Objects and Classes

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 Motivations
After learning the preceding chapters, you are capable of
solving many programming problems using selections,
loops, methods, and arrays. However, these Java features
are not sufficient for developing graphical user interfaces
and large scale software systems. Suppose you want to
develop a graphical user interface as shown below. How do
you program it?

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 Objectives
❑ To describe objects and classes, and use classes to model objects (§9.2).
❑ To use UML graphical notation to describe classes and objects (§9.2).
❑ To demonstrate how to define classes and create objects (§9.3).
❑ To create objects using constructors (§9.4).
❑ To access objects via object reference variables (§9.5).
❑ To define a reference variable using a reference type (§9.5.1).
❑ To access an object’s data and methods using the object member access operator (.) (§9.5.2).
❑ To define data fields of reference types and assign default values for an object’s data fields (§9.5.3).
❑ To distinguish between object reference variables and primitive data type variables (§9.5.4).
❑ To use the Java library classes Date, Random, and Point2D (§9.6).
❑ To distinguish between instance and static variables and methods (§9.7).
❑ To define private data fields with appropriate get and set methods (§9.8).
❑ To encapsulate data fields to make classes easy to maintain (§9.9).
❑ To develop methods with object arguments and differentiate between primitive-type arguments and
object-type arguments (§9.10).
❑ To store and process objects in arrays (§9.11).
❑ To create immutable objects from immutable classes to protect the contents of objects (§9.12).
❑ To determine the scope of variables in the context of a class (§9.13).
❑ To use the keyword this to refer to the calling object itself (§9.14).
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 OO Programming Concepts
Object-oriented programming (OOP) involves
programming using objects. An object represents
an entity in the real world that can be distinctly
identified. For example, a student, a desk, a circle,
a button, and even a loan can all be viewed as
objects. An object has a unique identity, state, and
behaviors. The state of an object consists of a set of
data fields (also known as properties) with their
current values. The behavior of an object is defined
by a set of methods.

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 Objects
Class Name: Circle A class template

Data Fields:
radius is _______

Methods:
getArea

Circle Object 1 Circle Object 2 Circle Object 3 Three objects of

the Circle class
Data Fields: Data Fields: Data Fields:
radius is 10 radius is 25 radius is 125

An object has both a state and behavior. The state

defines the object, and the behavior defines what
the object does.

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 Classes
Classes are constructs that define objects of the
same type. A Java class uses variables to define
data fields and methods to define behaviors.
Additionally, a class provides a special type of
methods, known as constructors, which are invoked
to construct objects from the class.

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 Classes
class Circle {
/** The radius of this circle */
double radius = 1.0; Data field

/** Construct a circle object */

Circle() {
}
Constructors
/** Construct a circle object */
Circle(double newRadius) {
radius = newRadius;
}

/** Return the area of this circle */

double getArea() { Method
return radius * radius * 3.14159;
}
}

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 UML Class Diagram
UML Class Diagram Circle Class name

radius: double Data fields

Circle() Constructors and

Circle(newRadius: double) methods
getArea(): double
getPerimeter(): double
setRadius(newRadius:
double): void

circle2: Circle circle3: Circle UML notation

circle1: Circle
for objects
radius = 1.0 radius = 25 radius = 125

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 Example: Defining Classes and
Creating Objects

Objective: Demonstrate creating objects,

accessing data, and using methods.

TestSimpleCircle

TestSimpleCircle

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 Example: Defining Classes and Creating Objects
TV
channel: int The current channel (1 to 120) of this TV.
volumeLevel: int The current volume level (1 to 7) of this TV.
on: boolean Indicates whether this TV is on/off.

The + sign indicates +TV() Constructs a default TV object.

a public modifier.
+turnOn(): void Turns on this TV.
+turnOff(): void Turns off this TV.
+setChannel(newChannel: int): void Sets a new channel for this TV.
+setVolume(newVolumeLevel: int): void Sets a new volume level for this TV.
+channelUp(): void Increases the channel number by 1.
+channelDown(): void Decreases the channel number by 1.
+volumeUp(): void Increases the volume level by 1.
+volumeDown(): void Decreases the volume level by 1.

TV

TV
TestTV

TestTV

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 Constructors
Constructors are a special
Circle() { kind of methods that are
} invoked to construct objects.

Circle(double newRadius) {
radius = newRadius;
}

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 Constructors, cont.
A constructor with no parameters is referred to as a
no-arg constructor.
· Constructors must have the same name as the
class itself.
· Constructors do not have a return type—not
even void.
· Constructors are invoked using the new
operator when an object is created. Constructors
play the role of initializing objects.
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 Creating Objects Using
Constructors
new ClassName();

Example:
new Circle();

new Circle(5.0);

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 Default Constructor
A class may be defined without constructors. In
this case, a no-arg constructor with an empty body
is implicitly defined in the class. This constructor,
called a default constructor, is provided
automatically only if no constructors are explicitly
defined in the class.

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 Declaring Object Reference Variables
To reference an object, assign the object to a reference
variable.

To declare a reference variable, use the syntax:

ClassName objectRefVar;

Example:
Circle myCircle;

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 Declaring/Creating Objects
in a Single Step
ClassName objectRefVar = new ClassName();

Assign object reference Create an object

Example:
Circle myCircle = new Circle();

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 Accessing Object’s Members
❑ Referencing the object’s data:
objectRefVar.data
e.g., myCircle.radius

❑ Invoking the object’s method:

objectRefVar.methodName(arguments)
e.g., myCircle.getArea()

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animation
Trace Code
Declare myCircle

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); no value

myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100;

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animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); no value

myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; : Circle

radius: 5.0

Create a circle

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animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); reference value

myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; Assign object reference : Circle

to myCircle
radius: 5.0

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animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); reference value
myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; : Circle

radius: 5.0

yourCircle no value

Declare yourCircle

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animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); reference value
myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; : Circle

radius: 5.0

yourCircle no value

: Circle
Create a new radius: 1.0
Circle object

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Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 22
animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0);
myCircle reference value
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; : Circle

radius: 5.0

yourCircle reference value

Assign object reference

to yourCircle : Circle

radius: 1.0

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animation

Trace Code, cont.

Circle myCircle = new Circle(5.0); reference value
myCircle
Circle yourCircle = new Circle();

yourCircle.radius = 100; : Circle

radius: 5.0

yourCircle reference value

: Circle
Change radius in radius: 100.0
yourCircle

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Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 24
 Caution
Recall that you use
Math.methodName(arguments) (e.g., Math.pow(3, 2.5))

to invoke a method in the Math class. Can you invoke getArea() using
SimpleCircle.getArea()? The answer is no. All the methods used before
this chapter are static methods, which are defined using the static
keyword. However, getArea() is non-static. It must be invoked from an
object using

objectRefVar.methodName(arguments) (e.g., myCircle.getArea()).

More explanations will be given in the section on “Static Variables,

Constants, and Methods.”

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 Reference Data Fields
The data fields can be of reference types. For example,
the following Student class contains a data field name of
the String type.

public class Student {

String name; // name has default value null
int age; // age has default value 0
boolean isScienceMajor; // isScienceMajor has default value false
char gender; // c has default value '\u0000'
}

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 The null Value
If a data field of a reference type does not
reference any object, the data field holds a
special literal value, null.

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 Default Value for a Data Field
The default value of a data field is null for a
reference type, 0 for a numeric type, false for a
boolean type, and '\u0000' for a char type.
However, Java assigns no default value to a local
variable inside a method.
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Student student = new Student();
System.out.println("name? " + student.name);
System.out.println("age? " + student.age);
System.out.println("isScienceMajor? " + student.isScienceMajor);
System.out.println("gender? " + student.gender);
}
}

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Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 28
 Example
Java assigns no default value to a local variable
inside a method.
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x; // x has no default value
String y; // y has no default value
System.out.println("x is " + x);
System.out.println("y is " + y);
}
}

Compile error: variable not

initialized
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 Differences between Variables of
Primitive Data Types and Object Types
Created using new Circle()
Primitive type int i = 1 i 1

Object type Circle c c reference c: Circle

radius = 1

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 Copying Variables of Primitive
Data Types and Object Types
Primitive type assignment i = j

Before: After:

i 1 i 2

j 2 j 2

Object type assignment c1 = c2

Before: After:

c1 c1

c2 c2

c1: Circle c2: Circle c1: Circle c2: Circle

radius = 5 radius = 9 radius = 5 radius = 9

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 Garbage Collection
As shown in the previous figure, after the
assignment statement c1 = c2, c1 points to
the same object referenced by c2. The object
previously referenced by c1 is no longer
referenced. This object is known as garbage.
Garbage is automatically collected by JVM.

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 Garbage Collection, cont
TIP: If you know that an object is no longer
needed, you can explicitly assign null to a
reference variable for the object. The JVM
will automatically collect the space if the
object is not referenced by any variable.

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 The Date Class
Java provides a system-independent encapsulation of date
and time in the java.util.Date class. You can use the Date
class to create an instance for the current date and time and
use its toString method to return the date and time as a string.

java.util.Date
The + sign indicates
public modifer +Date() Constructs a Date object for the current time.
+Date(elapseTime: long) Constructs a Date object for a given time in
milliseconds elapsed since January 1, 1970, GMT.
+toString(): String Returns a string representing the date and time.
+getTime(): long Returns the number of milliseconds since January 1,
1970, GMT.
+setTime(elapseTime: long): void Sets a new elapse time in the object.

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 The Date Class Example
For example, the following code

java.util.Date date = new java.util.Date();

System.out.println(date.toString());

displays a string like Sun Mar 09 13:50:19

EST 2003.

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 The Random Class
You have used Math.random() to obtain a random double
value between 0.0 and 1.0 (excluding 1.0). A more useful
random number generator is provided in the java.util.Random
class.
java.util.Random
+Random() Constructs a Random object with the current time as its seed.
+Random(seed: long) Constructs a Random object with a specified seed.
+nextInt(): int Returns a random int value.
+nextInt(n: int): int Returns a random int value between 0 and n (exclusive).
+nextLong(): long Returns a random long value.
+nextDouble(): double Returns a random double value between 0.0 and 1.0 (exclusive).
+nextFloat(): float Returns a random float value between 0.0F and 1.0F (exclusive).
+nextBoolean(): boolean Returns a random boolean value.

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 The Random Class Example
If two Random objects have the same seed, they will generate
identical sequences of numbers. For example, the following
code creates two Random objects with the same seed 3.
Random random1 = new Random(3);
System.out.print("From random1: ");
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
System.out.print(random1.nextInt(1000) + " ");
Random random2 = new Random(3);
System.out.print("\nFrom random2: ");
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
System.out.print(random2.nextInt(1000) + " ");

From random1: 734 660 210 581 128 202 549 564 459 961
From random2: 734 660 210 581 128 202 549 564 459 961

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 The Point2D Class
Java API has a conveninent Point2D class in the
javafx.geometry package for representing a point in a two-
dimensional plane.

TestPoint2D

TestPoint2D

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 Instance
Variables, and Methods

Instance variables belong to a specific instance.

Instance methods are invoked by an instance of

the class.

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 Static Variables, Constants,
and Methods
Static variables are shared by all the instances of the
class.

Static methods are not tied to a specific object.

Static constants are final variables shared by all the
instances of the class.

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 Static Variables, Constants,
and Methods, cont.

To declare static variables, constants, and methods,

use the static modifier.

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Static Variables, Constants,
and Methods, cont.

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 Example of
Using Instance and Class Variables
and Method
Objective: Demonstrate the roles of
instance and class variables and their
uses. This example adds a class variable
numberOfObjects to track the number of
Circle objects created.
CircleWithStaticMembers

CircleWithStaticMembers
TestCircleWithStaticMembers

TestCircleWithStaticMembers

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 Visibility Modifiers and
Accessor/Mutator Methods
By default, the class, variable, or method can be
accessed by any class in the same package.
❑ public
The class, data, or method is visible to any class in any
package.

❑ private
The data or methods can be accessed only by the declaring
class.
The get and set methods are used to read and modify private
properties.
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The private modifier restricts access to within a class, the default
modifier restricts access to within a package, and the public
modifier enables unrestricted access.

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The default modifier on a class restricts access to within a package,
and the public modifier enables unrestricted access.

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 NOTE
An object cannot access its private members, as shown in (b).
It is OK, however, if the object is declared in its own class, as
shown in (a).

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 Why Data Fields Should Be
private?
To protect data.

To make code easy to maintain.

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 Example of
Data Field Encapsulation
Circle
The - sign indicates
private modifier -radius: double The radius of this circle (default: 1.0).
-numberOfObjects: int The number of circle objects created.

+Circle() Constructs a default circle object.

+Circle(radius: double) Constructs a circle object with the specified radius.
+getRadius(): double Returns the radius of this circle.
+setRadius(radius: double): void Sets a new radius for this circle.
+getNumberOfObjects(): int Returns the number of circle objects created.
+getArea(): double Returns the area of this circle.

CircleWithPrivateDataFields

CircleWithPrivateDataFields
TestCircleWithPrivateDataFields

TestCircleWithPrivateDataFields
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 Passing Objects to Methods

❑ Passing by value for primitive type value

(the value is passed to the parameter)
❑ Passing by value for reference type value
(the value is the reference to the object)

TestPassObject

TestPassObject

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Passing Objects to Methods, cont.

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 Array of Objects
Circle[] circleArray = new Circle[10];

An array of objects is actually an array of

reference variables. So invoking
circleArray[1].getArea() involves two
levels of referencing as shown in the next
figure. circleArray references to the entire
array. circleArray[1] references to a
Circle object.
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Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 52
 Array of Objects, cont.
Circle[] circleArray = new Circle[10];

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 Array of Objects, cont.
Summarizing the areas of the circles

TotalArea

TotalArea

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 Immutable Objects and Classes
If the contents of an object cannot be changed once the object
is created, the object is called an immutable object and its class
is called an immutable class. If you delete the set method in
the Circle class in Listing 8.10, the class would be immutable
because radius is private and cannot be changed without a set
method.

A class with all private data fields and without mutators is not
necessarily immutable. For example, the following class
Student has all private data fields and no mutators, but it is
mutable.

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 Example public class BirthDate {
private int year;
public class Student { private int month;
private int id;
private BirthDate birthDate; private int day;

public Student(int ssn, public BirthDate(int newYear,

int year, int month, int day) { int newMonth, int newDay) {
id = ssn;
birthDate = new BirthDate(year, month, day); year = newYear;
} month = newMonth;
day = newDay;
public int getId() { }
return id;
}
public void setYear(int newYear) {
public BirthDate getBirthDate() { year = newYear;
return birthDate; }
}
} }

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Student student = new Student(111223333, 1970, 5, 3);
BirthDate date = student.getBirthDate();
date.setYear(2010); // Now the student birth year is changed!
}
}

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 What Class is Immutable?
For a class to be immutable, it must mark all data fields private
and provide no mutator methods and no accessor methods that
would return a reference to a mutable data field object.

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 Scope of Variables
❑ The scope of instance and static variables is the
entire class. They can be declared anywhere inside
a class.
❑ The scope of a local variable starts from its
declaration and continues to the end of the block
that contains the variable. A local variable must be
initialized explicitly before it can be used.

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 The this Keyword
❑ The this keyword is the name of a reference that
refers to an object itself. One common use of the
this keyword is reference a class’s hidden data
fields.
❑ Another common use of the this keyword to
enable a constructor to invoke another
constructor of the same class.

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 Reference the Hidden Data Fields
public class F { Suppose that f1 and f2 are two objects of F.
private int i = 5; F f1 = new F(); F f2 = new F();
private static double k = 0;
Invoking f1.setI(10) is to execute
void setI(int i) { this.i = 10, where this refers f1
this.i = i;
} Invoking f2.setI(45) is to execute
this.i = 45, where this refers f2
static void setK(double k) {
F.k = k;
}
}

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 Calling Overloaded Constructor
public class Circle {
private double radius;

public Circle(double radius) {

this.radius = radius;
} this must be explicitly used to reference the data
field radius of the object being constructed
public Circle() {
this(1.0);
} this is used to invoke another constructor

public double getArea() {

return this.radius * this.radius * Math.PI;
}
} Every instance variable belongs to an instance represented by this,
which is normally omitted
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 Chapter Summary
❑ A class is a template for objects. It defines the properties
of objects and provides constructors for creating objects
and methods for manipulating them.
❑ A class is also a data type. You can use it to declare object
reference variables. An object reference variable that
appears to hold an object actually contains a reference to
that object. Strictly speaking, an object reference variable
and an object are different, but most of the time the
distinction can be ignored.
❑ An object is an instance of a class. You use the new
operator to create an object and the dot operator (.) to
access members of that object through its reference
variable.
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❑ An instance variable or method belongs to an instance of a
class. Its use is associated with individual instances. A
static variable is a variable shared by all instances of the
same class. A static method is a method that can be
invoked without using instances.
❑ Every instance of a class can access the class’s static
variables and methods. For clarity, however, it is better to
invoke static variables and methods using
ClassName.variable and ClassName.method.
❑ Visibility modifiers specify how the class, method, and
data are accessed. A public class, method, or data is
accessible to all clients. A private method or data is acces-
sible only inside the class.
❑ You can provide a getter (accessor) method or a setter
(mutator) method to enable clients to see or modify the
data.
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming and Data Structures, Twelfth Edition, Global Edition,
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 63
❑ A getter method has the signature public returnType
getPropertyName(). If the returnType is boolean, the getter
method should be defined as public boolean
isPropertyName(). A setter method has the signature public
void setPropertyName(dataType propertyValue).
❑ All parameters are passed to methods using pass-by-value.
For a parameter of a primitive type, the actual value is
passed; for a parameter of a reference type, the reference
for the object is passed.
❑ A Java array is an object that can contain primitive-type
values or object-type values. When an array of objects is
created, its elements are assigned the default value of null.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming and Data Structures, Twelfth Edition, Global Edition,
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 64
❑ Once it is created, an immutable object cannot be
modified.To prevent users from modifying an object, you
can define immutable classes.
❑ The scope of instance and static variables is the entire
class, regardless of where the variables are declared.
Instance and static variables can be declared anywhere in
the class. For consistency, they are declared at the
beginning of the class in this book.
❑ The keyword this can be used to refer to the calling object.
It can also be used inside a constructor to invoke another
constructor of the same class.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming and Data Structures, Twelfth Edition, Global Edition,
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education Ltd. All rights reserved. 65