Lec: Three

Biology
Dr. Zeyad Tareq Zbdulrazzaq

Cell and Molecular Biology

Cell Structure
2- Nucleus

Nucleus is the largest and most easily seen of the components within the eukaryotic cell
(4-10 μm in diameter). it contains the majority of the cell's genetic material. This material
is organized as DNA molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form chromosomes.
Nuclei are roughly spherical, although some are oval or irregular in shape. They are
typically located in the central region of the cells. The majority of cells have one
nucleus, but some cells or unicellular animals have two or more nuclei. Mammalian
RBCs lose their nucleus when they mature and hence they lose their ability to grow,
change and divide and become merely passive vessels for the transport of hemoglobin

The nucleus is composed of four parts:

1-nuclear envelope
2-nucleoplasm
3- chromatin
4-nucleolus

1-Nuclear Envelope:
The nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane represents the surface of the nucleus,
which is bounded by two phospholipid bilayer membranes similar in structure with that
of plasma membrane. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is occasionally
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The outer and inner membranes fuse
together to form gaps, known as the nuclear pores. Nuclear pores are filled with
proteins that act as molecular channels, permitting certain molecules to pass into and
out of the nucleus. The space between both membranes (perinuclear cisterna) is filled
with a fluid. The inner membrane is firmly attached to clumps of heterochromatin.

2- Nucleoplasm:

The nucleoplasm, karyoplasm or nuclear sap is a fluid filling the inside of the nucleus.
Within this fluid both nucleolus (or sometimes nucleoli) and the chromatin are found.

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3- Nucleolus:

Nucleolus appears as a small dense body immersed in the nucleoplasm. Two nucleoli
are sometimes present in the nucleus.
The nucleolus is considered as the ribosomal factory as it consists of RNA and protein
(ribosomal subunits) in the process of maturation. These subunits are synthesized in the
nucleolus and then move through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where they
assemble. Ribosomes serve as the site of protein synthesis.

4- Chromatin:

The chromatin is the nuclear material which is made up of DNA and large protein
molecules (histones). This is basophilic in staining. It can be distinguished into two
types:-
A. Euchromatin or noncondensed chromatin which is loosely packed and thus is
very lightly basophilic. This is metabolically active with regard to RNA synthesis.
B. Heterochromatin or condensed chromatin which is tightly packed and thus is
intensively basophilic. This is relatively inactive metabolically and consists of
chromosomes.

3- Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is the space between the nucleus and cell membrane, which fills with the
cytosol(fluid in which organelles reside)It is mainly composed of water, salts, and
proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm includes all of the material inside the cell and
outside of the nucleus. All of the organelles in eukaryotic cells, such as the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria, are located in the cytoplasm. Although
cytoplasm may appear to have no form or structure, it is actually highly organized. A
framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton provides the cytoplasm and the
cell with their structure.

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4- Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of double-membrane tubular canals running

throughout the cytoplasm .It is continuous with the nuclear membrane. Regions of the
endoplasmic reticulum without bounded ribosomes are referred to as smooth
endoplasmic reticulum which represent the site of synthesis of lipid and a variety of
carbohydrates, while those heavily studded with ribosomes are known as rough
endoplasmic reticulum which is the site of protein synthesis ,Dangerous chemicals are
destroyed (detoxified) by enzymes , located on membranes of endoplasmic reticulum.
Various products are transported from one portion of the cell to another via the
endoplasmic reticulum. Finally, it gives support to the cell.

5- Golgi apparatus;

Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex or Golgi body is a small, irregular structure as

flattened stacks of flattened membranes situated near the middle of the cell. This
complex is known as the delivery system of the cell as it collects, packages and
distributes molecules that are synthesized at one location within the cell and used at
another.

Transport vesicles bring the concerned material from the endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi
apparatus. The formed material inside this apparatus are transported outside this
apparatus through secretory vesicles. The number of these bodies in the cell depends
on the activity of that cell. Golgi apparatus also forms lysosome bodies (lysosomes).

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6- Ribosomes

Are small, complex assemblies of protein (35%) and ribosomal RNA (65%).The rRNA is
manufactured by the DNA in the nucleolus. The ribosome consists of a large and a
small subunit. Some ribosomes are scattered, singly or in clusters, in the cytoplasm and
they are concerned with synthesizing protein for use inside the cell, while other
ribosomes are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and hence they are
concerned with the synthesis of the proteins for export from the cell.

7- Mitochondria:

Mitochondria are typically tubular or sausage-like organelles, 1 to 3 pm long, found in all

types of eukaryotic cells.

5 Mitochondrion is bounded by two membranes: the outer one is smooth and the inner
one is folded into numerous contiguous layers called cristae. The cristae partion the
mitochondrion into two compartments: a matrix lying inside the inner membrane and an
outer compartment or inter membrane space lying between the two mitochondrial
membranes. On the surfaces of the inner membrane and also submerged within it, are
the proteins that carry out oxidative metabolism, the oxygen-requiring process by which
the energy in macromolecules in stored in ATP.

Mitochondria are frequently called the power houses of the cell or the cell's chemical
furnaces as in which the high energy ATR is produced. ATP is produced in mitochondria
by breakdown of organic compounds such as glucose and is sent to other parts of cell
for providing energy. Active cells such as muscles and liver cells have a large number of
mitochondria due to their high energy demands.

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8- Centrioles:

Centrioles are cylindrical structures that are composed of groupings of microtubules ,

each centriole consists of a bundle of microtubules arranged as threes in a circle of nine
(9 + 3 pattern). Found in animals cell, they occur in pairs near the nuclear membrane.
The pair together is referred to as a centrosome.

The centrioles play a major role in cell division, Centrioles are also important to the
formation of cell structures know as cilia and flagella.

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9- Lysosomes:

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes

capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers— proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipid. Lysosomes function as the digestive system of the cell,
serving both to degrade material taken up from outside the cell in a process called
heterophagy and to digest old cellular organelles as debris of the cell itself in a process
called autophagy. when cells get old, lysosomes autolysis the cell and therefore known
as suicide bags.

10- Peroxisomes:

Peroxisomes also called microbodies: are enzyme –bearing, membrane bounded

vesicles similar in structure to lysosomes but they are smaller. The name peroxisome
refers to hydrogen peroxide that is produced as by-product of the activities of many of
oxidative enzymes. H2O2 is dangerous to cell and peroxisome contain catalase
enzymes that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen for this
reason, peroxisomes are known as detoxifiers for hydrogen peroxide.

11-Cilia and flagella:

Cilia are short cellular projection from the cell membrane often organized in rows. Cilia
are more numerous on cell surface than flagella which are more longer. Both cilia and
flagella have the same internal structure as they consist of a circle of nine peripheral
microtubule pairs surrounding two central microtubules. This arrangements is known as
9+2 structure. Cilia line human oviduct and hence they drive the fluid in which egg is

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transported all so trachea is lined with cilia which move the slimy mucous that traps dust
particles and prevents getting into lung.

12- Microfilaments and microtubules

The cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells is crossed by a network of protein fibers that
upports the shape of the shape of the cell and anchors organelles to fixed location. This
network is known as cytoskeleton or the interior framework of the cell.

A- Microfilaments are rod-like structure of variable length and may occur in bundles,
they are randomly scattered throughout the cytoplasm or arranged in a meshwork.
Some microfilaments consist of proteins called actin, while other consist of myosin. In
muscles the actine (thin myofilament) and myosin (thick myofilament) are involved in the
contraction of the muscle cells.
In other cells microfilaments help to provide support and shape and assist in the
movement within cells.

B- Microtubules are relatively straight, slender and cylindrical structures .They are
consist of tubulin protein. Microtubules are found in the cytoplasm together with
Microfilament, this help to provide support and shape for cells. Also, they form
conducting channels through which various substances can move throughout the
cytoplasm as in nerve cells.

Microtubules form the structure of cilia, flagella and centrioles.

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 …………..

13- Cytoplasmic inclusions:

In addition to the living organelles found in the cytoplasm, other cellular components are
found. Inclusions, considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess
metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions
are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals and pigments. These may be synthesized by the
cell itself or taken up from surrounding.