KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CHE 455: PROCESS CONTROL

INSTRUMENTATION: THERMOCOUPLE & BIMETALLIC
THERMOMETERS

GROUP ONE(1)
NAME INDEX NUMBER

1. Mpim Prem Rawat 7219121

2. Boye Peter Perry Nii Ayi Annan 7215221

3. Otoo Rodriguez Kojo Tabi 7220721

4. Adjonyoh Prince Kwame 7210121

5. Agyeman Neckoil 7210821

6. Aosige Elvis Wetea 7213021

7. Afful Enoch 7210421

8. Gyan Andy 7217421

Process control (CHE 455) • February 2025

 TABLE OF CONTENT
.........................................................................................................................1

......................................................................... 1

................................................................................................................... 1

................................................................................................. 2

............................................................................................. 3

............................................................................ 4

................................... 6

........................................................................................................... 6

.....................................................................................6

.............................................................................................7

................................................................... 8

................................................................................................................. 8

............................................................................................................ 8

........................................................................................................................9

..................................................9

................................................................................................................... 9

............................................................................................... 10

.............................................................................................................................11

.......................................................................... 12
.....................................................................................................12

...........................................................................................13

................................................................. 14

............................................................................................................... 14

.......................................................................................................... 14

.........................................................................................................................14

Table of figures
Figure 1 . Thermocouple thermometer .......................................................................... 2
Figure 2. Thermocouple junctions.................................................................................4
Figure 3 .Figure 2: Bimetallic strip .............................................................................10

ii
 Thermocouples rely on the physical principle that, when any two different metals are

connected together, an EMF which is a function of the temperature is generated at the

junction between the metals. The general form of this relationship is:

e = a1T + a2T2 + a3T3……………+anTn

where e is the emf voltage generated and T is the absolute temperature

This shows a non-linearity, which is inconvenient for measurement applications. For

some pairs of materials, the terms involving squared and higher powers of T (a2T2,

a3T3 , etc.) are approximately zero and the EMF equation changes to e = a1T. A

thermocouple is a device that measures temperature by creating a voltage change

when two different metals are joined at a junction. The voltage change is a function of

the temperature difference between the junction and the other end of the

thermocouple. Thermocouples are a very important class of device as they provide the

most commonly used method of measuring temperatures in industry. Thermocouples

are manufactured from various combinations of the base metals copper and iron; the

base metal alloys of alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni),

nicrosil (Ni/Cr/Si), nisil (Ni/Si/Mn), nickelemolybdenum, and nickelecobalt; the

noble metals platinum and tungsten; and the noble metal alloys of platinumerhodium,

tungstenerhenium, and goldeiron. Only certain combinations of these are used as

thermocouples, and most standard combinations are known by internationally

recognized type letters, for example, type K is chromelealumel.

Instrumentation 1 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 The main principle underlying the operation of a thermocouple thermometer is the

Seebeck effect. The seebeck effect is a phenomenon where a temperature difference

between two dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors produce a voltage

difference between the two substances. When heat is experienced at one of the two

conductors or semiconductors, heated electrons flow from the hot conductor to the

cooler conductor. If the pair of conductors is connected through an electrical circuit,

direct current (DC) flows through that circuit which translates to a temperature

reading. Thermal energy is continuously transferred from the warmer metal to the

cooler metal until eventually thermal equilibrium is reached.

Examples of the metal combinations that can be used in a thermocouple thermometer

include;

1. Constantan and copper

2. Constantan and iron

3. Constantan and chromel

4. Constantan and alumel

Figure 1. Thermocouple thermometer

https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/Seebeck-effect

Instrumentation 2
Thermocouples & Bimetallic
 

Range: -200°C to 1,350°C

Applications: General-purpose, found in many industrial and scientific
applications.

Range: -40°C to 750°C

Applications: Suitable for older equipment that does not support newer
thermocouple types.

Range: -200°C to 350°C

Applications: Ideal for cryogenic and low-temperature measurements.

Range: -200°C to 900°C

Applications: Offers a stronger signal and better accuracy in the low to
medium temperature range

Range: -200°C to 1,300°C

Applications: Highly stable and suitable for high-temperature
measurements.

Range: 0°C to 1,450°C

Applications: Used in high-temperature applications like furnace
temperature monitoring.

Instrumentation 3 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 

Range: 0°C to 1,450°C

Applications: Similar to Type S but provides a slightly higher output at
high temperatures

Range: 0°C to 1,800°C

Applications: Suitable for extremely high-temperature measurements,
often used in the glass industry.

The thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This effect states

that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions,

and junctions are maintained at different temperatures then an electromotive force

(e.m.f.) is induced in this closed circuit. The amount of induced e.m.f. is different for

different metal combinations and is proportional to the temperature difference of the

junctions. This is the basic thermocouple working principle. Working of

Thermocouple A typical circuit diagram of a thermocouple is shown in Figure. In the

Figure, two dissimilar metals ‘A’ and ‘B’ are joined at the two junctions ‘P’ and ‘Q’.

Here the ‘P’ junction is measuring junction or hot junction whereas the junction ‘Q’ is

the reference junction or cold junction. And a PMMC instrument is connected in this

arrangement as shown in Fig

Instrumentation 4 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 When these junctions are kept at different temperatures, generally cold junction is

kept at 0°C and measuring junction is kept at an unknown temperature which we want

to measure (i.e. the temperature of the junction is raised by heating it). An e.m.f. will

be generated in this circuit due to the temperature difference of the junctions. This

e.m.f. is in the order of millivolts. And the e.m.f. can be measured with the help of a

PMMC instrument by connecting it in the circuit as shown in Figure. When both the

junctions are at the same temperature, e.m.f. generated at both junctions will be the

same. No current will flow through the circuit. And there will be no deflection in the

meter. When both the junctions are at different temperatures, a current will flow

through the meter. And the meter will show the deflection. As the generated e.m.f. is

proportional to the temperature difference, the amount of current flow will also be

proportional to the temperature difference. And therefore, the meter can be calibrated

directly in terms of temperature. The reference, or cold junction is normally connected

to the measuring instrument and held at 0°C. For accurate temperature measurement,

the reference junction temperature must remain constant or suitable compensation

provided if it should change. To reduce inaccuracies, most thermocouples are now

installed with instruments that provide automatic reference compensation. In this way,

a thermocouple is used for temperature measurement. As it is converting a non-

electrical quantity (temperature) into an electrical quantity (e.m.f.) it can also be used

as a transducer. Since it does not require any power source to operate, it is a

secondary transducer. These are used to measure the temperature up to 1400oC. There

are different combinations of metals which are used in thermocouples. Different

combinations generate different e.m.f.s. The metals for the construction of a

thermocouple should be chosen so that we can get a linear relationship between

change in temperature and generated e.m.f. Choice of metal also depends on the

Instrumentation 5 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 temperature range to be measured and on the nature of the atmosphere in which the

thermocouple is to be used.
�
The e.m.f. generated in a thermocouple is given by: � = � ∆� + � ∆�

Δθ = difference in temperature between two junctions (in oC)

a, b = constants generally, ‘a’ is very large as compare to ‘b’ so ‘b’ can be neglected.

Therefore, the above expression can be approximated as under: � = � ∆�

 Wide temperature range

 EMF Induction
 Seebeck effct
 Fast response time
 High accuracy

The various type of the thermocouples vary base on the following specifications:
1. Calibrations
Type K: Standard limits of error are ±2.2°C or ±0.75%

Type J: Standard limits of error are ±2.2°C or ±0.75%

Type E: Standard limits of error are ±1.7°C or ±0.5%

Type T: Standard limits of error are ±1°C or ±0.75%

2. Insulating materials

Double cotton braid: Maximum continuous temperature of 88°C

"S" glass with binder: Maximum continuous temperature of 704°C

Nextel ceramic fiber: Maximum continuous temperature of 1204°C

Polyvinyl/nylon: Maximum continuous temperature of 105°C

Instrumentation 6 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 1. Industrial Manufacturing: Thermocouples monitor and control temperatures in

processes such as metal, glass, and plastic production.

2. Power Generation: They are employed in power plants to measure temperatures in

boilers, turbines, and exhaust stacks, ensuring efficient and safe operations.

3. Aerospace and Aviation: Thermocouples are used to monitor engine and

component temperatures in aircraft and spacecraft, ensuring safety and performance.

4. Automotive Industry: In vehicles, thermocouples measure exhaust gas

temperatures, engine temperatures, and catalytic converter efficiency to optimize
performance and emissions control.

5. Food and Beverage Processing: They ensure proper cooking, pasteurization, and
storage temperatures, maintaining food safety and quality.

6. Medical Applications: Thermocouples are utilized in medical equipment for

sterilization processes and patient temperature monitoring.

7. HVAC Systems: In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems,

thermocouples monitor and regulate temperature to maintain comfort and efficiency.

8. Scientific Research: Laboratories use thermocouples for experiments requiring

precise temperature measurements, including studies in physics, chemistry, and
biology.

9. Oil and Gas Industry: Thermocouples measure temperatures in drilling

operations, refineries, and pipelines to ensure safety and process efficiency.

10. Electronics and Semiconductor Manufacturing: They monitor temperatures

during processes like soldering and wafer fabrication, where precise thermal control is
crucial.

Instrumentation 7 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 1. Remote
Sensing Capability:
 Can be used where conventional sensors (e.g., resistance thermometers) cannot
make direct contact with the process.
 Suitable for:

 High temperatures (where normal sensors would melt or decompose).

 Moving bodies (e.g., steel plates in rolling mills).
 Detailed scanning/imaging of temperature distribution over a surface (avoids
the need for multiple sensors).
 Environmental Resistance:

 Resists oxidizing and neutral atmospheres up to ~350°C.

Effective in low and sub-zero temperatures.

1. Environmental Sensitivity:
o Requires protection from moisture, oxygen, sulfur-bearing gases,

and acid fumes.

o Rapidly contaminated in sulfurous atmospheres.
o Not suitable for reducing atmospheres (limited resistance beyond
~350°C).
2. Signal Limitations:
o Produces low-level output signals (e.g., microvolts), necessitating
amplification for further processing.
o Non-linear output: Sensitivity (e.g., 40 µV/°C) varies with
temperature changes, complicating calibration.
3. Reference Junction Dependency:
o Affected by reference junction temperature fluctuations, requiring
compensation (e.g., cold-junction compensation).
4. Temperature Limits: Performance degrades in oxidizing/reducing
atmospheres above ~350°C

Instrumentation 8 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 Thermal expansion methods make use of the fact that the dimensions of all substances,

whether solids, liquids, or gases, change with temperature. Instruments operating on

this physical principle include: the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the bimetallic

thermometer, and the pressure (gas) thermometer.

A bimetallic thermometer is a thermometer that measures temperature by using two

strips of different metals that expand at different rates. The strips are joined together

to form a bimetal strip, which bends when the temperature changes. This bending

movement is used to move a pointer that indicates the temperature. The bimetallic

principle is in connection with its use in thermostats. It is based on the fact that if two

strips of different metals are bonded together, any temperature change will cause the

strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the differing rates of change of length of

each metal in the bonded strip can be accommodated. In the bimetallic thermostat,

this is used as a switch in control applications. If the magnitude of bending is

measured, the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer. For such purposes, the strip

is often arranged in a spiral or helical configuration, as this gives a relatively large

displacement of the free end for any given temperature change. The measurement

sensitivity is increased further by choosing the pair of materials carefully such that the

degree of bending is maximized, with invar (a nickel-steel alloy) or brass being

commonly used.

Instrumentation 9 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 The main component of the bimetallic thermometer is the bimetallic strip. The

bimetallic strip consists of two thin strips of different metals, each having different

coefficients of thermal expansion. Thermal expansion is the property of a metal to

change its shape or volume with a change in temperature. The metal strips are

connected along their length by fusing them together or riveting. The strips are fixed

at one end and free to move on the other end. The two metals typically used are steel

and copper, but steel and brass can also be used. Since their thermal expansion is

different, the length of these metals changes at different rates for the same

temperature. Due to this property, when the temperature changes, the metal strip at

one side expands and the other does not, which creates a bending effect. When the

temperature rises, the strip will turn in the direction of metal with the lower

temperature coefficient. When the temperature decreases, the strip bends in the

direction of metal having a higher temperature coefficient. The deflection of the strip

indicates the temperature variation. This bending motion is connected to the dial on

the thermometer, outputting the media’s temperature.

Figure 2.Figure 2: Bimetallic strip: fixed end (A), free end (B), bimetallic strip (C), and deflection(D)

Instrumentation 10 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 These are the most common and feature a dial display that shows the

temperature reading. They're widely used in HVAC systems, industrial

processes, and household appliances.

These thermometers have an adjustable stem and angle, allowing for easy

reading in hard-to-reach places. They are commonly used in industrial

applications.

Designed for high-temperature environments, these thermometers can

withstand the heat of ovens and grills. They usually come with a hook or

stand for easy placement inside the cooking area.

These portable thermometers are compact and easy to carry, making them

ideal for quick temperature checks in various applications, such as food

safety inspections.

These heavy-duty thermometers are designed for use in harsh industrial

environments, such as chemical plants, oil refineries, and power plants.

They often feature rugged construction and protective features to ensure

accurate readings under challenging conditions.

Instrumentation 11 Thermocouples & Bimetallic
 Bimetal thermometers are thermometers based on the functional principle that metals

expand differently depending on the change in temperature. A bimetal thermometer

always consists of two different metal strips that have a different thermal expansion

coefficient. The two strips are joined together inseparably and thus form the bimetal

strip. When the temperature changes, the different metals expand to different degrees,

which leads to a mechanical deformation of the bimetal strip. This mechanical

deformation can be detected in a rotary movement. The measuring system works in

the form of a helical or spiral tube. This movement is transmitted to the pointer of the

thermometer via the pointer shaft, which thus enables the temperature to be measured.

If a metal with the same coefficient of expansion is used, the length of the sheet metal

will not bend and the temperature will not be measured.

1. Temperature sensitivity

Bimetallic thermometers are sensitive to temperature changes. The sensitivity is

proportional to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients of the two metals

used.

2. Pressure-bearing capacity

Bimetallic thermometers have a high pressure-bearing capacity and can be used under

different pressure levels.

3. Time constant

Bimetallic thermometers have a time constant of a few minutes, which smooths out

short-term temperature fluctuations.

4. Linearity

Instrumentation 12 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 Bimetallic thermometers have a linear response to temperature changes. The

displacement of the free end of the strip is a linear function of the temperature

change.

1. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems: They monitor and
regulate temperatures in air conditioning and heating units, ensuring optimal
performance and energy efficiency.

2.Industrial Processes: Bimetallic thermometers are employed to track temperatures

in machinery, ovens, and other equipment, ensuring processes operate within
specified temperature ranges.

3.Home Appliances: They are used in ovens, refrigerators, and water heaters to
regulate and monitor temperatures, ensuring safety and proper operation.

4.Food Safety: In the food industry, bimetallic thermometers ensure proper food
storage and cooking temperatures, helping to maintain food safety standards.

5.Automotive Applications: They monitor engine coolant temperatures, contributing

to the efficient operation and longevity of vehicle engines.

6. Thermostats: Bimetallic strips are integral in thermostats for heating and cooling
systems, where they help regulate temperature by opening or closing electrical
contacts.

7. Electrical Devices: They are used in devices like circuit breakers and thermal

flashers, where the bending of the bimetallic strip due to temperature changes can

open or close electrical contacts.

Instrumentation 13 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

 1. They are simple, robust and inexpensive.

2. Their accuracy is between +or- 2% to 5% of the scale.

3. They can with stand 50% over range in temperaures.

4. They can be used where evr a mecury –in-glass thermometer is used.

1. They are not recommended for temperature above 400oC.

2. When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which inturn will

introduce errors.

1. Principles of Measurement Systems Fourth Edition John P. Bentley

2. Omega Engineering, 2024. Thermocouples: Applications and Selection

3. https://www.omega.com/en-us/resources/thermocouples-applications

4. https://www.stawelltimes.com.au/story/7904684/5-common-industrial-

applications-for-thermocouples/

5. https://www.processparameters.co.uk/what-is-a-bimetallic-thermometer

6. Kerlin, T. W. (1999). Practical Thermocouple Thermometry. Research Triangle

Park, NC: ISA – The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society.

7. Alan S. Morris & Reza Langari, Measurement and Instrumentation Theory and

Application,2012, Second Edition, Elsivier

Instrumentation 14 Thermocouples & Bimetallic

15