TM along the curve γ, that is such that
∀t ∈ I, Y (t) ∈ Tγ(t) M.
A such map Y can be write X
Y (t) = αj (t)(Xj ◦ γ)(t)
j

on a chart (U, xi ) with Xj := ∂/∂xj . The derivation for Aγ is

D X X 
Y (t) = α̇k (t) + Γkij (γ(t))γ̇i (t)αj (t) Xk (γ(t)).
dt i,j
k

Facts.
D
1. For all X0 ∈ Tγ(0) M , there exists Y ∈ Aγ such that Y (0) = X0 and dt Y = 0.
D
2. For all X0 ∈ Ta M , there exists t0 > 0 and γ : [0, t0 [ −→ M such that γ(a) = X0 and dt γ = 0.
Such a γ is called a geodesic.
3. We also write dtD
Y = Y ′ = Ẏ = ∇γ̇ Y .
4. If γ is a geodesic, then
d
⟨γ̇, γ̇⟩ = ⟨γ̈, γ̇⟩ = 0.
dt
Définition 5.1. Let M be a semi-Riemannian manifold. A variation of a function α : [a, b] −→ M
of class C ∞ is a map x : [a, b] × ]−δ, δ[ −→ M of class C ∞ with δ > 0 such that x(u, 0) = α(u).
The variation vector field is the vector field V such that
∂x
V (u) := (u, 0).
∂v
The length of α is
Z b
L(α) := |α′ (s)| ds
a
p
where |·| = |⟨·, ·⟩|. The length of V is
Z b
∂x
L(v) = Lx (v) = (s, v) ds.
a ∂u
We consider curves such that |γ ′ (t)| > 0, called regular curves of space-like. We denote ε the
sign of ⟨α′ , α′ ⟩.
Lemme 5.2. If x is a variation of α with |α′ | > 0, then
Z b ′
α (u)
L′x (0) = ε ⟨ ′ , V ′ (u)⟩ du.
a |α (u)|
22

∂x
Démonstration. With xu = ∂u , we have
Z b
L(u) := |xu (u, v)| du.
a
We have α′ = xu (u, 0)′ . So for δ small enough, we have |xu (u, v)| > 0 for u ∈ ]−δ, δ[. So
Z b
′ d
L (0) = |xu | dt.
a du u=0
But we get
d 1 ε⟨xu , xuv ⟩
|xu | = (ε⟨xu , xu ⟩)−1/2 2ε⟨xu , xuv ⟩ = .
du 2 ⟨xu , xu ⟩
Take u = 0, we get xu (u, 0) = α′ (0) and xv (u, 0) = V (u) and xuv (u, 0) = V ′ (u). ⋄

Proposition 5.3 (first variation). Let α : [a, b] −→ M be a continuous and smooth curve piece-wise
of constant speed c > 0 and of sign ε. Let x be a variation of α. Then
n
ε b ′′
Z
εX ε
L′ (0) = − ⟨α , V ⟩ du − ⟨∆α′ (Ui ), V (Ui )⟩ + ⟨α′ , V ⟩|ba
c a c i=1 c
with U1 < · · · < Uk are points where α is not C ∞ and
∆α′ (Ui ) = α′ (Ui+ ) − α′ (Ui− ) ∈ Tα(Ui ) M.

Démonstration. We have
α′ 1
⟨ ′
, V ⟩ = ⟨α′ , V ′ ⟩.
|α | c
On ]Ui , Ui+1 [, we have
d ′
⟨α′ , V ′ ⟩ = ⟨α , V ⟩ − ⟨α′′ , V ⟩.
du
So Z Ui+1 Z Ui+1
U
⟨α′ , V ′ ⟩ du = ⟨α′ , V ⟩Ui+1
i
− ⟨α′′ , V ⟩ du.
Ui Ui
We sum up to obtain the desired formula. ⋄

Corollaire 5.4. A piece-wise smooth curve α with constant speed c > 0 is a geodesic if and only if
the first variation of L is zero for any variation with fixed ends.
Remarque. Fixed ends imply that V is zero at a and b and
ε ′
⟨α , V ⟩|ba = 0.
2
Démonstration. Suppose that α is a geodesic, that is α′′ = 0. Then α is smooth, so ∆α′ (Ui ) = 0.
In particular, we get V (a) = V (b) = 0 and so L′ (0) = 0.
Suppose that L′ (0) = 0. First we show that α is a geodesic on ]Ui , Ui+1 [, that is α′′ (t) = 0
for t ∈ ]Ui , Ui+1 [. Let y be in Tα(t) M and f a smooth function defined on [a, b] with supp f ⊂
[t − δ, t + δ] ⊂ ]Ui , Ui+1 [ and f ∈ [0, 1] and f = 1 on ]t − δ/2, t + δ/2[. Let Y be the vector field
D
obtained by parallel transport of y along α, that is dt Y = 0 and Y (t) = 0. Let V := f Y . Then
V (a) = V (b) = 0. Let exp be the exponential map, that is the map
expp : D ⊂ Tp M −→ M
with p ∈ M where
expp (v) = B(1)
where B is the geodesic starting at p with initial speed v and where
D = {v ∈ Tp M | B(1) exists}.
Let x(u, v) = expα(u) (vV (u)). Then x(u, v) is a variation of α with fixed ends. So L′ (0) = 0 and
then
Z b
0= ⟨α′′ , v⟩ du
a
Chapitre 5. Calculus of variations 23

Z t+δ
= ⟨α′′ , f Y ⟩.
t−δ

This implies that

∀y ∈ Tγ(t) M, ⟨α′′ (t), y⟩ = 0
and so α′′ (t) = 0 on each ]Ui , Ui+1 [.
If y ∈ Tα(Ui ) M , let f have its support in ]Ui−1 , Ui+1 [ with f = 1 around Ui . So
ε
0 = L′ (0) = − ⟨∆α′ (Ui ), y⟩, ∀y
c
and so
∆α′ (Ui ) = 0. ⋄

We will compute L′′ (0) if L′ (0) = 0. Any vector field Y along α decomposes as Y = Y T + Y ⊥
where Y T = ε⟨Y, α′ ⟩α′ =: f α′ and Y ⊥ is orthogonal to α′ . If α is a geodesic, then
Y ′ = f ′ α′ + (Y ⊥ )′ .
Moreover, we have (Y ′ )⊥ = (Y ⊥ )′ .
Théorème 5.5 (second variation). Let γ be a geodesic of constant speed c > 0 and of sign ε. If x
is a variation of γ, then
ε b ′⊥ ′⊥
Z
ε
L′′ (0) = ⟨V , V ⟩ − ⟨R(V, γ ′ )V, γ ′ ⟩ du + ⟨γ ′ , A⟩|ba
c a c
where V (u) = xv (u, 0) and A(u) = xvv (u, 0).

Let Ω(p, q) be the space of smooth piece-wise curves from [a, b] to M starting at p and ending
at q. The tangent space to Ω(p, q) at α is the set Tα Ω(p, q) of vector fields V along α with
V (a) = V (b) = 0. The index of σ ∈ Ω(p, q) is the bilinear symmetric form
Iσ : Tσ Ω −→ Tσ Ω
such that Iσ (V, V ) = Lx (σ) where x is a variation with fixed ends and variation vector V , that is
ε b ′⊥ ′⊥
Z
Iσ (V, W ) = ⟨V , V ⟩ − ⟨R(V, σ ′ )W, σ ′ ⟩ du.
c a
We have Iσ (V, W ) = Iσ (V ⊥ , W ⊥ ).
Lemme 5.6. Let σ be a non-null geodesic with sign ε. Let M be a semi-Riemannian manifold with
index ν. Then
1. if Iσ is semi-definite positive, then ν = 0 or n ;
2. if Iσ is semi-definite negative, then ν = 1 or n − 1.
Définition 5.7. Let γ be a geodesic. A vector field Y along γ is called Jacobi field if
Y ′′ = R(Y, γ ′ )γ ′ .
If x is a variation of γ such that
∀v, u 7−→ x(u, v) is a geodesic,
then the variation vector u 7−→ ∂x∂v (u, 0) is a Jacobi field.
For all v, w ∈ Tp M , there exists an unique Jacobi field Y along γ such that Y (0) = v and
Y ′ (0) = w.

Définition 5.8. Two points σ(a) and σ(b) with a ̸= b on a geodesic σ are conjugate if there exists
a nontrivial Jacobi field Y such that J(a) = J(b) = 0.

Then σ(a) and σ(b) are conjugate if and only if there exists a variation x of σ such that the map
∂x
u 7−→ x(u, v) is a geodesic, for all v, started from σ(a) such that ∂u (b, 0) = 0. This is equivalent
to the fact that the exponential map expp : Tp M −→ M is singular at bσ ′ (0), that is there is a
tangent vector x to p at bσ ′ (0) such that d(expp )bσ′ (0) (x) = 0.
24

Lemme 5.9. Let σ be a geodesic such that σ ⊥ (s) ∈ Tσ(s) M is space-like. If ⟨R(v, σ ′ )v, σ ′ ⟩ ⩽ 0 for
all v ⊥ σ ′ , then there is no conjugate points along σ.