COS 101

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING SCIENCES

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. explain basic components of computers and other computing devices;
2. describe the various applications of computers;
3. explain information processing and its roles in the society;
4. describe the Internet, its various applications and its impact;
5. explain the different areas of the computing discipline and its specializations; and
6. demonstrate practical skills on using computers and the internet.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course, you are required to study all the units, using the recommended
textbooks, and other relevant materials. Each unit contains some self-assessment exercises and
assignments. You are required to do those assignments for at some point in this course, you are
asked to submit the assignments. There is also a final examination at the end of this course.
Stated below are the components of this course and what you have to do.

STUDY UNITS
This course material contains two modules and ten study units as follows:

MODULE1

UNIT1: Brief history of computing.

UNIT2: Description of the basic components of a computer/computing device.
UNIT3: Input/output devices and peripherals.
UNIT4: Hardware, software and human ware.
UNIT5: Diverse and growing computer/digital applications.
UNIT6: Information processing and its roles in society.

MODULE2

UNIT1: The Internet, its applications and its impact on the world today.
UNIT2: The different areas/programs of the computing discipline.
UNIT3: The job specializations for computing professionals.
UNIT4: The future of computing.

LAB WORK:
Practical demonstration of the basic parts of a computer. Illustration of different operating
systems of different computing devices including desktops, laptops, tablets, smart boards and
smart phones. Demonstration of commonly used applications such as word processors,
spreadsheets, presentation software and graphics. Illustration of input and output devices
including printers, scanners, projectors and smart boards. Practical demonstration of the Internet
and its various applications. Illustration of browsers and search engines. How to access online
resources.
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MODULE 1

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 UNIT1
BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTING

History of Computers

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as
counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices
were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are
described below;

Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved
by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still
used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617)
of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with
numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the
first machine to use the decimal point.

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Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was
the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition
and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated
one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673.

He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator

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which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the
following image;

Difference Engine

In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

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Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem
and storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical

tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information.
This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith’s Tabulating
Machine Company which later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

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Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals
to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned
to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I
computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable
digital computer.

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  GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with

time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers,
vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These computers were
mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were
used as output and input devices in this generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

 ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

 EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes
were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like
COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were
used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

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Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC
can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced the
cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation
computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also,
the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, and
ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;

 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a
chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers
used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming languages like
C, C++, and DBASE were also used in this generation.
Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten
million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing hardware and
AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this generation were C,
C++, Java, .Net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

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 UNIT2
DESCRIPTION OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A
COMPUTER/COMPUTING DEVICE
Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional computer
system. The components that make up a computer are called computer components. The
processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every computer's three main building
blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for numerical computations because any
information can be numerically encoded. The ability of computers to interpret information for
several purposes was quickly recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

 Input Devices
 CPU
 Output Devices
 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

Looking a bit further at each of them.

Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter commands
and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous examples of input devices.

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  The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text and queries
into a computer system.
 Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer screen.
 Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a computer system.
 Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They can be used
for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts, participating in video
conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

This is a computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the
calculations and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The CPU comprises
some components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.

 The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and decoding
instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and executes these instructions
from the control unit.

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 The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU part. The ALU
operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and other logical and mathematical
processes. These operations are carried out using binary logic, which limits operations to the
0 and 1 digits.
 Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within the CPU. They
are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU momentarily. Registers are used
to accelerate data processing because they are much faster than other forms of memory, such
as RAM.
 The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall performance. The
clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what number of commands the integral
processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization capability, and a
couple of cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A small, quick memory called a
cache is used to store data and instructions that are utilized frequently. A single CPU may run
numerous operating systems thanks to virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous
tasks simultaneously thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its performance and multitasking
capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random access memory
(RAM). The data and instructions that are currently being processed are kept in primary memory.
The data and instructions are accessed by the CPU from primary memory when a computer
programme is running. The information is removed from primary memory once the programme
is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM).

 RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data and instructions
that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile, which means that its contents are

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 lost when the computer is turned off. But RAM can be effortlessly and quickly written to and
read from, making it a really perfect storage medium for temporary data and instructions.
 ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't change. ROM
is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while the computer is turned off.
ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's basic input/Output machine (BIOS) that are
required for the computer to boot up and function well.

Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in computer
systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and instructions, which might be
utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to wait for data to be received from RAM or
secondary storage devices, it is used to speed up the processing of records.

Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that is used to
store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In contrast to primary
memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its contents are not lost when the
computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives (HDD), solid-
state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These
devices have varying storage capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities that
make them appropriate for different types of applications.

 Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing devices and
laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and keep data on magnetic discs.
However, solid-state drives employ flash memory to store data and are typically quicker and
more reliable despite being extra high-priced than HDDs.
 Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs using lasers. They
are frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and other digital information.
Small, portable storage devices known as USB flash drives are connected to a computer's
USB connection.

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Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is useful since it
makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect crucial data from
loss due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary memory devices as backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to show or send
data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable customers to view and engage with
the information and applications the computer is processing. Speakers, projectors, printers, and
monitors are a few examples of output devices.

 Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a computer
machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different forms of data and exist
in various sizes and resolutions.
 Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of papers and
other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are available in various
sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make speedy, high-volume prints,
inkjet printers employ liquid ink to produce high-quality prints.
 Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be connected
externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable users to interact with
other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and listen to music.
 Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a screen or wall.
They are frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that call for a sizable
display.

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  OPERATIONS OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a computer
system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried out by computer
components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into the
computer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as input devices to help with the process.
These tools are used to enter information and instructions into a computer system. Data is
transferred to the CPU for processing after inputting by an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This process
is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it and
then sends back the processed data to storage. The CPU performs arithmetic computations,
logical operations, and data transport processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores the
processed data before displaying it as output. The primary memory, sometimes called RAM,
is where the CPU processes the data and instructions. Hard disc drives and solid-state drives,
which serve as secondary memory, offer long-term storage for data and programmes that are
not currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices like
monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce the results of the processing
performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an output device for display or printing after
the CPU has finished processing the data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The control
unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and sequence. The main
circuit board connects all the parts of the computer. It also regulates the data flow between
them, ensuring they function properly and connecting them all.

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 UNIT3
INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES AND PERIPHERALS

INPUT DEVICES
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to produce the
output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other
electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters,
and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for
wireless communication.

Types of keyboards:

There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and language used. Some of the
common types of keyboards are as follows:

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i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named after the
first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries that do not use Latin-
based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it is the only type of keyboard to use
with computers as an input device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative layout

to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other European countries. Some
countries have manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the keyboard. The
Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in QWERTY
keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters but
also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for writing
European languages like French.

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iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing the finger
movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row to improve
typing.

2) The Mouse

The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the screen.
It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll
wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you
control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some
mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball
integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with
optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light beam. A mouse
is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the type of computer and type of
a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

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It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the
screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the
palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It
remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if
you have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of mouse. A
mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust
into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

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An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a
mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is affected by
the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best results.
The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface
may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as IrDA
(infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is used to
improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.

3) Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document. The
scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed on the
screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to convert images into digital
ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

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i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane, and
then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans the
document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency adapter while
scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image that is
to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady while
scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners is
the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

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In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main
components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration sheet. The
light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the scanner. It is
suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a charge-
coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light.
The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the image, which produces a
reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have high
resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:

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It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are required for
scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built software for cleaning and
restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

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A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical
base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick
controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A
joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks, hand
operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of
the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse
moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a
light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its
light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is
not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if
needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind project at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer

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Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It
enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil.
The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or display screen.
The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to
typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send output to a
CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to
convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing.

7) Microphone

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The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives the sound
vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording medium. The audio
signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer. The microphone also enables
the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with
webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways;
accordingly the three most common types are described below:

i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is
wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers
vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which transmit the sound
like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

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It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It has a
front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits the
diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between the two plates. The changes
in distance are transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm
suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a
voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is transmitted as an electrical
signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern
ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.

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8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to
magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations where
security is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-
percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with magnetic
ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed in
magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic
information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

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OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed or
printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and
books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying the
documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black and white),
version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas are
selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to convert
hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if
required like we edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores them on a
memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to film
used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is connected to your computer can also
be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the light strikes
the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current, which is used to create the
images.

11) Paddle:

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It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand and
looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease the volume. Paddle
moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a back-and-forth motion. It is widely
used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld
devices designed to control a function in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving
programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by allowing
you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with acceleration and brake
pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games more
adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to
gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the movement of a player's body
and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is also available in certain
tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger
gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

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14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot the
targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the first time on
the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger
is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode,
which is present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting ducks
in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or control the
cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two buttons for right and left
click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as
selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder, and more.

16) Remote:
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It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote that can
be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from a distance without leaving the
seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The
remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with the device. These waves can be
infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to interact
or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the electronic devices come
with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a graphical user interface. For
example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc.
Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson in 1965. The
first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN engineers Frank Beck
and Bent Stumpe.

18) VR:

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VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated by
computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment using some
input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find himself
or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky, etc., without
actually doing all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera provided
on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures, and
can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are stored in the computer
memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the
digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital
photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological
features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric
devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

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It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face measurements of a
person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms
the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to differentiate between a person's
picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a unique
pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage of this feature; it
identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns
and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.

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iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is
developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the same
fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to mark the
attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found
on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you press your finger on the given
space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more secure than
others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's blood
vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be
identified with appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's
eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and uses it to
verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

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It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or template. The
voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice of a person to confirm his
or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or same voice that was used to
create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.

OUTPUT DEVICES
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the computer
through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display output in different
ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video. They bridge the gap between digital
data and human perception, letting users engage with computer-generated information.
Understanding the many forms of output devices and their importance in computing is essential
for making informed decisions while selecting the right devices for certain applications.

Categories of Output Devices

Output devices can be categorized into four main types based on the nature of their output.

 Visual Output Devices: These devices display processed data as text, images, or video.
Examples include monitors and projectors, which allow users to view information on screens or
project it onto larger surfaces.
 Data Output Devices: These devices provide machine-readable output for further processing or
storage. Plotters and 3D printers fall into this category, allowing users to create physical
representations of data or objects.
 Print Output Devices: Printers produce hard copies of processed data, such as documents,
images, or graphics. They allow for physical documentation and distribution of information.
 Sound Output Devices: These devices deliver audio output for listening or communication
purposes. Speakers and headphones/earphones enable users to hear the sound, whether Music,
speech, or other audio content.

Visual Output Devices

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Visual output devices are components of computing systems that enable the visual presentation
of processed data. Monitors and projectors, for example, play an important role in displaying
information to users through text, pictures, or video.

Users can view and analyze information more effectively with visual output devices. They allow
for the intelligible display of text, making reading papers, emails, and online sites simpler. These
devices also excel in picture presentation, allowing users to see photographs, graphics, and
illustrations with accuracy and detail. Video material is additionally improved by visual output
devices, resulting in a fascinating viewing experience.

Some of the popular visual output devices are:

1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

1) Monitor

The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that
displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

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CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce
images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of electrons through
electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on
the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color. These
dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection plate
assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front (outer surface) of the screen
onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors which
you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The magnetic field guides the
beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still
used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT
monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops,
tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid
crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric current
aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass
through the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs had
passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a charge. A few
electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear blurry when the images
moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with
capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make screen
blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than passive-matrix
displays.

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iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and
uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference between them lies
in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each
panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode
fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED
TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more
brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.

iii) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It has
small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a
small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and
emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny
bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and
also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios, wide
viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique viewing experience while
watching action movies, sports games, and more.

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Applications of Monitor

 Personal Computing: Monitors are commonly used in personal computers for everyday
operations such as online surfing, document editing, video viewing, and gameplay.
 Workstations: Monitors are necessary in professional settings such as workplaces since they
serve as the primary display for employees' workstations. Users may view and edit documents,
spreadsheets, presentations, and other work-related apps with them.
 Design and Multimedia: Graphic designers, video editors, and other multimedia workers rely on
monitors. High-resolution monitors with precise color reproduction are utilized to develop and
edit visual material.
 Gaming: Gaming monitors give immersive experiences with high refresh rates and short reaction
times. Gamers use monitors to display fast-paced action, colorful images, and fluid gameplay.
 Education: Monitors are used in educational institutions, such as schools and universities, to
facilitate learning. They display educational content, multimedia presentations, interactive
learning materials, etc.

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface
such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices to project
their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and
videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI ports for
newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors are designed to
support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and
more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are very popular as
they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses transmissive technology to
produce output. It allows the light source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored
liquid crystal light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are blocked by the panels
and thus images are on the screen.
2. Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a separate mirror for
each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images. These projectors are mostly used in
theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-quality video output.

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Applications of Projectors

 Education: Classrooms and educational institutions make heavy use of projectors. Teachers may use
projectors to show large groups of pupils instructional materials, presentations, movies, and
interactive items.
 business Presentations: In corporate settings, projectors are vital for giving presentations and
sharing information with clients, colleagues, or stakeholders. Presenters can use them to offer
slideshows, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.
 Home Theatre: Projectors are commonly used in in-home theatre systems. They provide a cinematic
experience for customers by projecting movies, TV shows, or streaming material onto a huge screen.
 Events and Conferences: Projectors are essential for events, conferences, and seminars. They are
used to show keynote speeches, slideshows, movies, and live demonstrations to a big group.
 Digital Signage: Projectors are employed in digital signage applications to display advertisements,
information, or dynamic content on large screens in public spaces, retail stores, or corporate
environments.
 Art Installations: Projectors are used by artists and designers to create immersive art installations.
They project images, videos, or interactive visuals onto walls, buildings, or other unconventional
surfaces, transforming spaces and providing unique visual experiences.

Print Output Devices

Print output devices are essential components of computing systems that enable the generation of
hard copies of processed data. These devices, commonly known as printers, allow users to obtain
physical copies of documents, images, or other types of information.

Print output devices offer several advantages. Firstly, they provide a tangible format for
information, allowing for easy reading, sharing, and archiving of documents. Hard copies are
particularly useful for legal documents, contracts, or important records that require physical
signatures or official documentation. Print output devices find applications in various settings,
including homes, offices, schools, and businesses. They are used for printing documents, reports,
presentations, photographs, labels, and more. From everyday printing needs to specialized
requirements, printers provide a reliable and efficient means of generating physical copies of
digital content.

Some of the popular print output devices are:

3) Printer

 Impact Printers
 Character Printers
 Dot Matrix printers
 Daisy Wheel printers
 Line printers
 Drum printers
 Chain printers
 Non-impact printers
 Laser printers

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 Inkjet printers

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or
any other information onto the paper. Users can pick from various printer types, such as inkjet,
laser, or dot matrix, to meet their printing demands. Printers enable the generation of tangible
copies for record-keeping, presentations, marketing materials, and other purposes, from
household to professional settings. Printers are essential for personal and commercial use due to
their simplicity and adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-impact
Printers.

 Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers

 Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer

The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the paper.
The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters
and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or
hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are
character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low speed and because
only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

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i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns
of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a
print head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the
individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin dot
matrix printer, so it produces more dots which results in better printing of characters. To produce
color output, the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix
printers is around 200-500 characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. It consists of a
wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel
printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a character the
printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer hits
disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. It cannot be
used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50
characters per second. Due to these drawbacks, these printers have become obsolete.

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B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact
printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples
of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has
circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of characters.
When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer, the
hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very
high speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate hammers. Although all the
characters are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can
print only a predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known to be
very noisy due to the use of hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

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Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are
embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for
each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the
total number of print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print location,
the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and character on the chain.They
can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:

Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on the
ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without direct physical
contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can print a complete page
at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-impact printers are
Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The laser
beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering
electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum
picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once the
document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The
laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print
objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

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ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying
fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head
moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through the
printer. These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to print
correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers that
have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is capable
of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print objects with a
resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).

Applications of Printer

 Personal and Home Use: Printers are frequently used in homes to print papers, pictures, and
other personal stuff. Individuals can use them to make tangible copies of vital information or
photographs for personal use.

 Offices and enterprises: Printers are required in offices and enterprises. They print commercial
enterprise papers, reports, contracts, invoices, and documents. Employees can utilize printers to
create physical copies of crucial information, which aids in communication and record-keeping.

 Education: Students and teachers utilize printers at educational institutions such as schools and
universities. They are used to print assignments, worksheets, study materials, project reports, and
educational tools.

 Printing and Publishing: Printers are critical in the publishing and printing industries. They're
used on a massive scale to print publications, including newspapers, brochures, flyers, and other
published goods.

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  Advertising and Marketing: Printers are employed in the advertising and marketing industry to
create promotional materials such as posters, banners, flyers, business cards, and product labels.

Sound Output Devices

Sound output devices, which allow users to listen to audio material, are a significant component
of computing systems. Speakers and headphones, for example, facilitate sound reproduction and
improve the whole multimedia experience. There are various advantages to using sound output
equipment. They let consumers experience high-quality audio with increased clarity, depth, and
richness. Sound output devices improve the entire audio experience by bringing information to
the existence, whether or not it is the minute specifics in Music, the immersive sound effects in
movies, or the clear voice during a conference call.

These devices have several applications, which include use in homes, groups, amusement
venues, and academic institutions. They are used for personal enjoyment, communication,
professional audio work, and multimedia jobs. Sound output devices link to other devices, such
as smartphones, tablets, and televisions, increasing their versatility and utility.

Some of the popular sound output devices are:

4) Speakers

Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into audible sounds.
They're essential to many modern devices, including computers, televisions, music players, and
mobile phones. The audio system improves the multimedia experience by providing high-quality
audio output, whether listening to the song, viewing films, playing video games, or participating
in virtual meetings. They help ensure that consumers enjoy audio material with clarity and depth
by contributing to clean and clear sound reproduction.

Types of speakers

 Stereo Speakers:

Also known as 2.0 speakers, stereo speakers comprise left and right speakers. They are the most
fundamental speaker, typically found in desktop computers, laptop computers, and tiny audio
installations. Stereo speakers offer a simple yet efficient method of reproducing sounds and
creating a spatial audio experience.

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 Surround Sound Speakers:

Surround sound speakers provide immersive audio commonly used in home theatre systems. For
a surround sound experience, many speakers are carefully positioned around the room. Multiple
speakers plus a subwoofer are used in common arrangements like 5.1, 7.1, and 9.1 systems. The
number denotes the number of speakers, while ".1" denotes a specialized subwoofer for low-
frequency effects. These configurations provide realistic soundscapes, immersing viewers in a
more engaging home theatre experience.

 Subwoofers:

Subwoofers are specialized speakers designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds, also known as
bass. They add depth and impact to audio by delivering powerful and deep bass tones.
Subwoofers are often used alongside stereo or surround sound systems to enhance the audio
experience, specifically in movies, Music, and gaming.

 Soundbars:

Soundbars are slim and elongated speakers that provide an all-in-one audio solution for TVs and
home entertainment systems. They consist of multiple built-in speakers housed in a single
enclosure. Soundbars offer improved audio quality compared to built-in TV speakers and can
create a simulated surround sound effect. They are popular for those seeking a compact and

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 convenient audio setup.

 Portable Speakers:

Portable speakers are small, lightweight, wireless devices designed for audio enjoyment on the
go. Customers may additionally listen to songs and other audio files from anywhere. Bluetooth
audio systems are available in various styles and sizes, as well as outdoor audio systems with
long battery life and waterproof audio systems for use by the pool.

 Bookshelf speakers:

Bookshelf speakers are placed on a shelf, table, or stand. They provide a good combination of
size and sound insulation, making them excellent for small to medium-sized rooms. In surround
sound or stereo systems, they are commonly utilized as back speakers.

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  Soundbar subwoofer: Some soundbars have a separate subwoofer for higher bass response.
These subwoofers are designed to maximize sound output and offer lower-strength enjoyment.
 Outdoor speaker: The outdoor speaker is designed to withstand outdoor situations such as
humidity, UV exposure, and temperature changes. They are ideal for outdoor gatherings, parties,
or enjoying Music in outdoor spaces like gardens or patios. Outdoor speakers can be mounted on
walls, installed on poles, or designed to blend into the landscape.

Applications of Speakers

 Entertainment: Speakers are used in entertainment systems such as home theatres, game
consoles, and music players to playback audio. They provide immersive sound experiences,
letting users enjoy high-quality audio in movies, Music, and gaming.
 Public Address Systems: Speakers are used in public places such as schools, stadiums,
conference centers, and airports to make announcements, deliver public speeches, and address big
audiences. They provide clear and audible communication in various public meetings and
activities.
 Multimedia Presentations: In multimedia presentations and conferences, speakers are vital.
They magnify the audio of presentations, movies, and speeches, allowing the audience to better
hear and participate in the information.
 Music Production: Speakers are crucial in music production studios and recording
environments. They are used for tracking and playback of recorded audio, ensuring correct sound
duplication and quality manipulation during the production technique.
 Communication Devices: Speakers are integrated into conversation devices like smartphones,
pills, and laptops. They permit customers to make telephone calls, participate in video
conferences, and listen to audio content.

5) Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or inserted into the ear
canal, respectively. They deliver Music to the user directly, giving a private and immersive
listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit within the ear, whereas headphones have two
speakers that cover both ears. They are regularly used with portable music players, phones,
laptop computers, and different gadgets. Users of headphones and earbuds may listen to Music
and podcasts and view films and other media without bothering others. They offer ease, mobility,
and the ability to concentrate on audio information while maintaining privacy and clarity.

Types of Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones come in various types and designs, catering to different preferences
and audio needs. Here are some common types:

 Over-Ear Headphones:

Over-ear headphones feature large ear cups that fully envelop the ears. They deliver exceptional
sound quality and isolate noise, making them ideal for immersive music listening and studio
monitoring. One of their notable advantages is their comfort, as the ear cups completely cover the
ears, evenly distributing the weight for a pleasant experience.

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 On-Ear Headphones:
On-ear headphones rest on the outer ear without fully enclosing it. In comparison to over-ear
headphones, they're smaller and additional compact. On-ear headphones offer a first-rate
aggregate of mobility and sound first-rate. Even as they do not supply the same quantity of noise
isolation as over-ear headphones, they will often be extra lightweight and less hard to use for
prolonged intervals.

 In-Ear Earphones:
In-ear earphones, additionally known as earbuds or earphones, are inserted right away into the ear
canal. They are compact, light, and quite transportable. In order to ensure a secure and
comfortable fit, in-ear earbuds are equipped with silicone or foam tips in different sizes. They
provide good noise isolation and are appropriate for use during difficult tasks or while traveling.
In-ear earphones are commonly bundled with smartphones and portable music players.

 Wireless Headphones/Earphones:
Wireless Headphones/Earphones: Wireless headphones and earphones have acquired
recognition because of their comfort and freedom from tangled wires. They communicate
with different gadgets thru Bluetooth or different wireless generations. Wi-Fi headphones
let you circulate spherical freely without being confined via the use of cables. They come
in loads of fashions, together with over-ear, on-ear, and in-ear designs.

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 Noise-Canceling Headphones/Earphones:

Noise-canceling headphones and earphones use advanced technology to reduce external

ambient noise. They employ microphones to capture external sounds and generate opposite
sound waves to cancel them out. Noise-canceling headphones are mainly effective in busy
locations, which include airplanes or crowded areas, since they offer extra immersive listening
enjoyment with less background noise.

 Sports/Exercise Headphones/Earphones:

Designed for active individuals, sports or exercise headphones and earphones are designed to
withstand sweat, moisture, and vigorous movement. They often feature a secure fit and may have
additional features like water resistance or ear hooks to stay in place during physical activities.

 Gaming Headsets:
Gaming headsets are tailored for gamers, providing enhanced audio quality and clear
communication. They typically come with built-in microphones for in-game chat and voice
communication. Gaming headsets offer immersive soundscapes, allowing gamers to pinpoint
audio cues accurately.

 True Wireless Earbuds:

True wireless earbuds are in-ear headphones with no wires connecting them. Each earbud is self-
contained and connects to the smartphone through Bluetooth. True wireless earbuds provide a
cable-free listening experience, with some versions including sophisticated capabilities such as
touch controls and smart assistants.

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Applications of Headphones/Earphones

 Personal Music Listening:

Headphones/earphones are frequently utilized for personal music enjoyment.
Headphones/earphones allow you to listen to your favorite Music privately and clearly,
whether you're on the road or resting at home.

 Communication:
Headphones/Earphones with built-in microphones are used for voice calls, video
conferencing, and online gaming. They provide clear audio input and output, enabling
effective communication over voice and video platforms.

 Fitness and Sports:

Headphones/Earphones are popular among fitness enthusiasts and athletes. They offer the
convenience of wire-free listening during workouts, running, or other physical activities,
keeping users motivated and entertained.

 Education and Language Learning:

Headphones/Earphones are used in educational settings for language learning programs,
online courses, and audio-based learning materials. They provide a focused listening
experience, helping learners improve comprehension and pronunciation.

 Entertainment:
Headphones/earphones are required to watch movies and TV shows and play video
games. They offer immersive audio experiences that allow users to completely immerse
themselves in the entertainment material without bothering others.

Data Output Devices

Data output devices are essential components of computer systems that allow users to receive
and analyze processed data intelligibly. These gadgets are critical in displaying data
meaningfully, making it accessible and valuable for further analysis or decision-making.

Data output devices are required for data processing, visualization, and transmission. They
facilitate understanding complex information by presenting it in a visually accessible format.
Using data output devices, users can interpret and make sense of data more effectively, leading
to informed decision-making, improved communication, and enhanced productivity in various
fields and industries.

Some of the popular Data output devices are:

6) Plotter

A plotter is a specialized output device used to generate high-quality, accurate, and detailed
graphics. It's popular in fields like engineering, architecture, and graphic design. Unlike printers,
which use ink or toner to create pictures or text on paper, plotters utilize a pen or marker to draw

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continuous lines on diverse media such as paper, vinyl, or film. Plotters are capable of creating
intricate and accurate drawings, maps, blueprints, and technical diagrams. They are valued for
their ability to handle large-format prints and deliver precise output, making them essential tools
in industries that require precise graphical representation.

Types of Plotters

Plotters come in different types, each with its own unique features and applications. Here are
some common types of plotters:

 Pen Plotters:

Pen plotters are the most classic sort of plotter, drawing continuous lines on paper or
other media using a pen or marker. They create precise and elaborate designs by sliding
the pen horizontally and vertically over the page. Pen plotters are known for their high
accuracy and can produce detailed line art, technical diagrams, architectural blueprints,
and engineering designs. They are commonly used in industries that require precise and
professional-looking graphical outputs.

 Electrostatic Plotters: Electrostatic plotters use an electrostatic charge to attract toner or

ink onto paper. They operate by selectively charging areas of the paper and then applying
toner or ink to those charged areas, resulting in the formation of graphical output.
Electrostatic plotters can print high-resolution images with smooth gradients and solid
fills. They are frequently used in industries requiring accurate color reproduction,
including graphic design, advertising, and photography.

 Inkjet Plotters: Inkjet plotters work similarly to inkjet printers but are designed for
large-format printing. They generate the desired picture or pattern by spraying small
droplets of ink onto the paper. High-quality printouts with brilliant colors and precise
details may be produced using inkjet plotters. They are frequently used in industries that
need large-scale printing, such as architecture, engineering, and signage.

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  Cutting Plotters:
Cutting plotters, also known as vinyl cutters, are specialized plotters used to cut out shapes and
designs on various materials such as vinyl, paper, or fabric. They operate by cutting along the
outlines of the desired pattern using a sharp blade. Cutting plotters are commonly used in sign
making, vehicle graphics, apparel design, and other industries that require precise cutting of
materials for signage, decals, or stencils.

 Laser Plotters:
Laser plotters use a laser beam to create high-resolution prints on various media. They work by
directing the laser beam across the surface of the media, selectively exposing it to heat, which
creates the desired image or design. Laser plotters are known for their high precision and can
produce detailed and intricate graphics. They are used in industries such as prototyping,
architectural modeling, and graphic arts, where precise and complex designs are required.

Applications of Plotter
 Engineering and Architecture:
Plotters are extensively used in engineering and architecture for creating detailed technical
drawings, blueprints, and floor plans. They can produce accurate and scaled drawings on
large sheets of paper or other materials.

 Fine Art & Graphic Design:

Plotters are used by artists and graphic designers to generate large-scale artwork, posters, and
drawings. They can reproduce fine details and beautiful colors, letting artists communicate
their ideas on a larger scale.

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 Textile and Fashion Design:
Plotters are used to create patterns, templates, and stencils in the textile and fashion sectors.
They can produce intricate designs and precise measurements on fabrics, enabling efficient
production and customization.

 Signage and Advertising:

Plotters are utilized in the production of signs, banners, and promotional materials. They can
cut vinyl or other materials into desired shapes and sizes, allowing for the creation of visually
appealing signage and advertisements.

Wireless Output Devices

Wireless output devices have grown in popularity and have become essential components of
modern computing systems. These gadgets link and interact with computers or other devices via
wireless technology, eliminating the need for physical wires or connections. They provide ease,
flexibility, and mobility by letting users engage with their devices from a distance while
removing the constraints imposed by wired connections. Here are a few examples of wireless
output devices and their applications:

 Wireless Monitors:
Wireless monitors are display units that can connect to a computer or other devices using
wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. They provide the ease of cable-free
communication, letting users position their displays wherever they are within wireless range.
Wireless monitors are especially beneficial when wire management is difficult or when users
need to move or adjust the display often.

 Wireless Printers: Wireless printers have changed the way people print by removing the
requirement for direct physical connections. These printers usWi-Fifi or Bluetooth to
connect to devices such as PCs, laptops, or smartphones, allowing wireless printing from
anywhere within the network range. Wireless printers provide increased flexibility,
convenience, and decreased cable clutter. Users may print papers, images, and other
items without having to deal with wires and cords. Wireless printers are very handy in
shared office environments or households with many devices since they may be accessed
by several people at the same time.

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 Wireless Projectors:

They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting users project material from a distance
onto a screen or wall. They can wirelessly receive video and audio signals, letting users project
material from a distance onto a screen or wall. Wireless projectors are often utilized in
classrooms, boardrooms, and home theatre setups because they provide flexibility and
convenience of usage during presentations, movie evenings, and gaming sessions.

 Wireless Speakers:
wireless speakers make use of wireless technologies like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to connect and flow
audio from devices which include smartphones, tablets, or computer systems. They provide a
clean method to listen to Music, podcasts, or other audio records without having to deal with
cords. Wi-Fi audio systems are available in an expansion of sizes and styles, ranging from small
portable devices for on-the-go use to larger devices for home enjoyment systems.

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  Wireless Headphones/Earphones:
Wireless headphones and earbuds have grown in recognition because of their portability and lack
of cables. Wireless headphones and earbuds connect to gadgets via Bluetooth, giving a hassle-
free music experience without tangled cords. They're available in an expansion of designs to
accommodate an extensive variety of tastes and usage conditions. These gadgets' wireless
connection allows users to roam around freely while listening to audio material. Wireless
headphones and earbuds have become popular alternatives for their seamless and portable audio
experiences, whether for workouts, commuting, or simply untethered listening.

 Wireless Presenters:
Wireless presenters are handheld devices that enable users to control presentations remotely.
They connect to computers or other devices using wireless technology, allowing presenters to
navigate slides, highlight points, or control multimedia elements from a distance. Wireless
presenters provide flexibility and enhance the presenter's mobility and engagement during
meetings, conferences, or lectures.

Applications of Wireless Output Devices

 Home and Office Environments:

Wireless output devices find widespread use in both home and office settings. Wireless printers
allow multiple users to print documents or photos from their devices, eliminating the need for

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 everyone to be physically connected to the printer. Wireless speakers provide flexible audio
solutions for entertainment or productivity purposes.

 Education:
Wireless output devices are particularly valuable in educational environments. Wireless
projectors enable teachers to display content from their devices onto a larger screen, facilitating
effective visual learning for students. Wireless headphones can be used by students to listen to
educational audio materials without disrupting others.

 Presentations and Conferences:

Wireless output devices are commonly used in business presentations, conferences, and meetings.
Wireless projectors and presenters allow for seamless presentations without the need for cable
connections. Wireless speakers provide clear audio for conference calls or multimedia
presentations.

 Entertainment:
Wireless output devices, such as headphones/earphones and speakers, improve entertainment
experiences by allowing for more mobility and high-quality audio for Music, movies, and other
media.

 Mobile Devices:
Wireless output devices are compatible with mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
Users can wirelessly connect to wireless speakers, projectors, or headphones/earphones to
enhance their mobile entertainment or productivity experiences.

Advantages of Wireless Output Devices

 Convenience and Flexibility:
Wireless output devices offer the convenience of cable-free connectivity. Users can connect and
interact with their devices from a distance, eliminating the limitations imposed by physical
cables. This flexibility allows for easier device setup, repositioning, and mobility.

 Reduced Clutter:
Without the need for physical cables, wireless output devices contribute to a cleaner and more
organized workspace. Users can avoid the tangle of cables and the hassle of managing and
untangling wires, leading to a more aesthetically pleasing and efficient working environment.

 Enhanced Mobility:
Wireless output devices provide greater freedom of movement. Users can freely move around
within the wireless range without being tethered to a specific location. This is particularly
advantageous in scenarios such as presentations, where the presenter can move around the room
while maintaining control over the output device.

 Ease of Sharing:
Wireless output devices make it easier to share resources among multiple users. For example,
wireless printers can be accessed by multiple devices within a wireless network, allowing users to
conveniently print from different locations without the need for physical connections or
transferring files.

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  Increased Accessibility:
Wireless output devices improve accessibility for users with mobility challenges or disabilities.
They enable users to interact with devices from a comfortable position or distance, providing a
more inclusive computing experience.

IMPORTANT COMPUTER PERIPHERALS

Computer peripherals are external devices that enhance your machine's functionality through
better performance, design, sound quality and more. Add-ons range from essential input devices
like keyboards, to enjoyable output devices like speakers.
Whether you use your machine for work, gaming, or entertainment, peripherals can improve
your system's productivity and usability. How often you use your computer, the type of work or
play in which you engage, and your physical needs will determine which devices are best for
you.

Popular Input Peripherals

The most important input device for your computer is the keyboard, but all computer keyboards
aren't equal. With more people using computers for both work and personal use, excessive typing
can lead to health problems. The creation of ergonomic computer keyboards has helped alleviate
muscle and joint pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and other maladies that frequently affect users.
Ergonomic keyboards come in one- or two-piece designs, allowing users the flexibility to find
the most comfortable position.
The computer mouse and touchpad control the cursor. A computer stylus mouse is held like a
pencil, and it comes with a specialized pad. Computer mice are available in wired or wireless
connections, and are offered in ergonomic designs.

Popular Output Peripherals

Computer monitors are essential to view your computer activity. Printers are not essential, but
useful if you want the convenience of printing materials from your home or office. Other popular
outputs include computer speakers, gaming computer headsets, headphones, and VR headsets to
enhance your music and gaming experiences.
The acronym KVM stands for keyboard, video monitor, and mouse, and the input/output device
it refers to allows you to share two computers with one keyboard, video monitor, and mouse by
connecting them and their peripherals into a console that permits you to switch from one
computer to the other as needed.

Whether you need to replace or upgrade one or more of your computer peripheral devices, you're
interested in combining two computers with a KVM console, or you need to replace some
input/output accessories, B&H Photo and Video has an assortment of quality products for your
accessory needs.

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 UNIT4:
HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND HUMAN WARE.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer system,
including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software without
using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a hardware.

Hardware Upgrade
A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional
hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example
of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video
card upgrade, where the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:
1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse

1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a
computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive,
and ports for input and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit
board in a computer chassis.
It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each
other. It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect
to it. Each component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the
motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.
There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a
specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

CPU Slot:
It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. It
facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed. Furthermore,
it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot:

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It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM (Random
Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.
Expansion Slot:
It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the motherboard,
which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for example, you can
purchase a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new
video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR,
CNR, PCI, etc.

Capacitor:
It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them. These parts
are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil):
It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It acts as an
inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.

Northbridge:
It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and
memory. Furthermore, it also allows the Southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU,
and graphics controller.

USB Port:
It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.

PCI Slot:
It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices
like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot:
It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Heat Sink:
It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.

Power Connector:
It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery:
It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that stores the BIOS
settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images,
etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this circuity. The
monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU).

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Types of Monitors:

1. CRT Monitor:
It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Its main components
are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass envelope, fluorescent screen, and
base.

2. LCD Monitor:
It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to produce images on the screen.
Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors and use active-matrix technology,
which allows pixels to retain their charge.

3. LED Monitor:
It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor, which uses cold cathode
fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs to
display the backlight.

4. Plasma Monitor:
It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080,
wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text,
characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets
of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete,
enter, etc.

A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special
characters. It is an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware device
that is connected to the computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental interface with a
system. It has numerous buttons that can be used to generate letters, numbers, and symbols as
well as unique keys like the Windows and Alt keys that can also accomplish other tasks.

Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards

4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's cursor)
in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a computer's
display screen. It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it smoothly to control
the pointer. Types of Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless
Mouse, etc.

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A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable pointing device that is used to interact with
objects on computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen. On the
display screen, the cursor moves in the same direction as the users' mouse movements. The term
"mouse" refers to a compact, wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that somewhat resembles a mouse.

Main Functions of a Mouse:

 Move the cursor:
It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the screen.

 Open or execute a program:

It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a program. You are required to take the
cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.

 Select:
It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.

 Hovering:
Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During hovering over an
object, it displays information about the object without pressing any button of the mouse.

 Scroll:
It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.

Parts of a Mouse:
 Two buttons:
A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.

 Scroll Wheel:
A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll up and down and
Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.

 Battery:
A battery is required in a wireless mouse.

 Motion Detection Assembly:

A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to provide signals to the computer about the
motion and location of the mouse.

External hardware components

The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control input or
output functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes known as peripheral
components. These hardware components either serve as input devices for the software or output
devices for the output of the software's operations (output).

Common Input Hardware Components:

 Microphone:

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 A microphone is an input device that converts sound waves into electrical impulses in order to
allow computer-based audio communications. It was developed by Emile Berliner in 1877. It is
used to enter audio into computers or transform sound waves into electric waves. It captures
audio with the help of converting sound waves into an electrical signal that could be a digital or
analog signal. This process can be implemented by a computer as well as other digital audio
devices.

 Camera:
Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a computer or a network
device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes photographs with the help of using
photosensitive film or a plate inside of a light-proof housing. The photosensitive film is exposed
to light via the camera's shutter, which opens and closes as the image is imprinted onto the film.

 Touchpad:
A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide point, pressure-sensitive
tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for the user. It can take the place of a
regular mouse. To control the pointer on a display screen, a touchpad can be either external or
incorporated into a laptop. Usually, it serves as a substitute for an external mouse.

 USB flash drive:

A USB flash drive is a type of storage device for data that connects to a computer via a USB port
and uses flash memory. It is an external, removable storage device that has a built-in Universal
Serial Bus (USB) interface. Many USB flash drives can be removed and written to. They have a
compact, reliable, and small physical design. They often operate more quickly the more storage
space they have. Because there are no moving parts, USB flash drives are extremely mechanically
durable.

 Memory card:
A memory card is a kind of portable external storage device; video, photo, and other data files
can be stored on it. A form of storage medium, which is additionally known as a flash memory.
Also, it provides a volatile and non-volatile medium. It is frequently found in gadgets, including
phones, laptops, digital cameras, camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players, printers, and more.

NB: Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware components.

Common Output Hardware Components:

 Printer:
This is a hardware output device used to produce hard copies of documents or print them. It
converts computer-generated electronic data into printed form. Text files, pictures, or a
combination of the two can all be considered documents. It receives input commands from users
so that computers or other devices may print the sheets. You must create a soft copy of your
report and print it using a printer, for example, if your institution needs you to submit a project
report.

 Speaker:
One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a computer to generate a
sound output. While some speakers can only be connected to computers, others can be used with
any type of sound system.

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  Headphones, Earphones, Ear-Buds:
These are also output devices much like speakers, which offer audio that can only be heard by
one listener.

Hardware Virtualization
The abstraction of physical computing resources from the software that utilizes those resources is
known as hardware virtualization. Put on another way; hardware virtualization is the process of
creating virtual representations of hardware by using software rather than physical, tangible
hardware components for various computing functions.
A particular hardware platform by host software is used to execute hardware virtualization, and it
is sometimes referred to as platform or server virtualization. It needs a hypervisor, a virtual
machine manager that turns internal hardware into virtual forms. As a result, among OSes and
applications, the hardware resources of one physical machine can be shared easily and used more
efficiently.
In cloud computing, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), a delivery model that offers hardware
resources over high-speed internet, is frequently associated with hardware virtualization. All of
the hardware elements that are typically found in an on-premises data center, including servers,
storage, and networking hardware, as well as the software that enables virtualization, are hosted
by a cloud service provider (CSP), such as Amazon Web Services or Microsoft Azure.
IaaS and CSPs differ from hardware as a service (HaaS) providers in that they don't host
software but only host hardware. A typical IaaS provider also offers a variety of services to go
along with infrastructure parts, like the following:
 billing
 clustering
 log access
 monitoring
 security
 load balancing
Other storage resilience services are also provided by some CSPs, including disaster recovery,
automated backup, and replication.

Hardware as a Service
While buying computer hardware and occasionally replacing or upgrading it is common for
individuals or businesses. People and businesses can also rent physical and virtual hardware from
a service provider. The maintenance of the hardware, including all of its numerous physical parts
and the software that runs on them, becomes the responsibility of the service provider. It is also
called the HaaS model.
The most significant advantage of HaaS is it decreases the price of purchasing and maintaining
hardware, allowing businesses to switch from a capital expenditure budget to a typically cheaper
operational expense budget. Additionally, the majority of HaaS options are based on a pay-as-
you-go model, which makes it simpler for businesses in order to manage expenditures while still
having access to the hardware they require for their operational and business continuity.
HaaS involves installing physical parts that belong to a managed service provider (MSP) at a
client's location. The responsibilities of both parties are defined by an SLA (service-level
agreement).

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For using the MSP's hardware, the customer may either pay a monthly cost or have it included in
the MSP's fee schedule for setting up, maintaining, and monitoring the hardware. In either case,
the MSP is in charge of fixing or replacing the hardware if it breaks down or becomes outdated.
Decommissioning hardware may involve physically destroying hard drives, deleting confidential
data, and verifying that used equipment has been recycled legally on the basis of the SLA's
requirements.

Computer Hardware Problems and Diagnostics Methods

In modern times, troubleshooting computer hardware issues has become more convenient, faster,
and easier as well. You can quickly determine which equipment is having problems if you have
the correct IT inventory management tool.
The effectiveness of management procedures is greatly improved by automated IT inventory
management software. You can deliver the best services by correlating, analyzing, and tracking
changes with the help of these tools for asset management. They enable you to produce detailed
records and define maintenance timeframes, which make it simpler to track the performance of
each asset and reduce the need for manual updates.
The software has the ability to monitor hardware warranty, and expiration dates in addition to
tracking and identifying hardware faults. These functions assist you in service level agreements,
organizing upcoming purchases, and procurement plans in accordance with corporate
requirements. The asset automatically updates the inventory as necessary if it finds configuration
changes and performance issues. Software for managing hardware inventories can perform the
following things, for example:
 Immediately gather IT inventory data and auto-discover assets.
 Send immediate warnings regarding CPU and motherboard hardware problems or when your
operating system, firmware, and software upgrades are available.
 Keep track of any server operating system upgrades.
 Track and manage the maintenance requirements and life cycles of the hardware inventory
 Also, with powerful IT inventory management software, you can identify and monitor configuration
changes.

SOFTWARE
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the hardware to
perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software. The software can be
of three types: system software, application software, and programming software.

1) System Software

The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the
computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The
application programs are also controlled by system software. An operating system is an example
of system software.

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i) Operating System:

An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user to
communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of hardware and
software of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows,
Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

 BIOS:
It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is stored in Read Only
Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in
flash memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you turn on your computer system.
It loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating system to load itself
into the memory.

 Boot Program:
Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the computer, the commands in the ROM
are executed automatically to load the boot program into memory and execute its instructions. The
BIOS program has a basic set of commands that enables the computer to perform the basic
input/output instructions to start the computer.

 An assembler:
It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer instructions and converts them into a
pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to perform basic operations.

 A device driver:
This system software controls hardware devices connected to a computer. It enables the computer to
use the hardware by providing an appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU
communicates with different hardware through this software. Operating systems generally come with
most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver for hardware, you
have to install the device driver before using that hardware device.

2) Application Software:

Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control
the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without
application software. Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It
can be a single program or a collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe
Photoshop, and any other software like payroll software or income tax software are application
software. As we know, they are designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of
different types such as:

 Word Processing Software:

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 This software allows users to create, edit, format, and manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of
options for writing documents, creating images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad,
Notepad, etc.

 Spreadsheet Software:
It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the
data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.

 Multimedia Software:
These software are developed to perform editing of video, audio, and text. It allows you to combine
texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text document by adding photos,
animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window
Media Player, etc.
 Enterprise Software:
These software are developed for business operational functions. It is used in large organizations
where the quantum of business is too large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing
and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence), ERP
(Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer support system, and
more.

3) Programming Software:

It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It
assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We
can say that these are facilitator software that helps translate programming language such as
Java, C++, Python, etc., into machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For
example, compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called
a programming tool or software development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

 Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

 Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
 Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
 Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

HUMANWARE
Humanware refers to the persons who design, program, and operate a computer installation.
There are numerous categories of jobs, but the three principal positions required in a large
computer installation are system analyst, programmer, and computer operator. People in each of
these areas generally perform special-purpose tasks under the supervision of a director or
manager.

The position of a Systems Analyst requires the broad background and extensive understanding
of the above three job categories. The main task of the system analyst is to study information and
processing requirements. A systems analyst defines the applications problem, determines

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systems specifications, recommends hardware and software changes, and designs information
processing procedures.

A Programmer requires a comprehensive knowledge of one or more programming languages

and standard coding procedures. This position does not require the broader understanding of the
structure and inner workings of an application. A programmer's principal job is to code or
prepare programs based on the specifications made by the systems analyst.

A Computer Operator requires the least extensive background of the three categories. A
computer operator generally performs a series of well-defined tasks that will keep the computer
operating at maximum efficiency. The operational efficiency of a computer installation is
dependent on the quality and abilities of the operational staff.

In other words,

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 UNIT5:
DIVERSE AND GROWING COMPUTER/DIGITAL
APPLICATIONS.
In this unit, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.

Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for:

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

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Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities:
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers
to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing:
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits

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  Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:

 Advertising:
With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy,
and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

 Home Shopping:
Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the
customers.

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Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System
Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.

 Lab-diagnostic System
All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.

 Patient Monitoring System

These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
ECG, etc.

 Pharma Information System

Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.

 Surgery
Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design

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Computers are widely used for engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering:
Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

 Industrial Engineering
Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of integrated systems of
people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering
Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of buildings
on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:

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  Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are:

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category
are:

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 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

UNIT6:
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND ITS ROLES IN
SOCIETY

INFORMATION PROCESSING
Information processing is the manipulation of data to produce useful information; it involves the
capture of information in a format that is retrievable and analyzable. Processing information
involves taking raw information and making it more useful by putting it into context. In general,
information processing means processing new data, which includes a number of steps: acquiring,
inputting, validating, manipulating, storing, outputting, communicating, retrieving, and
disposing. The future accessing and updating of files involves one or more of these steps.
Information processing provides individuals with basic skills to use the computer to process
many types of information effectively and efficiently. The termhas often been associated
specifically with computer-based operations.

Impact of Information Processing

Information processing has had an enormous impact on modern society. The marketplace has
become increasingly complex with the escalating availability of data and information.
Individuals need a sound understanding of how to create, access, use, and manage information,

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which is essential in the work environment. People need to understand the interrelationship
among individuals, the business world nationally and internationally, and government to
constructively participate as both consumers and producers. These general competencies must be
coupled with those that lead to employment in business as well as advanced business studies.

According to market intelligence provider IDC, offices around the world were on track to
produce 4.5 trillion pages of hard-copy information by 2007. Three vital factors to consider in
the management of documents are (1) managing the documents more effectively, (2) controlling
the costs associated with the documents processed, and (3) using available resources more
efficiently. Every organization, whether small or large, has a vested interest in information
processing technology. Smarter document management in office environments is essential.
Businesses are adding intelligence and structure to digital and paper documents in order to
streamline business processes and to aid integration within the structured data systems. The
emphasis is not on eliminating paper, but on handling the information embedded in the
documents more efficiently. The focus has shifted to tailoring and managing technology to best
meet needs.

Effects of Information Processing

Information generates ideas and drives decisions. Documents are driven by regulatory
compliance, plus the need to communicate with customers, suppliers, and employees—while
dealing with multimedia, business process solutions, and related investments. Questions that
should be considered include the following:

1. What techniques, procedures, and methods are used to share useful information?
2. What are the capabilities and limitations of hardware and software?
3. How can speed of operation, functionality, and capacity be increased?
4. What ways will an organization and individual use the information; for example, will the
information be used to support strategic, tactical, or operational decisions, and to inform,
persuade, educate, or entertain users?
5. What techniques are used for representing the design of solutions and output, including
input-process-output charts, hierarchy charts, screen/hardcopy layout mock-ups, flow charts,
or storyboards; what techniques such as hyperlinks, buttons, icons, table of contents, index,
or page numbering—are used for navigating complex documents.

In many businesses, office files are littered with paper documents. Time consuming and costly,
this situation frustrates both customers and employees, often resulting in service delays. By
automating paper-intensive processes, organizations can realize significant productivity gains.

The explosion in information and content has created business challenges, including:

 The inability of users to locate information needed

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  The lack of clear organization to simplify navigation through repositories and on Web
sites
 Manual tagging processes that take too much time
 The inability to personalize content for individual users and customers

Management of Information Processing

Businesses in the twenty-first century are complex, fluid, and customer-centric, therefore they
need to establish and apply appropriate file-management procedures and techniques to store,
communicate, and dispose of data and information efficiently and effectively. By automating
routines to capture, process, manage and deliver business documents, organizations can
safeguard data integrity and protect data from alteration.

The introduction of digital technologies enabled offices to start changes in the use of paper. In
the early 1990s, a Xerox research study indicated that offices were not tending to use less paper
rather keep less paper. Many office workers maintain paper for reading, annotating, and sharing
information for discussion purposes; many businesses still rely on paper for such form-based
documents as invoices, contracts, and customer correspondence. Paper copies and/or microfilm
are also archived for legal reasons by many businesses and organizations.

Businesses need to examine carefully the document work-flow process. This includes four
stages/steps: capture, manage, store, and deliver. Each step supports the transfer of paper
document content to electronic format, to route and use for specific applications. Richard V.
Heiman and Anthony C. Picardi (2005) have stated that "information life-cycle management has
now become possible. Intelligent documents have a life cycle built into them and travel on the
backbone of enterprise transaction systems. Content comprehension, digital rights, and
integration continues to evolve and will be built into an increasing array of smart applications."

Many business documents are governed by regulations such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002
and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. These acts are meant to
protect information security, accuracy, and confidentiality and dictate how organizations receive,
process, use, store, protect, and share business information.

Business requires that information be accessible in real time. Real time is associated with speed
—real-time information management is getting information where it needs to be when it needs to
be there, whether that is microseconds, minutes, or days. Information has impact when it is
connected to context, to other information, and to people. Context enhances the value of stored
information. Business leaders need information that is readily accessible. They want to have real-
time views in their businesses so that decisions are made when they need to be without tracking
data and generating reports.

Traditionally in most businesses, organizations, and corporations, information has been isolated
within a specific department on an individual employee's personal computer, in an individual
database, or in a file cabinet. Businesses, however, have implemented multiple solutions to store
various data and yet questions persist on how to consolidate and use storehouses of information
to deliver better products and services while maintaining profit margins.

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Capturing all information onto one true enterprise system is essential. Enterprise resource
management (ERM) has arrived. The implementation of ERM in the business sector has helped
businesses to manage people and workloads and to control of the processes of the business.
Processes and communication systems that extend globally and respond instantaneously require
flexibility. The processes as well as the systems must be integrated so that measurable results are
delivered. ERM serves as a vehicle to manage information. It organizes data to be more useful to
individual departments—enabling them to operate more efficiently, as well as creating
streamlined processes to cut costs.

Changing internal processes can be difficult within an organization. Businesses must abandon
old ways of preserving and protecting data. Data need to be shared within an organization on a
rules- and roles-based system; reporting functions need to be streamlined, limiting decision
making to a select few. Open lines of communication and collaboration within the organization,
as well as with partners, suppliers, and customers, helps the organization achieve greater
operational efficiency.

Constantly evolving business requirements mean that the work-flow processes have to be
updated as needs change. Customization may be required. Businesses need to define and modify
work-flow functions. Solutions that bridge the gap between back- and front-office worlds enable
organizations to exchange information.

In the current work environment, businesses use the Internet on a daily basis. The Internet is no
longer a tool just for electronic mail, research, and electronic commerce. It has become a tool for
globalizing a business; it is a tool that enables an organization to tie together employees,
suppliers, and customers. Free flow of information is generated across the country and
internationally.

Challenges of Information Processing

Businesses still face challenges as they attempt to revise internal processes, open
communications to outside sources, and integrate disparate technology functions. Information
should not be isolated in specific departments; it should be housed is such a way as to benefit the
entire organization.

In the modern office, information processing encompasses a wide field. It ranges from textual
information to digital information, qualitative analysis to quantitative analysis, as well as
globally from the Internet to a single personal computer.

Computer documents may require a combination of software packages to be used; for example,
placing a spreadsheet into a word-processing document or a spread-sheet graph in a presentation
file. A variety of manipulations is involved in the processing of textual information. A document
can be rearranged by the cutting and pasting of text, and graphics can be imported into a text
document. Using image analysis software, images can be manipulated. The digital processing of
numerical data can be accomplished through spreadsheet programs. Using spreadsheet programs,
data can be queried in a "what if" statement, and statistical analysis and graphical representation
of the data can be illustrated.

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Integrating software applications is a powerful aspect of using software designed to be used in
the Windows environment. Integration refers to the sharing of information among applications—
word processing, spreadsheet, and database applications. Computer software not only shares
common features but also is very often compatible; thus, information that is created in one
software package can be shared in another.

The proliferation of computer software has dramatically changed the way end users create
documents. As computer software became more sophisticated over the years, the software
programs began to share common features. Modern offices use a combination of software
packages to produce useful information. The field of information processing has had and
continues to make a significant impact on society.

THE ROLES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING TO THE

SOCIETY
In the past few decades there has been a revolution in computing and communications,
and all indications are that technological progress and use of information technology will
continue at a rapid pace. Accompanying and supporting the dramatic increases in the
power and use of new information technologies has been the declining cost of
communications as a result of both technological improvements and increased
competition. According to Moore’s law the processing power of microchips is doubling
every 18 months. These advances present many significant opportunities but also pose
major challenges. Today, innovations in information technology are having wide-ranging
effects across numerous domains of society, and policy makers are acting on issues
involving economic productivity, intellectual property rights, privacy protection, and
affordability of and access to information. Choices made now will have long- lasting
consequences, and attention must be paid to their social and economic impacts.
One of the most significant outcomes of the progress of information technology is
probably electronic commerce over the Internet, a new way of conducting business.
Though only a few years old, it may radically alter economic activities and the social
environment. Already, it affects such large sectors as communications, finance and retail
trade and might expand to areas such as education and health services. It implies the
seamless application of information and communication technology along the entire value
chain of a business that is conducted electronically.
The following sections will focus on the impacts of information technology and electronic
commerce on business models, commerce, market structure, workplace, labor market,
education, private life and society as a whole.

Business Models, Commerce and Market Structure

One important way in which information technology is affecting work is by reducing the
importance of distance. In many industries, the geographic distribution of work is changing
significantly. For instance, some software firms have found that they can overcome the tight
local market for software engineers by sending projects to India or other nations where the
wages are much lower. Furthermore, such arrangements can take advantage of the time
differences so that critical projects can be worked on nearly around the clock. Firms can

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outsource their manufacturing to other nations and rely on telecommunications to keep
marketing, R&D, and distribution teams in close contact with the manufacturing groups. Thus
the technology can enable a finer division of labour among countries, which in turn affects the
relative demand for various skills in each nation. The technology enables various types of
work and employment to be decoupled from one another. Firms have greater freedom to
locate their economic activities, creating greater competition among regions in
infrastructure, labour, capital, and other resource markets. It also opens the door for
regulatory arbitrage: firms can increasingly choose which tax authority and other
regulations apply.

Computers and communication technologies also promote more market-like forms of

production and distribution. An infrastructure of computing and communication
technology, providing 24-hour access at low cost to almost any kind of price and product
information desired by buyers, will reduce the informational barriers to efficient market
operation. This infrastructure might also provide the means for effecting real-time
transactions and make intermediaries such as sales clerks, stock brokers and travel agents,
whose function is to provide an essential information link between buyers and sellers,
redundant. Removal of intermediaries would reduce the costs in the production and
distribution value chain. The information technologies have facilitated the evolution of
enhanced mail order retailing, in which goods can be ordered quickly by using telephones or
computer networks and then dispatched by suppliers through integrated transport companies
that rely extensively on computers and communication technologies to control their
operations. Nonphysical goods, such as software, can be shipped electronically,
eliminating the entire transport channel. Payments can be done in new ways. The result is
dis- intermediation throughout the distribution channel, with cost reduction, lower end-
consumer prices, and higher profit margins.

The impact of information technology on the firms’ cost structure can be best illustrated
on the electronic commerce example. The key areas of cost reduction when carrying out a
sale via electronic commerce rather than in a traditional store involve physical
establishment, order placement and execution, customer support, staffing, inventory
carrying, and distribution. Al- though setting up and maintaining an e-commerce web site
might be expensive, it is certainly less expensive to maintain such a storefront than a
physical one because it is always open, can be accessed by millions around the globe, and
has few variable costs, so that it can scale up to meet the demand. By maintaining one
’store’ instead of several, duplicate inventory costs are eliminated. In addition, e-commerce
is very effective at reducing the costs of attracting new customers, because advertising is
typically cheaper than for other media and more targeted. Moreover, the electronic interface
allows e-commerce merchants to check that an order is inter- nally consistent and that the
order, receipt, and invoice match. Through e-commerce, firms are able to move much of
their customer support on line so that customers can access databases or manuals directly.
This significantly cuts costs while generally improving the quality of service. E-commerce
shops require far fewer, but high-skilled, employees. E-commerce also permits savings in
inventory carrying costs. The faster the input can be ordered and delivered, the less the
need for a large inventory. The impact on costs associated with decreased inventories is
most pronounced in industries where the product has a limited shelf life (e.g. bananas), is
subject to fast technological obsolescence or price declines (e.g. computers), or where there

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is a rapid flow of new products (e.g. books, music). Although shipping costs can increase
the cost of many products purchased via electronic commerce and add substantially to the
final price, distribution costs are significantly reduced for digital products such as financial
services, software, and travel, which are important e-commerce segments.

Although electronic commerce causes the disintermediation of some intermediaries, it creates

greater dependency on others and also some entirely new intermediary functions. Among
the intermediary services that could add costs to e-commerce transactions are advertising,
secure online payment, and delivery. The relative ease of becoming an e-commerce
merchant and setting up stores results in such a huge number of offerings that consumers
can easily be overwhelmed. This increases the importance of using advertising to establish
a brand name and thus generate consumer familiarity and trust. For new e-commerce start-
ups, this process can be expensive and represents a significant transaction cost. The
openness, global reach, and lack of physical clues that are inherent characteristics of e-
commerce also make it vulnerable to fraud and thus increase certain costs for e-commerce
merchants as compared to traditional stores. New techniques are being developed to protect
the use of credit cards in e-commerce transactions, but the need for greater security and
user verification leads to increased costs. A key feature of e-commerce is the convenience of
having purchases delivered directly. In the case of tangibles, such as books, this incurs
delivery costs, which cause prices to rise in most cases, thereby negating many of the
savings associated with e-commerce and substantially adding to transaction costs.

With the Internet, e-commerce is rapidly expanding into a fast-moving, open global market with
an ever-increasing number of participants. The open and global nature of e-commerce is likely
to increase market size and change market structure, both in terms of the number and size of
players and the way in which players compete on international markets. Digitized products
can cross the border in real time, consumers can shop 24 hours a day, and seven days a
week, and firms are increasingly faced with international online competition. The Internet is
helping to enlarge existing markets by cutting through many of the distribution and
marketing barriers that can prevent firms from gaining access to foreign markets. E-commerce
lowers information and transaction costs for operating on overseas markets and provides a
cheap and efficient way to strengthen customer-supplier relations. It also encourages
companies to develop innovative ways of advertising, delivering and supporting their product
and services. While e-commerce on the Internet offers the potential for global markets, certain
factors, such as language, transport costs, local reputation, as well as differences in the cost and
ease of access to networks, attenuate this potential to a greater or lesser extent.

Workplace and Labor Market

Computers and communication technologies allow individuals to communicate with one
and other in ways complementary to traditional face-to-face, telephonic, and written
modes. They enable collaborative work involving distributed communities of actors who
seldom, if ever, meet physically. These technologies utilize communication infrastructures
that are both global and always up, thus enabling 24-hour activity and asynchronous as
well as synchronous interactions among individuals, groups, and organizations. Social
interaction in organizations will be affected by use of computers and communication
technologies. Peer-to-peer relations across department lines will be enhanced through
sharing of information and coordination of activities. Interaction between superiors and

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subordinates will become tenser because of social control issues raised by the use of
computerized monitoring systems, but on the other hand, the use of e-mail will lower the
barriers to communications across different status levels, resulting in more uninhibited
communications between supervisor and subordinates.
That the importance of distance will be reduced by computers and communication technology
also favors telecommuting, and thus, has implications for the residence patterns of the
citizens. As workers find that they can do most of their work at home rather than in a
centralized workplace, the demand for homes in climatically and physically attractive regions
would increase. The consequences of such a shift in employment from the suburbs to more
remote areas would be profound. Property values would rise in the favored destinations and
fall in the suburbs. Rural, historical, or charming aspects of life and the environment in
the newly attractive areas would be threatened. Since most telecommuters would be among the
better educated and higher paid, the demand in these areas for high-income and high-status
services like gourmet restaurants and clothing boutiques would increase. Also would there
be an expansion of services of all types, creating and expanding job opportunities for the local
population.
By reducing the fixed cost of employment, widespread telecommuting should make it
easier for individuals to work on flexible schedules, to work part time, to share jobs, or
to hold two or more jobs simultaneously. Since changing employers would not necessarily
require changing one’s place of residence, telecommuting should increase job mobility and
speed career advancement. This increased flexibility might also reduce job stress and
increase job satisfaction. Since job stress is a major factor governing health there may be
additional benefits in the form of reduced health costs and mortality rates. On the other
hand one might also argue that technologies, by expanding the number of different tasks
that are expected of workers and the array of skills needed to perform these tasks, might
speed up work and increase the level of stress and time pressure on workers.
A question that is more difficult to be answered is about the impacts that computers and
communications might have on employment. The ability of computers and
communications to perform routine tasks such as bookkeeping more rapidly than humans
leads to concern that people will be replaced by computers and communications. The
response to this argument is that even if computers and communications lead to the
elimination of some workers, other jobs will be created, particularly for computer
professionals, and that growth in output will increase overall employment. It is more
likely that computers and communications will lead to changes in the types of workers
needed for different occupations rather than to changes in total employment.
A number of industries are affected by electronic commerce. The distribution sector is directly
affected, as e-commerce is a way of supplying and delivering goods and services. Other
industries, indirectly affected, are those related to information and communication
technology (the infrastructure that enables e-commerce), content-related industries
(entertainment, software), transactions-related industries (financial sector, advertising, travel,
transport). E-commerce might also create new markets or extend market reach beyond
traditional borders. Enlarging the market will have a positive effect on jobs. Another important
issue relates to interlink ages among activities affected by e-commerce. Expenditure for e-
commerce-related intermediate goods and services will create jobs indirectly, on the basis of

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the volume of electronic transactions and their effect on prices, costs and productivity. The
convergence of media, telecommunication and computing technologies is creating a new
integrated supply chain for the production and delivery of multimedia and information
content. Most of the employment related to e-commerce revolves around the content industries
and communication infrastructure such as the Internet.
Jobs are both created and destroyed by technology, trade, and organizational change.
These processes also underlie changes in the skill composition of employment. Beyond the net
employment gains or losses brought about by these factors, it is apparent that workers
with different skill levels will be affected differently. E-commerce is certainly driving the
demand for IT professionals but it also requires IT expertise to be coupled with strong
business application skills, thereby generating demand for a flexible, multi-skilled work force.
There is a growing need for increased integration of Internet front-end applications with
enterprise operations, applications and back-end databases. Many of the IT skill requirements
needed for Internet support can be met by low-paid IT workers who can deal with the
organizational services needed for basic web page programming. However, wide area
networks, competitive web sites, and complex network applications require much more skill
than a platform-specific IT job. Since the skills required for e-commerce are rare and in high
demand, e-commerce might accelerate the up skilling trend in many countries by requiring
high-skilled computer scientists to replace low-skilled information clerks, cashiers and market
salespersons.

Education
Advances in information technology will affect the craft of teaching by complementing rather
than eliminating traditional classroom instruction. Indeed the effective instructor acts in a
mixture of roles. In one role the instructor is a supplier of services to the students, who
might be regarded as its customers. But the effective instructor occupies another role as well,
as a supervisor of students, and plays a role in motivating, encouraging, evaluating, and
developing students. For any topic there will always be a small percentage of students with the
necessary background, motivation, and self-discipline to learn from self-paced workbooks or
computer assisted instruction. For the majority of students, however, the presence of a live
instructor will continue to be far more effective than a computer assisted counterpart in
facilitating positive educational outcomes. The greatest potential for new information
technology lies in improving the productivity of time spent outside the classroom. Making
solutions to problem sets and assigned reading materials available on the Internet offers a
lot of convenience. E-mail vastly simplifies communication between students and faculty
and among students who may be engaged in group projects.
Although distance learning has existed for some time, the Internet makes possible a large
expansion in coverage and better delivery of instruction. Text can be combined with
audio/video, and students can interact in real time via e-mail and discussion groups. Such
technical improvements coincide with a general demand for retraining and up skilling by
those who, due to work and family demands, cannot attend traditional courses. Distance
learning via the Internet is likely to complement existing schools for children and university
students, but it could have more of a substitution effect for continuing education
programmes. For some degree programmes, high-prestige institutions could use their
reputation to attract students who would otherwise attend a local facility. Owing to the

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Internet’s ease of access and convenience for distance learning, overall demand for such
programmes will probably expand, leading to growth in this segment of e-commerce.
As shown in the previous section, high level skills are vital in a technology-based and
knowledge-intensive economy. Changes associated with rapid technological advances in
industry have made continual upgrading of professional skills an economic necessity. The goal
of lifelong learning can only be accomplished by reinforcing and adapting existing systems
of learning, both in public and private sectors. The demand for education and training
concerns the full range of modern technology. Information technologies are uniquely capable
of providing ways to meet this demand. Online training via the Internet ranges from accessing
self-study courses to complete electronic classrooms. These computer-based training
programmes provide flexibility in skills acquisition and are more affordable and relevant than
more traditional seminars and courses.

Private Life and Society

Increasing representation of a wide variety of content in digital form results in easier and
cheaper duplication and distribution of information. This has a mixed effect on the
provision of content. On the one hand, content can be distributed at a lower unit cost.
On the other hand, distribution of content outside of channels that respect intellectual
property rights can reduce the incentives of creators and distributors to produce and make
content available in the first place. Information technology raises a host of questions
about intellectual property protection and new tools and regulations have to be developed
in order to solve this problem. Many issues also surround free speech and regulation of
content on the Internet, and there continue to be calls for mechanisms to control objectionable
content. However it is very difficult to find a sensible solution. Dealing with indecent
material involves understanding not only the views on such topics but also their evolution
over time. Furthermore, the same technology that allows for content filtering with respect
to decency can be used to filter political speech and to restrict access to political material.
Thus, if censorship does not appear to be an option, a possible solution might be labeling.
The idea is that consumers will be better informed in their decisions to avoid
objectionable content.
The rapid increase in computing and communications power has raised considerable concern
about privacy both in the public and private sector. Decreases in the cost of data storage and
information processing make it likely that it will become practicable for both government and
private data-mining enterprises to collect detailed dossiers on all citizens. Nobody knows who
currently collects data about individuals, how this data is used and shared or how this data
might be misused. These concerns lower the consumers’ trust in online institutions and
commu- nication and, thus, inhibit the development of electronic commerce. A
technological approach to protecting privacy might by cryptography although it might be
claimed that cryptography presents a serious barrier to criminal investigations.
It is popular wisdom that people today suffer information overload. A lot of the
information available on the Internet is incomplete and even incorrect. People spend more and
more of their time absorbing irrelevant information just because it is available and they
think they should know about it. Therefore, it must be studied how people assign
credibility to the information they collect in order to invent and develop new credibility

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systems to help consumers to manage the information overload.
Technological progress inevitably creates dependence on technology. Indeed the creation of
vital infrastructure ensures dependence on that infrastructure. As surely as the world is
now dependent on its transport, telephone, and other infrastructures, it will be dependent
on the emerging information infrastructure. Dependence on technology can bring risks.
Failures in the technological infrastructure can cause the collapse of economic and social
functionality. Black- outs of long-distance telephone service, credit data systems,
electronic funds transfer systems, and other such vital communications and information
processing services would undoubtedly cause widespread economic disruption. However,
it is probably impossible to avoid technology dependence. Therefore, what must be
considered is the exposure brought from dependence on technologies with a recognizable
probability of failure, no workable substitute at hand, and high costs as a result of failure.

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 MODULE 2

UNIT1
THE INTERNET, ITS APPLICATIONS AND ITS
IMPACT ON THE WORLD TODAY

The Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use
TCP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to
global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World
Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.

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Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork, the result of
interconnecting computer networks with special gateways or routers. The Internet is
also often referred to as the Net.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without
much distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the
same. The Internet establishes a global data communications system between
computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet.
It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs.

The Applications

Today is the era of Internet applications, today there is a specific application to do every work,
using which you can do those tasks very easily. Today we will know in detail about the same
applications of the Internet.

There are various applications of internet in points, which are given below.

 Communication
 Job Search
 Online Shopping
 Web Browsing
 Stock Market Updates
 Travel
 Research
 E-Commerce
 Online Payments
 Social Networking
 E-banking
 Education
 Entertainment

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Communication
Communication is also one of the most used applications of the Internet because today it is very
easy to talk through the Internet and today almost everyone is communicating with each other
through the Internet.

Today it is very cheap to communicate through the Internet, as compared to other mediums, so
people today are using Internet applications to communicate.

Today, there are thousands of such Internet applications for communication, through which you
can communicate with someone else. But we will tell you about some popular communication
applications.

Through these communication applications, you can talk to anyone in many ways.

For example, you can talk to someone through chat, you can talk through voice call, you can talk
through video call, etc.

We will tell you about similar applications that run through the Internet.

There are some popular communication internet applications, which are given below.

 Email
 Skype
 Google Meet
 Zoom
 WhatsApp
 Facebook Messenger

Email

The full form of email is electronic mail. If it is understood in simple language, then email
means, a message sent through electronic means. In earlier times, people used to send messages
to someone through a postman, which took a lot of time, but in today's time, people use email to
send messages to someone.

Through email, you can also send an email to someone in a few seconds and can also receive
email from anyone. You just need to have an internet connection to send or receive emails. Do
you know there are many advantages and disadvantages of email?

Through email, you can send text messages, program files, spreadsheets, photos, videos, etc to
anyone. Email is mostly used by professional people. There are various Uses of Email.

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Skype

Skype is a telecommunications application run by Skype Technologies. Skype is a VoIP-based

application. VoIP means Voice-over-Internet Protocol. Through Skype you can do video
conferencing, voice calls, messaging, file transfer, etc. Skype is a very popular
videoconferencing application.

Google Meet

Google Meet is also a video-communication internet application, which was launched by

Googler company on March 9, 2017. Through Google Meet, you can have online meetings, take
online classes, give tuition to children online or you can also talk to anyone in a normal way.

But Google Meet is mostly used for online meetings or online teaching. There are many features
of Google Meet, which helps you a lot in online meetings.

Zoom

Zoom is also a proprietary video telephony Internet application, which was launched by Zoom
Video Communications Company on October 12, 2011.

Through Zoom, you can hold online meetings, take online classes, give tuition to children online
or you can even talk to anyone in a normal way.

But Zoom is mostly used for conducting webinars or teaching online. Zoom has both free and
paid plans, that is, you can also use Zoom for free, but there are some limitations in the free plan,
as you can have 100 users at a time in the free plan of Zoom.

WhatsApp

WhatsApp is a social messaging internet application developed by Meta Company. Today,

WhatsApp is used by millions of people around the world, it is a very popular messaging
application. Through WhatsApp, you can send text messages to anyone or you can also share
images, documents, and your live location with anyone, and through WhatsApp, you can talk to
anyone by voice and video calls.

Messenger

Messenger is also an internet application, which is made by Meta Company. You can also send
text messages, photos, videos, audio, and documents to anyone through messenger and you can
also talk to anyone through a voice call and video call through this application.

Job Search
Due to covid 19, many people lost their jobs today or if they say, millions of people around the
world have become unemployed due to covid epidemic, and it is very difficult to find jobs again.

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To find Job, you have to round the many offices and still do not get a good job. But now you
don't have to worry.

In today's digital world it is very easy to find the job of your choice, yes you have read it right.
Today you can easily find jobs related to your skills through the internet and give a direct
interview to HR. Now you will say that how can we find jobs from the internet, so let us tell you
that today there are many such applications of internet, which help you in finding jobs.

Through these internet job applications, you can find jobs for yourself sitting at home, these job
portals have all kinds of jobs for all types of people, all you have to do is use these job
applications and just send your resume. We have given below the names of some jobs providing
internet applications.

 Naukri.com
 Monster.com
 Freshersworld.com
 Indeed.com
 Glassdoor
 ZipRecruiter

Online Shopping
Everything is possible in today's era, in earlier times people could not even imagine that without
going to the market, anything could be bought, but in today's time, it is possible. We and you
know that we can buy anything without going to the market without going to the shop.

Today the whole world is doing online shopping through the internet, that too sitting at home and
you can also shop online from home through the internet.

Today there are many such applications on the Internet, through which you can buy anything
online. Such as - Mobile, Tablet PC, Computers, Watch, Smart Watch, Television, Fan, Table
Fan, LED Bulb, Glasses, Ring, Jewellers, Camera, Home Appliances, clothes, etc.

Through these shopping applications, you can order any item of your need sitting at home. We
have given below the names of some shopping applications, from which you can shop.

 Amazon
 FlipKart
 Paytm Mall
 ShopClues
 Myntra
 Snapdeal
 Meesho

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Web Browsing

Web browser is also an important Internet application, in earlier times, any user used to have a
lot of trouble to do Internet travel, because at that time there were no good browsers so that
people could do web browsing. But today there is more than one web browser, which you can
use to search anything on the Internet.

Today's web browsers come with more features than the earlier browsers, because today's web
browsers are made of the latest technology, which has many advantages to use such as - saving
password, incognito mode, history, zoom, Print, Bookmark etc.

The browser was invented by Tim Berners-Lee.

Today there are many types of web browsers, using which you can access the Internet. The
names of those web browsers are given below.

 Internet Explorer.
 Google Chrome.
 Mozilla Firefox.
 Safari.
 Opera.
 Konqueror.
 Lynx.
 Tor Browser.
 UC Browser.
 Brave Browser.

Stock Market Updates

In the earlier times, no one knew about the stock market, what is the stock market, but today
everyone knows about the stock market, what the stock market is and how to invest money in it.

Today many people are earning a lot of money from the stock market, today people know which
stock to invest in and when to sell which stock so that more money can be earned.

But just think, it was not like this a few years ago, because you had to take the help of a broker to
buy or sell someone, so that that broker also used to take commission from you.

But today through internet application you can buy or sell any stock without any broker and can
also read the information of stock market moment by moment.

Today there are many such stock applications, using which you can earn a good amount from the
stock market very easily. The names of those stock applications are given below.

 Upstox Pro App

 Zerodha Kite
 Angel Broking
 Groww app

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  5paisa
 Sharekhan App
 Fyers App
 HDFC Securities
 Stock Edge

Travel
Due to the Covid epidemic all over the world, people have stopped traveling, and as the effect of
the Covid epidemic is working, people are now starting to leave their homes.

But before saying anything, there are many questions in your mind. Like - how to go there,
where will they stay, which places they should visit, etc.

But if you have to travel this way, now you have no need to worry, because you can get all the
information about your journey through the internet.

Today, there are many such Internet applications, so they make your journey even easier. You
can book travel tickets, hotels, taxis, etc. through these internet applications.

Or you can now book the same trip through these applications, such as Goa, Manali, Jammu
Kashmir, Delhi, Agra, Nainital, Gangtok, MALDIVES, Darjeeling, etc. This internet application
gives you all the facilities, whose names are given below.

 MakeMyTrip.
 Cleartrip.
 Goibibo.
 Agoda.
 Booking.com.
 Yatra.
 OYO Rooms.

Research
Research means to do deep research about a subject or to know everything about that subject.
Doing research is no small task, it takes a lot of time and effort to do research about anything.
Research is not done by common people, but by scientists or Ph.D. students.

If you are a Ph.D. student and you have to do research on any topic, then you do not need to
worry, because with the use of the internet you can do your research very easily, but you will
have to work hard.

Today there are many such internet applications that make your research easier and you do not
have to work harder too. If you are a Ph.D. student then this internet application is very useful
for you.

All you have to do is use these applications to complete your research. The names of some
search applications are given below.

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  Mendeley
 Flipboard
 Researcher
 Google Keep
 Curiosity
 Paperity
 Slack
 DropBox

E-Commerce
E-commerce is also a good applications of internet platforms. Today e-commerce is in full swing
all over the world. Today, at present, millions of merchants around the world are selling their
products through e-commerce.

E-commerce means putting your shop online and selling any of your items online. By doing this,
your business becomes local to global, that is, you can sell your goods to the people of other
cities as well.

You can do your shop online through the internet, but you must have an internet connection to
sell your goods online.

Today there are many such Internet applications that help you to sell your goods online and in
return charge you a small commission. On these internet applications, you have to register your
business and upload your product on these applications.

We have given below the names of some applications, using which you can sell your goods
online and earn more profit.

 Amazon
 Flipkart
 Meesho
 Shopify
 Paytm Mall
 Dukaan

Online Payments
Today is the era of online payments, in today's digital age, now everyone is paying any bill
online instead of giving cash. Today online payments are in full swing all over the world.

You can make online payments only through the internet, without an internet connection you
cannot make an online payment.

There are many benefits of online payment. For example - you do not need to carry cash, there is
no need to spare money in taking any item.

You can pay any bill through an online payment. For example, electricity bill, mobile bill,
telephone bill, water bill, cylinder bill, movie bill, hotel bill, restaurant bill, shopping bill, etc.

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There are many such internet applications today that gives you the facility to make online
payments, the names of those applications are given below.

 Paytm
 PhonePe
 Google Pay
 BharatPe
 Amazon Pay
 Freecharge
 BHIM
 MobiKwik

Social Networking
Social networking is also a good platform, through which you talk to people. Today millions of
people around the world are using social networking sites. Through social networking sites, you
can make connections with friends, family, classmates, customers, and clients.

You can also promote your business through social networking sites. Today, there are many such
Internet networking applications that you can use to do your kind of work.

You must have an internet connection to use social networking sites because without an internet
connection you cannot use these social networking sites.

There are some famous social Networking applications given below.

 Facebook
 Instagram
 Twitter
 LinkedIn
 YouTube
 Pinterest
 Tumblr
 Reddit
 Snapchat
 WhatsApp

E-Banking
E-banking is also known as online banking and internet banking. E-banking is one of the best
features of the banking sector because, through e-banking, bank customers can now do all
banking work sitting at home.

There are many benefits of using e-banking. Such as - online account opening, money transfer,
NEFT, passbook check, bill payment, loan, etc.

Online banking is generally a core banking facility operated by a bank. To use e-banking, you
must have an internet connection, otherwise, you cannot use the e-banking facility.

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Today there are many such e-banking internet applications, each bank has its own different
internet application, whose name is given below.

 Kotak- 811
 ICICI iMobile
 YONO SBI
 HDFC PayZapp
 Bank of Baroda M-Connect Plus

E-Learning
Today is the era of e-learning in the present time, e-learning means electronic learning which
means you can now study from anywhere through e-learning.

If you understand it in an easy language, now you can do your studies by staying in any corner of
the world, now you do not need to go to any college or institute to study, You can study from
online live class through e-learning sitting at home.

There are many benefits of e-learning, just imagine the students who live in the village, and the
city is far away from their village, so those students can now study online by staying in their
village through e-learning without going to the city.

To study through e-learning, you must have a smart device and internet connection, only then
you can study online.

Through e-learning, you can study any subject or you can also prepare for any competitive exam.
There are many Internet applications through which students can study. The names of those
applications are given below.

 Byjus
 Topper
 Vedantu
 Unacademy
 Quick Learn Computer

Entertainment
If you are getting bored alone, then there is no need for you to worry, because today you can be
entertained through the medium of the internet.

Today there are many such internet applications that can entertain you. You can watch anything
on these entertainment applications. Like - Movies, Web series, Cartoons, Serials, Cricket,
News, Comedy, etc.

We have given below the names of some popular entertainment applications.

 Netflix
 VOOT
 Disney+ Hotstar

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  Amazon Prime
 Sony Liv
 ALT Balaji
 YouTube

EFFECTS OF THE INTERNET ON SOCIETY

The Internet, IT, computers and social media are having, an enormous effect on everyone. These
computers and the Internet have become one of the most important changes to modern society.
They bring transformations to human daily life. This process has changed politics, relationships,
news, science, learning, information and entertainment. The Internet has transformed the reality
of distances and has made individual self-operating information collection machines that get
immediate and easily access to information and communication.

The Internet has turned our existence upside down. It has revolutionized communications, to the
extent that it is now our preferred medium of everyday communication.

Now for many people sending emails, ordering a pizza, buying a skirt, sharing a moment with a
friend, sending a picture over instant messaging, all is now often done by using the Internet. The
Internet is the decisive technology of the Information Age, and with the explosion of wireless
communication in the early twenty-first century, we can say that humankind is now almost
entirely connected, although with dissimilar bandwidths, effectiveness and price.

People, companies, and institutions feel the depth of this technological change, but the speed and
scope of the transformation has triggered all manner of utopian and dystopian perceptions that,
when examined closely through methodologically rigorous empirical research, turn out not to be
accurate.

Before the Internet, if you wanted to keep up with the news, you had to go to a shop or news-
stand and buy a local edition paper and read what had happened yesterday. However, today a
click or two is enough to read your local press and any news source from anywhere in the world,
updated up to the minute.

With about 7.7 billion people in this world and with limited use among those under 5 years of
age, it’s almost safe to say that the entire humanity is now connected to the internet! There are
however variations in the bandwidths available, the efficiency and cost of its use.

While early adopters saw possibilities in using the Internet as a vehicle through which the many
challenges facing the world might be addressed, more recently questions have arisen about how
Internet technology can be used to spread false and misleading information, and to radicalise and
recruit potential terrorists.

There are also concerns as to whether the Internet serves to reduce or exacerbate social divisions;
and whether it contributes to the dilution of social norms or, conversely, serves as a channel to
perpetuate them.

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It’s been postulated that about 95% of all information available has been digitized and made
accessible via the Internet. This processing system has also led to a complete transformation in
communication, availability of knowledge as well as social interaction.

However, as with all major technological changes, there are positive and negative effects of the
internet on the society too.

Positive Effects of the Internet

 It provides effective communication using emailing and instant messaging services to any
part of the world.
 It improves business interactions and transactions, saving on vital time.
 Banking and shopping online have made life less complicated.
 You can access the latest news from any part of the world without depending on the TV
or newspaper.
 Education has received a huge boost as uncountable books and journals are available
online from libraries across the world. This has made research easier. Students can now
opt for online courses using the internet.
 Application for jobs has also become easier as most vacancies are advertised online with
online applications becoming the norm.
 Professionals can now exchange information and materials online, thus enhancing
research.

Negative Impacts of the Internet

 Easy availability of illegal or inappropriate materials online that isn’t age-suitable.

 It can be addicting and it can hurt our communication skills. Extended screen time can
result in health ramifications like insomnia, eyestrain, and increased anxiety
and depression.
 Using the Dark Web to trade stolen material and data.
 Addiction to social networks can disrupt an individual’s life, both personally and
professionally.
 Some miscreants use the Internet to hack into people’s accounts for spurious activities
including stealing data or banking information.
 Yet others have been known to misuse the Internet for spreading hate and terrorism, two
dangerously catastrophic scenarios.

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 UNIT2
THE DIFFERENT AREAS/PROGRAMS OF THE
COMPUTING DISCIPLINE
The question, if you choose a computing major, what career options are open to you? We have
provided information for each of the majors and it is listed below:

Software engineering

Focuses on using engineering approaches to the theory and practice of building software
systems. The cost and time involved in developing complex software includes teams of computer
scientists. The process of software engineering consists of:

 Development of requirements
 Analysis of possibilities
 Design
 Construction
 Validation or checking to make sure it meets requirements
 Deployment of the software
 Operation
 Maintenance

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence, or AI, is the study and design of systems that can function autonomously
from human input. Examples of AI are programs that offer music recommendations based on
your previous listening habits or programs that can play complex games like chess against a
human competitor. Some AI studies focus on creating machines that can perform human tasks
like visual perception or speech recognition. Machine learning is a subset of AI that focuses
specifically on the possibility of creating a machine that can use algorithms and programming to
mirror the processes of the human mind.

Programming Languages and Logic

Programming languages are an integral part of computer science because most other disciplines
use programming languages to function. To use a computer, the programmer translates
commands into a specific programming language the computer can read. The study of
programming languages and logic focuses on designing these languages as well as analyzing
them and characterizing and classifying their individual features. Practical application of this
study includes optimizing these languages so they can write complex programs using the
smallest amount of code that the computer can understand.

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Scientific Computing Applications

Scientific computing applications is a study of computer science that uses computer algorithms
and modeling capabilities to predict the outcome of scientific experiments that scientists can't
conduct physically. Some situations where scientific experiments need to be conducted through
models are:

 Big in scale: Some scientific experiments or research are simply too big to conduct an
experiment accurately outside of a digital model, such as predicting the progress of climate
change and its effects.
 Dangerous: Some materials or chemical reactions may be too dangerous or unethical to
conduct in-person, like experimenting with toxic or radioactive chemicals.
 Expensive: Some experiments or research are too expensive or time-consuming. Using
scientific computing can help to speed up these processes for a fraction of the cost, such as
repeatedly crash testing aircraft for safety optimization.

Scientific computing is multidisciplinary because it includes people who are experts in the field
that require the model, as well as the computer scientist to build the algorithms.

Theory of Computation

Theory of computation is a discipline that focuses on determining what problems computational

algorithms solve and if they can solve them completely or partially. The ultimate purpose of this
subject is to determine what the fundamental capabilities and limitations of computers are. There
are three major branches of this subject:

 Automata theory and formal languages: Automata theory is the study of abstract machines
called automata, which computer scientists
 Use to describe and analyze the behavior of computer systems.
 Computability theory: Computability theory, or recursion theory, is the study of what
decision problems a computer program can and cannot solve. A decision problem is a yes or
no question that can have an infinite number of factors. For example, if a computer can
determine whether numbers in a set are even or odd, no matter what the numbers are, that
would be a decision problem the computer can solve.
 Computational complexity: Computational complexity focuses on how much time and
memory different algorithms require. The more resources the algorithm requires, the more
complex it is.

Data Structures and Algorithms

This discipline focuses on the way data structures and algorithms can interact and how computer
scientists can improve them to create better computer programs. A data structure is a location
where you can organize and store data. An algorithm is a set of tasks you can command from a
computer. You can use an algorithm to retrieve and perform computations on the data, which
creates a computer program. The focus of this discipline is to study the overlap of these two
functions and optimize them.

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Computer Architecture and Organization

This discipline focuses on the study, design, implementation and operation of a computer system.
Architecture focuses on how the design of hardware like computers, storage devices and network
connection components store programs, transmit data and facilitate connections with other
devices. Organization is how those components connect and how to optimize those connections.

Computer Networks

The study of computer networks focuses on the analysis, design and implementation of networks
that link computers together. For example, the internet is a type of network that links computers
together. Computer scientists study how to develop these links using different connections, like
light signals or radio waves. They also work to develop protocols that establish limitations and
protections for these networks.

Computer Security in Cryptography

This discipline of computer science focuses on how to protect information stored on computers.
This can include creating hardware that is more difficult to tamper with but mostly includes
creating software that is invulnerable to theft, destruction, fraud or access by an unauthorized
user. Cryptography is a part of computer security developed to protect data. It is the practice of
using algorithms to encrypt information by translating it from its natural state into a hard-to-
decipher pattern using a set of rule-based computations, as well as using algorithms to decrypt
data.

Databases and Data Mining

The study of databases and data mining focuses on how computer scientists organize and store
data. Big data is a term for large sets of data that are collected from a specific source. An
example of big data would be the location data, browsing habits and app usage that cell phones
collect to aid their users. Data mining is combing through that data to identify patterns. One
important emphasis of this discipline is to create database structures that allow for the efficient
organization and recall of data from a big data set, as well as facilitating easy and quick data
mining.

Computer Graphics and Visualization

This discipline of computer science focuses on the display of computer systems and the control
of images on the computer screen. This includes studying and improving the hardware
capabilities of a computer. It also handles:

 Rendering: Generating a realistic image from a two-dimensional model using a computer

program.
 Modeling: Generating probable outcomes based on a set of criteria.

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 Animation: Creating the effect of movement through a sequence of still images on a display
screen.
 Visualization: Interpreting data into a graphic form and interacting with the data to
manipulate the graphic.

Image and Sound Processing

Image and sound processing focuses on studying the forms that information can take and how to
interpret and process that information. Image processing is when you use a digital computer to
interpret an image as a set of data that you can manipulate. Manipulating the set of data can
create more exact changes to the image than altering it manually. A digital computer can
manipulate sound and other forms of information with the same process. Studying how to
translate images and sound into data sets accurately and then manipulating those sets is the
primary purpose of this discipline.

Concurrent, Parallel and Distributed Computing

This discipline is the study of computers and networks that have multiple computations
happening at once. The central question of this topic is how to design machines or strategies that
can improve the speed and correctness with which these simultaneous tasks occur. Concurrent
computing is when multiple computations happen once. Computer scientists can improve
concurrent computing is through a distributed system, which is when multiple computers connect
to a network and process individual computations at one time.

Human-Computer Interaction

This topic within computer science focuses on how users interact with computers and the user
interface that facilitates this interaction. The central aim of this discipline is to construct
hardware and software that makes using the computer easy and manageable for its user, without
insisting on their knowing computer science. This discipline incorporates user psychology,
anthropology and engineering because it focuses on interpreting users' instincts and expectations.
Then, computer scientists construct hardware and software that meets those expectations.

Information and Coding Theory

Information theory studies the transmission and processing of information. Coding theory studies
how to translate information into codes that can transmit information, as well as how to reduce
the error rate when transmitting data and how fast a computer can process a digital signal. In this
discipline, computer scientists use codes to determine the limits of how much they can compress,
store or transmit data.

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 UNIT3
THE JOB SPECIALIZATIONS FOR COMPUTING
PROFESSIONALS
When you work in a field that is constantly changing and adapting, it is essential to be able to
solve problems. It can happen that the unit test of your code is not successful or that you have a
long sprint ahead of you to reach your next goal. In such situations, your flexibility and ability to
solve an urgent problem will come in handy.

Critical thinking is probably one of the first things that comes to mind when you think of skills
for IT-oriented jobs; many tasks in this field require looking at screens, thinking about numbers
and testing code. It is crucial that a person working in this field is able to understand all aspects
of a problem so that they can analyse and change things like a machine.

However, a sense of creativity will also help you to perform your role to the full. Once you've
mastered the analytical aspect of the equation, a willingness to find new ways of doing things is
absolutely vital to getting a good job in IT.

Here are the 10 best jobs for computer science students - and for anyone interested in this field.

Software Developer

Software Developers are tasked with creating and developing websites, programs, and other
applications that run on computers or other devices.

Skills: A strong background in computer programming is highly recommended for these

positions. Interpersonal skills to collaborate with others on projects and being detail oriented to
be able to juggle multiple aspects are also highly valued.

Web Developer

Web Developers are programmers that are concentrated on coding, designing, and building out
the layout of a website.

Skills: Knowledge of HTML/CSS, Javascript, and other programming languages is essential for
this role. It’s also important to have knowledge of graphic design and a collaborative mindset
while working with other designers on projects.

UX Designer

UX Designers are in charge of creating significant and relevant experiences for users of a
particular product or platform. They’re part of the reason why you love your favorite apps and
their interfaces.

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Skills: Knowledge of programming and computer systems can greatly aid your success in this
role–this expertise makes it easier to translate your design vision to your team. Additionally, it
helps if you’re well-versed in user empathy, which allows you to see the product as the future
users would and adjust accordingly.

Mobile App Developer

Mobile App Developers are similar to Web Developers, except their area of expertise is creating,
coding, and testing for mobile applications.

Skills: Besides the basics of strong analytical skills and coding knowledge, it’s good to know
both programmatic languages—Java (for Androids) and Objective-C (for iPhones)—for sake of
range.

IT Project Manager

IT Project Managers are in charge of planning, budgeting, and basically running an

organization’s IT goals and initiatives.

Skills: Strong leadership skills are vital in this role. As the IT Project Manager, you will be
responsible for not only heading up a team, but guiding, hiring, and making decisions for the
interest of all.

Information Security Analyst

Information Security Analysts are in charge of implementing systems of safety and protecting a
company’s computer networks.

Skills: Being meticulous and detail-oriented in your work is mandatory for success in this role, as
a whole organization’s security is on the line. Being able to predict outcomes and adjust security
accordingly is also key.

Systems Architect

Systems Architects analyze a company holistically and figure out how to bring the best possible
IT strategy for their department’s goals. They define and design the architecture of said system to
create the highest quality experience possible.

Skills: To succeed as a Systems Architect, you need the ability to critically analyze the objectives
of a business and identify the scale of resources it will require on all sides. Being able to
troubleshoot, assess, and translate customer needs is also good to have.

AI Engineer

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AI (Artificial Intelligence) Engineers create, test, and develop computer systems with a goal of
mimicking human intelligence in said systems.

Skills: Programming is at the heart of this role,, alongside a strong understanding of software
development, linear algebra, probability, and statistics.

Computer Hardware Engineer

Computer Hardware Engineers are responsible for designing, researching, developing, and
building computer systems and components like chips, memory devices, and circuit boards.

Skills: You need solid technical and analytical skills, and a strong spirit of collaboration when
working with software developers on developing projects.

Video Game Developer

These developers are the coding heroes behind the games you play in your free time. They code
on various systems and conceptualize with other developers to create playable games.

Skills: Storytelling skills, along with the ability to conceptualize both plot and design, are key to
this role. It’s valuable to have a vision and ideas for executing it well, not simply know the
programmatic language.

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 UNIT4:
THE FUTURE OF COMPUTING
The future of computing is being shaped by transistors made from materials other than silicon.
It’s being amplified by approaches that have nothing to do with transistor speed, such as deep-
learning software and the ability to crowdsource excess computing power to create what amounts
to distributed supercomputers. It may even redefine computing itself.

Here are some of the landmarks on computing’s new frontiers:

 Quantum computing:
Even the most powerful conventional computer can only assign a one or a zero to each bit.
Quantum computing, by contrast, uses quantum bits, or qubits, which can be a zero, a one,
both at once, or some point in between, all at the same time. Current quantum computers are
loud and unreliable, but in the next 10 or 20 years they’ll be able to help us design new
materials and chemical compounds and create unhackable channels of communication to
protect everything from financial transactions to troop movements.

 Neuromorphic technology
The goal of this technology is to create a computer that mimics the architecture of the human
brain in order to achieve human levels of problem solving and perhaps even cognition at
some point while requiring hundreds of thousands of times less energy than a traditional
transistor. We aren’t there yet, but in early 2020, Intel rolled out a new server based on
neuromorphic chips that it claims has roughly the same neural capacity as a small mammal’s
brain. And in a development that would once have been science fiction, an international team
of researchers has linked artificial and biological neurons to communicate like a biological
nervous system but one that uses internet protocols.

 Optical computing
The ability to compute using photons, that is, by mapping data onto light-intensity levels and
then varying the light intensity to perform calculations, is still in its earliest stages but could
enable high-efficiency, low-power processing and data transmission. Optical computing at
Nano scale would be possible at the literal speed of light.

 Distributed computing:
Every computer that’s idling in sleep mode or isn’t operating at full capacity has compute
cycles that can be used for other things. A client that runs in the background allows that
computer to download workloads from a remote server, perform calculations locally, and
upload the results back to the server. The current apex of this distributed model is Folding @
home, which is modeling protein molecules to find cures for diseases like Alzheimer’s,
cancer, and, most recently, COVID-19. The project now has nearly 750,000 participants and
a collective 1.5 exaflops of power, that is, the ability to perform a quintillion calculations per

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 second. That’s 75% of the projected speed of the El Capitan supercomputer, which is
expected to be the world’s fastest when it comes out in 2023.

We may be approaching the limits of what silicon chips can do, but technology itself is still
accelerating. It’s unlikely to stop being the driving force in modern life. Its influence will only
increase as new computing technologies push robotics, artificial intelligence, machine-to-human
interfaces, nanotechnology, and other world-shaking advances past today’s accepted limits.

In short, exponential growth in computing may not be able to go on forever, but its end is still
much further in the future than we might think.

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