CHAPTER – 3

METRIC TENSOR AND RIEMANNIAN METRIC

3.1 THE METRIC TENSOR

In rectangular cartesian coordinates, the distance between two neighbouring point are (x, y, z) and
( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) is given by ds 2 =dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .
In n-dimensional space, Riemann defined the distance ds between two neighbouring points x i
and x i + dx i (i =1, 2,...n) by quadratic differential form
1 2 1 2 1 n
ds 2 = g11 (dx ) + g12 dx dx + ⋅⋅⋅+ g1n dx dx

+ g12 (dx 2 )dx1 + g 22 (dx 2 ) 2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ g 2 n dx 2 dx n

+ . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +
+ g n1 dx n dx1 + g n 2 dx n dx 2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅+ g nn (dx n )2
ds 2 = g ij dx i dx j (i, j =1,2,...n) ...(1)
using summation convention.
Where g ij are the functions of the coordinates x i such that

g = g ij ≠0
The quadratic differential form (1) is called the Riemannian Metric or Metric or line element for n-
dimensional space and such n-dimensional space is called Riemannian space and denoted by Vn and
g ij is called Metric Tensor or Fundamental tensor..
The geometry based on Riemannian Metric is called the Riemannian Geometry.

THEOREM 3.1 The Metric tensor g ij is a covariant symmetry tensor of rank two.
Proof: The metric is given by
i j
ds 2 = g ij dx dx ...(1)
32 Tensors and Their Applications

Let x i be the coordinates in X-coordinate system and x i be the coordinates in Y-coordinate

2 i j
system. Then metric ds2 = gij dxidxj transforms to ds = g ij d x dx .
Since distance being scalar quantity.
i j i j
So, ds 2 = g ij dx dx = gij dx dx ...(2)
The theorem will be proved in three steps.
(i) To show that dxi is a contravariant vector.
If x i = x i (x1, x2 ,...x n )

∂x i 1 ∂x i 2 ∂x i n
dxi = dx + dx + ⋅⋅⋅+ dx
∂x i ∂x 2 ∂x n
∂x i k
dxi = dx
∂x k
It is law of transformation of contravariant vector. So, dx i is contravariant vector..
(ii) To show that g ij is a covariant tensor of rank two. Since
∂x i k ∂x j l
dxi = dx and d x j
= ∂x
∂x k ∂x l
from equation (2)
∂x i ∂x j l
g ij dx i dx j = g ij dxk dx
∂x k ∂x l
∂x i ∂x j k l
g ij dx i dx j = g ij k ∂x dx
∂x ∂x l
∂x i ∂x j k l
g kl dx k dx l = g ij k dx dx
∂x ∂x l
Since g ij dx i dx j = g kl dx k dx l (i, j are dummy indices).

i j
 g kl −g ij ∂x ∂x
  k l
dx dx = 0
 ∂x k ∂x l 
 

∂x i ∂x j
or g kl −gij = 0 as dx k and dx l are arbitrary..
∂x k ∂x l
∂x j ∂x j
g kl = g ij
∂x k ∂x l
∂x k ∂x l
or g ij = g kl
∂x i ∂x j

So, g ij is covariant tensor of rank two.

Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 33

(iii) To show that g ij is symmetric. Then g ij can be written as

1 1
g ij = (g ij + g ji ) + ( gij −g ji )
2 2
g ij = Aij + Bij
1 g +g
where Aij = ( ij ji ) = symmetric
2
1
Bij = (g ij −g ji ) = Skew-symmetric
2
Now, g ij dx i dx j = ( Aij + Bij )dxi dx j from (3)

( gij −Aij )dx i dx j = Bij dxi dx j (4)

Interchanging the dummy indices in Bij dx i dx j , we have

Bij dxi dx j = B ji dx i dx j
i j i j
Bij dx dx = −B ij dx dx

Since Bij is Skew-symmetric i.e., Bij =−B ji

Bij dx i dx j + Bij dx i dx j = 0

2 Bij dx i dx j = 0

⇒ Bij dxi dx j = 0
So, from (4),
i j
( gij −Aij )dx dx = 0

⇒ g ij = Aij as dx i , dx j are arbitrary..

So, g ij is symmetric since Aij is symmetric. Hence g ij is a covariant symmetric tensor of rank
two. This is called fundamental Covariant Tensor.

i j
THEOREM 3.2 To show that g ij dx dx is an invariant.

Proof: Let x i be coordinates of a point in X-coordinate system and x i be coordinates of a same point
in Y-coordinate system.
Since g ij is a Covariant tensor of rank two.

∂x k ∂x 1
Then, g ij = g kl
∂x i ∂x j
34 Tensors and Their Applications

∂x k ∂x l
⇒ g ij −g kl =0
∂x i ∂x j
 ∂x k ∂x l  i j
 gij − g kl dx dx = 0

 ∂x i ∂x j 


∂x k ∂x l i j
( g ij dx dx ) = g kl dx dx
i j
∂x i ∂x j
∂x k i ∂x l
= g kl i
dx j
dx j
∂x ∂x

g ij dx i dx j = g kl dx k dx l
i j
So, g ij dx dx is an ivariant.

3.2 CONJUGATE METRIC TENSOR: (CONTRAVARIANT TENSOR)

The conjugate Metric Tensor to g ij , which is written as g ij , is defined by

Bij
g ij = g (by Art.2.16, Chapter 2)

where Bij is the cofactor of g ij in the determinant g = g ij ≠0 .

By theorem on page 26
Aij Akj = δik

So, g ij g kj = δik
Note (i) Tensors g ij and g ij are Metric Tensor or Fundamental Tensors.
(ii) g ij is called first fundamental Tensor and g ij second fundamental Tensors.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the Metric and component of first and second fundamental tensor is cylindrical coordinates.
Solution
Let (x1, x2, x3) be the Cartesian coordinates and (x1, x2 , x3 ) be the cylindrical coordinates of a
point. The cylindrical coordinates are given by
x =r cosθ , y =r sin θ, z = z
So that
x1 = x, x 2 = y, x 3 =z and x 1 =r , x 2 =θ, x 3 =z ...(1)

Let g ij and g ij be the metric tensors in Cartesian coordinates and cylindrical coordinates
respectively.
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 35

The metric in Cartesian coordinate is given by

ds 2 = dx + dy + dz
2 2 2

12 2 2 3 2
ds 2 = (dx ) + (dx ) +(dx ) ...(2)
i j
But ds 2 = g ij dx dx

= g11(dx1 )2 + g12 dx1dx2 + g13 dx 1 dx 3 + g 21 dx 2 dx 1

+ g22(dx2)2 + g 23 dx 2 dx 3 + g 31dx 3 dx 1

+ g 32 dx 3 dx 2 + g33(dx3)3 ...(3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we have
g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1 and g12 = g13 =g 21 =g 23 = g31 =g 32 =0
On transformation
∂x i ∂x j
g ij = g ij , since g ij is Covariant Tensor of rank two. (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
∂x i ∂x j
for i = j = 1.
2 2
 ∂x1   ∂x 2   ∂x 3 
g11 = g11 1  + g 22  1  + g 33  1 
 ∂x   ∂x   ∂x 
since g12 = g13 =⋅⋅⋅= g32 =0 .
2 2 2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
g11 = g11  + g 22   + g 33  
∂
 r ∂
 r  ∂r 
Since x =r cos θ, y =r sin θ, z = z
∂x ∂y ∂z
=cosθ, =sin θ, =0
∂r ∂r ∂r
and g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1 .
g11 = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ + 0
g11 = 1
Put i = j = 2.
2 2 2
 ∂x 1  2  x3 
 + g 22  ∂x
 
g 22 = g11  2  + g 33  ∂ 
  ∂x 2   ∂x 2 
 ∂x     
2 2 2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
g 22 = g11   + g 22   + g 33  
 ∂θ   ∂θ   ∂θ 
36 Tensors and Their Applications

Since g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1
∂x ∂y ∂z
=−r sin θ, =r cosθ, =0
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
g 22 = (−r sin θ )2 + (r cos θ)2 + 0

= r 2 sin 2 θ + r 2 cos 2 θ
g 22 = r 2
Put i = j = 3.
2
 ∂x1   ∂x 2   ∂x 3 
g 33 = g11  3  + g 22  3  + g 33  3 
 ∂x   ∂x   ∂x 
2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
= g11   + g 22   + g 33  
∂
 z ∂
 z  ∂z 
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since =0, =0, =1 . So, g 33 =1 .
∂z ∂z ∂z
So, g11 =1, g 22 =r 2 , g 33 =1

and g12 = g13 =g 21 =g 23 = g31 =g 32 =0

(i) The metric in cylindrical coordinates
i j
ds 2 = g ij dx dx i, j =1, 2,3.
2 2 2
ds 2 = g11 dx ( )
1
( )
+ g 22 dx 2 ( )
+ g 33 dx 3
since g12 = g13 =⋅⋅⋅= g32 =0

ds 2 = dr + r (dθ ) + dφ
2 2 2 2

(ii) The first fundamental tensor is

 g11 g12 g13  1 0 0 

   2 
g ij =  g 21 g 22 g 23  = 0 r 0
 g 31 g32 g 33   0 0 1 
 

1 0 0
since g = g ij = 0 r 2 0
0 0 1
2
g= r
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 37

(iii) The cofactor of g are given by

B11 =r 2 , B22 =1, B33 =r 2
and B12 =B21 =B13 =B 23 = B31 =B32 =0

ij
Bij
The second fundamental tensor or conjugate tensor is g = .
g

cofactor of g11 in g
g 11 =
g

B11 r 2
g 11 = = 2 =1
g r

B12 1
g 22 = = 2
g r

B33 r 2
g 33 = = 2 =1
g r
and g 12 = g13 = g 21 = g 23 =g 31 = g 32 =0

1 0 0
 1 
Hence the second fundamental tensor in matrix form is  0 0 .
 r2 
0 0 1


EXAMPLE 2
Find the matrix and component of first and second fundamental tensors in spherical coordinates.
Solution

Let ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 ) be the cartesian coordinates and ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) be the spherical coordinates of a

point. The spherical coordinates are given by
x =r sin θ cos φ, y =r sin θ sin φ, z =r cos θ

So that x1 = x, x 2 = y , x 3 = z and x 1 =r , x 2 =θ , x 3 =φ

Let g ij and g ij be the metric tensors in cartesian and spherical coordinates respectively..
The metric in cartesian coordinates is given by
ds 2 = dx + dy + dz
2 2 2

2 2 2 3 2
ds 2 = dx( ) + (dx ) + (dx )
1

i j
But ds 2 = g ij dx dx ; (i, j =1, 2, 3)
38 Tensors and Their Applications

⇒ g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1 and g12 = g 23 =g13 = g 21 = g31 =g 32 =0

On transformation

∂x i ∂x j
g ij = g ij
∂x i ∂x j
(since g ij is covariant tensor of rank two) (where i, j = 1,2,3).

∂x1 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂x 3
g ij = g11 + g 22 + g 33
∂x i ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j ∂x i ∂x 1
since i, j are dummy indices.
Put i = j = 1
2 2 2
 ∂x 1   ∂x 2   ∂x 3 
g11 = g11  1  + g 22  1  + g 33  1 

 ∂x   ∂x   ∂x 
2 2 2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
g11 = g11   + g 22   + g 33  
 ∂r   ∂r   ∂r 
Since x =r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z =r cos θ
∂x ∂y ∂z
= sin θ cos φ, =sin θ sin φ, =cos θ
∂r ∂r ∂r

and g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1 .
So,
g11 = (sin θ cos φ)2 + (sin θ sin φ)2 + cos2 θ

g11 = 1
put i = j = 2
2 2
 ∂x 1  2  x3
 + g 22  ∂x
  
g 22 = g11  2  + g 33  ∂ 
  ∂x 2   ∂x 2 
 ∂x     
2 2 2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
g 22 = g11   + g 22   + g33  
 ∂θ   ∂θ   ∂θ 
since g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1

∂x ∂y ∂z
=r cos θ cos φ, =r cos θ sin φ, =−r sin θ
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ

g 22 = (r cos θ cos φ)2 + (r cos θ sin φ)2 + (−r sin θ)2

g 22 = r 2
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 39

Put i = j = 3
2 2 2
 ∂x1   ∂x 2   ∂x 3 
g 33 = g11  3  + g 22  3  + g33  3 

 ∂x   ∂x   ∂x 
2 2 2
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
g 33 = g11   + g 22   + g33  
 ∂φ   ∂φ   ∂φ 

since g11 =g 22 = g 33 =1
∂x ∂y ∂z
and =−r sin θ sin φ, =r sin θ cos φ, =0
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
g 33 = (−r sin θ sin φ)2 + (r sin θ cos φ)2 + 0

g 33 = r 2 sin 2 θ
So, we have
g11 =1, g 22 =r 2 , g 33 =r 2 sin 2 θ

and g12 = g13 =g 21 =g 23 = g31 =g 32 =0

(i) The Metric in spherical coordinates is
i j
ds 2 = g ij dx dx ; i, j =1, 2, 3
2 2 3 2
ds 2 = g11 dx ( )
1
( ) + g (dx )
+ g 22 dx 2 33

ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θdφ2
(ii) The Metric tensor or first fundamental tensor is

 g11 g12 g13  1 0 0 

g ij  g g g  = 0 r 2 0

=  21 22 23   
 g 31 g32 g 33   0 0 r 2 sin 2 θ
 
and

1 0 0
g = g ij = 0 r 2 0 =r 4 sin 2 θ
2 2
0 0 r sin θ
(iii) The cofactor of g are given by B11 =1, B22 =r 2 , B33 =r 2 sin 2 θ and B12 =B21 =
B31 =B13 = B23 =B32 =0

Bij
The second fundamental tensor or conjugate tensor is g ij = .
g
40 Tensors and Their Applications

cofactor of g11 in g B11

g 11 = =
g g
r 4 sin 2 θ
=
r 4 sin 2 θ
g 11 =1

22
B 22 r 2 sin 2 θ
g = = 4 2
g r sin θ
1
g 22 =
r2
B33 r2
g 33 = = 4
g r sin 2 θ
1
g 33 =
r sin 2 θ
2

12 13 21 31 32
and g = g = g = g =g =0
Hence the fundamental tensor in matrix form is

 
0 0 0 
 g 11 g 12 g 13   1 
 21  0 0
g ij = g g 22 g 23  =  r2 
 g 31  1 
 g 32 g 33  0 0 
 r 2 sin 2 θ 
 
EXAMPLE 3
If the metric is given by
2 2 2
1
( ) ( )
ds 2 = 5 dx + 3 dx
2
( )
+ 4 dx 3 − 6dx 1dx 2 + 4dx 2 dx 3

Evaluate (i) g and (ii) g ij .

Solution
i j
The metric is ds 2 = g ij dx dx ; (i, j =1, 2, 3)
2
ds 2 = g11 dx
1
( ) + g12 dx 1dx 2 + g13 dx1 dx 3 + g 21dx 2 dx1

+ g 22 (dx 2 ) 2 + g 23 dx 2 dx 3 + g31 dx 3 dx1 + g 32 dx 3 dx 2 + g 33 (dx 3 )2

Since g ij is symmetric ⇒ g ij = g ji

i.e., g12 = g 21, g 23 = g32 , g13 =g 31

Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 41

So, ds 2 = g11 (dx ) + g 22 (dx ) + g33 (dx ) + 2 g12 dx dx

1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2

+ 2 g 23 dx 2 dx 3 + 2 g13 dx1 dx 3 ...(1)

Now, the given metric is

ds 2 = 5(dx ) + 3(dx ) + 4(dx ) −6dx dx + 4dx dx ...(2)

1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 3

Comparing (1) and (2) we have

g11 = 5, g 22 =3, g 33 =4, 2g12 =−6 ⇒ g12 =−3 = g 21
2 g 23 =4 ⇒ g 23 =2 =g 32 , g13 =0 =g 31

g11 g12 g13 5 −3 0

g = g ij = g 21 g 22 g 23 = −3 3 2 =4
g 31 g 32 g33 0 2 4

(ii) Let Bij be the cofactor of g ij in g.

Then
3 2
B11 = Cofactor of g11 = =8
2 4
5 0
B22 = Cofactor of g 22 = =20
04

5 −3
B33 = Cofactor of g 33 = =6
−3 3
−3 2
B12 = Cofactor of g12 =− =12 =B 21
0 4

−3 3
B13 = Cofactor of g13 = =−6 = B31
0 2
5 −3
B 23 = Cofactor of g 23 = – =−10 = B 32
0 2

Bij
Since g ij =
g
We have
B 8 3 3 5
g 11 = 11 = =2; g 22 =5, g 33 = , g 12 =g 21 =3, g 13 =g 31 =− , g 23 =g 32 =−
g 4 2 2 2
42 Tensors and Their Applications

Hence,

 3
 2 3 − 
2

5
g ij =  3 5 − 
2
 
−3 −5 3
 2 2 2 
3.3 LENGTH OF A CURVE
Consider a continuous curve in a Riemannian Vn i.e., a curve such that the coordinate x i of any
current point on it are expressible as functions of some parameter, say t.
The equation of such curve can be expressed as
x i = xi (t)
The length ds of the arc between the points whose coordinate s are x i and x i + dx i given by
i j
ds 2 = g ij dx dx
If s be arc length of the curve between the points P1 and P2 on the curve which correspond to
the two values t1 and t 2 of the parameter t.
12
i j 
 gij dx dx 
P2 t2 
s = ∫ ds = ∫
P1 t1 
 dt dt 
dt

NULL CURVE
dx i dx j
If g ij =0 along a curve. Then s = 0. Then the points P1 and P2 are at zero distance, despite
dt dt
of the fact that they are not coincident. Such a curve is called minimal curve or null curve.

EXAMPLE 4
A curve is in spherical coordinate xi is given by
2 −1  1  3 2
x1 = t, x =sin   and x =2 t −1
t
Find length of arc 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Solution
In spherical coordinate, the metric is given by
ds 2 = (dx ) + ( x ) (dx ) + ( x sin x ) (dx )
1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 2
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 43

−1 1
given x1 = t, x =sin
2
, x 3 =2 t 2 −1
t
1  1 1 2 −1 2
dx 1 = dt , dx 2 = 3
 − 2  dt , dx =2 ⋅ t −1
2 t 2
( )
2t dt
 1  
1 − 
t

dt 3 2t
dx 2 = − , dx = dt
t t −1 2
t 2 −1

2 2 2
2
 dt 
2  −1 1  
 2t 
ds = (dt )
2 +t − +  t sin sin   dt 
 2 
 t t −1   t   t 2 −1 

dt 2 4t 2
ds2= dt 2
+ + (dt )2
t 2 −1 t 2 −1

5t 2 2
ds 2 = t 2 −1 dt

t
ds = 5 dt
2
t −1
Now, the length of arc, 1 ≤t ≤2, is
2
t2 2 t 5  t 2 −1 
∫ ds
t1
= 5 ∫
1
t 2 −1
dt = 
2  12 

 =
1
15 units

3.4 ASSOCIATED TENSOR

i i ... i
A tensor obtained by the process of inner product of any tensor A j11 j22 ... rj s with either of the fundamental
tensor g ij or g ij is called associated tensor of given tensor..
e.g. Consider a tensor Aijk and form the following inner product

g αi Aijk = Aαjk ; g αj Aijk = Aikα ; g αk Aijk = Aijα

All these tensors are called Associated tensor of Aijk .

Associated Vector
ik k
Consider a covariant vector Ai . Then g Ai = A is called associated vector of Ai . Consider a
j
contravariant vector A j . Then g jk A = Ak is called associated vector of A j .
44 Tensors and Their Applications

3.5 MAGNITUDE OF VECTOR

i
The magnitude or length A of contravariant vector A . Then A is defined by

A= g ij Ai A j
i j
or A 2 = g ij A A
i
Also, A = A j A as g ij A = A j
2 j

i.e., square of the magnitude is equal to scalar product of the vector and its associate.
The magnitude or length A of covariant vector Ai . Then A is defined by

A= g ij Ai A j

or A 2 = g ij Ai A j
A vector of magnitude one is called Unit vector. A vector of magnitude zero is called zero vector
or Null vector.

3.6 �SCALAR� PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS � �

Let A and B be two vectors. Their scalar product is written as A ⋅B and defined by
� �
A ⋅B = Ai Bi
� � i i j j
Also, A ⋅B = A B i = g ij A B since Bi = g ij B
� � i ij i ij
A ⋅B = Ai B = g Ai B j since B = g B j
Thus
� � i i j 2
A ⋅A = A Ai = g ij A A = A
� i j
i.e., A = A = g ij A A
Angle
� between
� two vectors
Let A and B be two vectors. Then
� � � �
A ⋅B = A B cos θ
� �
A ⋅B g ij A i B j
⇒ cos θ = � � =
AB g ij A i A j g ij B i B j
� �
since A = g ij Ai A j ; B = g ij B i B j
This is required formula for cos θ .
Definition
� �
The inner product of two contravariant vectors A (or A i ) and B (or Bi ) associated with a symmetric
tensor g ij is defined as g ij A i B j . It is denoted by
� � i j
g ( A , B ) = g ij A B
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 45

� �
THEOREM 3.3 The necessary and sufficient condition that the two vectors A and B at 0 be orthogonal
� �
if g ( A, B ) =0
� �
Proof: Let θ be angle between the vectors A and B then
� � � �
A ⋅B = A B cos θ
� �
or A ⋅B = AB cos θ
g ij A i B j = AB cos θ
g ij Ai B j
⇒ cos θ = ...(1)
AB
� � π
If A and B are orthogonal then θ = ⇒ cos θ =0 then from (1)
2
g ij A i B j = 0
� � � � i j
⇒ ( ) ( )
g A, B = 0 since g A, B = g ij A B
i j
Conversely if g ij A B =0 then from (1)
π
cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = .
� � 2
So, two vectors A & B are orthogonal. Proved.
� � � �
Note: (i) If A and B be unit vectors. Then A = B = 1. Then
� �
cos θ = A ⋅B = gij A i B j
� � π π
(ii) Two vectors A and B will be orthogonal if angle between them is i.e., θ = then
2 2
π
cos θ = cos θ = = 0
2

3.7 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO VECTORS

THEOREM 3.4 To show that the definition of the angle between two vectors is consistent with the
requirement cos 2θ ≤ 1.
OR
To justify the definition of the angle between two vectors.
OR
To show that the angle between the contravariant vectors is real when the Riemannian Metric is
positive definition.
� �
Proof: Let θ be the angle between unit vectors A and B then
i j j ij ij i
cos θ = g ij A B = A j B = A j B Bi = g A j Bi = A Bi
46 Tensors and Their Applications

To show that θ is real i.e., |cosθ| ≤ 1.

Consider the vector lAi + mB i when l and m are scalars. The square of the magnitude of
i i j j
lAi + mB i = g ij (lA + mB ) (lA + mB )
2 i j i j i j 2 i j
= g ij l A A + g ij lmA B + m lg ij B A + m g ij B B

= l 2 + 2lm cos θ + m 2
Since
i j 2
g ij A i A j = A 2 =1; g ij B B =B =1.
and
� � �
g ij A i B j = cosθ; as A & B are unit vector i.e., A =1 ⇒ A 2 =1 .
Since square of magnitude of any vector ≥0.
So, the square of the magnitude of lAi + mB i ≥0.
or l 2 + 2lm cos θ + m 2 ≥ 0
(l + m cos θ )2 + m 2 −m 2 cos 2 θ ≥0
(l + m cosθ) 2 + m 2 (1 −cos2 θ) ≥ 0
This inequality holds for the real values of l & m.
if 1 −cos2 θ ≥ 0
⇒ cos 2 θ ≤ 1
cos θ ≤ 1
Proved.
THEOREM 3.5 The magnitude of two associated vectors are equal.
Proof: Let A and B be magnitudes of associate vectors A i and A i respectively. Then
i j
A 2 = g ij A A ...(1)
and
ij
B 2 = g Ai A j ...(2)
From equation (1)
A 2 = (gij Ai ) A j
A2 = Aj A j ...(3)

since g ij A i = A j (Associate vector)

From equation (2)
ij
B 2 = (g Ai )A j
j
B2 = A Aj ...(4)
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 47

since g ij Ai = A j
from (3) and (4)
2
A2 = B
⇒ A=B
So, magnitude of Ai and Ai are equal.

3.8 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO COORDINATE CURVES

Let a Vn referred to coordinate x i , (i =1, 2, ... n) . For a coordinate curve of parameter x l, the coordinate
x l alone varies. Thus the coordinate curve of parameter x l is defined as
i
x i = c , ∀i except i =l ...(1)
i,
where C s are constants.
Differentiating it, we get
dx i = 0, ∀i , except i =l and dx l ≠0
Let Ai and B i be the tangent vectors to a coordinate curve of parameters x p and x q respectively..
Then
Ai = dx i =(0,...0, x p , 0...0) ...(2)

B i = dx i =(0,...0, x q , 0...0) ...(3)

If θ is required angle then

g ij A i B j
cos θ =
g ij A i A j g ij B i B j

g pq A p B q
=
g pp A p A p g qq B q B q

g pq A p B q
=
g pp g qq A p B q

g pq
cos θ = ...(4)
g pp g qq

which is required formula for θ .

The angle wij between the coordinate curves of parameters x i and x j is given by

g ij
cos wij =
g ii g jj
48 Tensors and Their Applications

If these curves are orthogonal then

π
cos wij = cos =0
2
⇒ g ij = 0

Hence the x i coordinate curve and x j coordinate curve are orthogonal if g ij =0 .

3.9 HYPERSURFACE
The n equations xi = xi (u1) represent a subspace of Vn . If we eliminate the parameter u1, we get
(n –1) equations in x j, s which represent one dimensional curve.
Similarly the n equations xi = xi (u1,u2) represent two dimensional subspace of V n. If we eliminating
the parameters u1, u2, we get n –2 equations in xi,s which represent two dimensional curve V n. This
two dimensional curve define a subspace, denoted by V 2 of V n.
Then n equations xi = xi (u1, u2, ... un–1) represent n – 1 dimensional subspace V n–1 of V n. If we
eliminating the parameters u1, u2, ...un–1, we get only one equation in x i, s which represent n –1
dimensional curve in V n. This particular curve is called hypersurface of V n.
i
Let φ be a scalar function of coordinates x i . Then φ(x ) = constant determines a family of
hypersurface of V n.

3.10 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO COORDINATE HYPERSURFACE

Let
φ(x i ) = constant ...(1)

and ψ( x i ) = constant ...(2)

represents two families of hypersurfaces.
Differentiating equation (1), we get
∂φ i
dx = 0 ...(3)
∂x i
∂φ ∂φ
This shows that i
is orthogonal to dx i . Hence is normal to φ =constant, since dx i is
∂x ∂x i
tangential to hypersurface (1).
∂ψ
Similarly is normal to the hypersurface (2). If ω is the angle between the hypersurface (1)
∂x i
and (2) then ω is also defined as the angle between their respective normals. Hence required angle ω
is given by

∂φ ∂ψ
ij
g
∂x i ∂x j
cos ω = ...(4)
∂φ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ψ
g ij i j
g ij i j
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 49

If we take
φ = x p =constant ...(5)
ψ = x =constantq
and ...(6)
The angle ω between (5) and (6) is given by
p q
∂x ∂x
g ij
cos ω = ∂x i ∂x j
∂x p ∂x p q
ij ∂x ∂x
q
g ij i j
g i j
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

g ij δip δ qj
=
g ij δip δ qj g ij δqi δ qj

g pq
cos ω = ...(7)
g pp g qq

The angle ωij between the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters x i and x j is given by

g ij
cos ωij = ...(8)
g ii g jj

If the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters x i and x j are orthogonal then

π
ωij =
2
⇒ cos ωij = 0
ij
from (8), we have g =0 .
Hence the coordinate hypersurfaces of parameters x i and x j are orthogonal if g ij =0 .

3.11 n-PLY ORTHOGONAL SYSTEM OF HYPERSURFACES

If in a Vn there are n families of hypersurfaces such that, at every point, each hypersurface is orthogonal
to the n −1 hypersurface of the other families which pass through that point, they are said to form as
n-ply orthogonal system of hypersurfaces.

3.12 CONGRUENCE OF CURVES

A family of curves one of which passes through each point of Vn is called a congruence of curves.

3.13 ORTHOGONAL ENNUPLE

An orthogonal ennuple in a Riemannian Vn consists of n mutually orthogonal congruence of curves.
50 Tensors and Their Applications

THEOREM 3.6 To find the fundamental tensors g ij and g ij in terms of the components of the unit
tangent e h ( h =1, 2,... n ) to an orthogonal ennuple.
i
Proof: Consider n unit tangents e h (h =1, 2,...n) to conguence e h ( h =1, 2,... n ) of an orthogonal ennuple
in a Riemannian Vn . The subscript h followed by an upright bar simply distinguishes one congruence
from other. It does not denote tensor suffix.
The contravariant and covariant components of eh | are denoted by eh | and eh |i respectively..
Suppose any two congruences of orthogonal ennuple are eh | and ek | so that

g ij ehi |ekj| = δ hk ...(1)

ehi |ek |i = δ hk
from (1),
i j
g ij eh | ek | = 0

and g ij ehi | ehj| = 1

We define

i
cofactorof eh |i in determinant eh |i
eh | =
e h|i
Also, from the determinant property, we get
n
i
∑e e
h =1
h| h | j = δij ...(2)

Multiplying by e jk
n
i
∑e e
h =1
h| h| j g j k = δ ij g jk

n
i k
or ∑e e
h =1
h | h| = g ik ...(3)

Again multiplying (2) by g ik .

n
i
∑e e
h =1
h | h | j g ik
i
= δ j g ik

or g jk = ∑e h |k eh | j ...(4)
from (3) and (4)
n
g ij = ∑e h |i e h| j ...(5)
h =1
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 51

n
i
g ij = ∑e h| e hj| ...(6)
h =1

This is the required results.

Corollary: To find the magnitude of any vector u is zero if the projections of u on eh | are all zero.
Proof: Let
n
i
i
u = ∑C e
h =1
h h| ...(7)
Then
n n
u i ek |i = ∑ Ch ehi |ek |i = ∑C δ h
h
k =C k
h =1 h =1

or C k = u i ek |i ...(8)

i.e., C k = projection of u i on ek |i
Using (8), equation (7) becomes
n
j i
ui = ∑u e
h =1
h| j ek |

Now,

  
u 2 = u i u i = i
∑C e   ∑C e
h h| k k |i
 from (7)
 
 h  k 

i
= ∑C C e e
h ,k
h k h | k| i

h
= ∑C C δ
h ,k
h k k

= ∑C C
h
h h

n
u =2
∑(C h )2
h =1

This implies that u = 0 iff u 2 =0 iff C h =0 .

Hence the magnitude of a vector u is zero iff all the projections of u (i.e. of ui) on n mutually
orthogonal directions ehi | are zero.
52 Tensors and Their Applications

Miscellaneous Examples
1. If p and q are orthogonal unit vectors, show that
( g hj g ik −g hk gij ) p h q i p j q k = 1
Solution
Since p and q are orthogonal unit vectors. Then
g ij pi q j = 0, p 2 =q 2 =1 .
Now,
h j i k h k i j
( g hj g ik −g hk gij ) p h q i p j q k = g hj g ik p p q q −g hk g ij p q q p

= ( g hi p h p j ) ( gik q i q k ) −(g hk p j q k ) ( gij q i p j )

= p2.q2 – 0.0
=1.1
= 1 (since g hi p h p j =1 & g hk p h q k =0 )
2. If θ is the inclination of two vectors A and B show that

(g hi g ik −g hk g ij ) A h A j B i B k
2
sin θ = g hj gik A h A j B j B k

Solution
If θ be the angle between the vectors A and B then

g ij A j B i
cos θ =
gij A i A j g ik B i B k
But sin 2 θ =1 −cos 2 θ

2
( gij B i A j ) (g hk A h B k )
sin θ = 1 −
( g hj A h A j ) ( g ik B i B k )

(g hj g ik −g hk g ij ) A h A j B i B k
=
g hj g ik A h A j B i B k

3. If X ij are components of a symmetric covariant tensor and u, v are unit orthogonal to w and
satisfying the relations
( X ij −αg ij )u i + γw j = 0
( X ij −βg ij ) v i + δw j = 0
where α ≠ β prove that u and v are orthogonal and that
Metric Tensor and Riemannian Metric 53

i j
X ij u v = 0
Solution
i j
Suppose X ij is a symmetric tensor. Since u , v are orthogonal to wi then
u i wi = 0 ...(1)
v i wi = 0 ...(2)

given ( X ij −αgij )u i + γw j = 0 ...(3)

i
( X ij −βgij )v + δw j = 0 ...(4)
where α ≠ β.
Multiply (3) & (4) by v j , u j respectively and using (1) and (2), we have
( X ij −αg ij )u iv j = 0 ...(5)
i j
( X ij −βg ij )v u = 0 ...(6)
Interchanging the suffixes i & j in the equation (6) and since g ij , X ij are symmetric, we get
( X ij −αg ij )u iv j = 0 ... (7)
Subtract (6) & (7) we get
(β −α)g iju i v j = 0
Since β ≠α and β −α ≠0.
Hence,
g ij u i v j = 0 ...(8)
So, u and v are orthogonal.
Using (8) in equation (5) & (6), we get
i i
X ij u v = 0 Proved.
4. Prove the invariance of the expression g dx1 dx 2 ...dx n for the element volume.
Solution
Since g ij is a symmetric tensor of rank two. Then
∂x k ∂x l
g ij = g kl
∂x i ∂x j
Taking determinant of both sides
∂x k ∂x l
g ij = g kl
∂x i ∂x j
∂x
Since = J (Jacobian)
∂x
g kl = g & g ij =g
54 Tensors and Their Applications

So,
g = gJ 2
or
g
J=
g
Now, the transformation of coordinates from x l to x i , we get
∂x 1 2 n
dx 1 dx 2 ... dx n = ∂x d x d x ... dx
= Jd x 1d x 2 ... d x n
g 1 2
dx 1dx 2 ... dx n = d x d x ... d x n
g

g dx1 dx2 ... dx n = g d x1d x 2... d x n

So, the volume element dv = g dx1 dx 2 ... dx n is invariant.

EXERCISES

1. For the Metric tensor g ij defined g kl and prove that it is a contravariant tensor.
2. Calculate the quantities g i j for a V3 whose fundamental form in coordinates u, v, w, is
2 2 2
adu + bdv + cdw + 2 fdvdw + 2 gdwdu + 2 hdudv
3. Show that for an orthogonal coordinate system
1 1 1
g 11 = , g 22 = , g 33 =
g11 g 22 g 33
4. For a V2 in which g11 =E , g12 =F , g 21 =G prove that

g = EG −F 2 , g 11 =G g , g 12 =−F g , g 22 =E g
1
5. Prove that the number of independent components of the metric g ij cannot exceed n( n + 1) .
2
6. If vectors u i , vi are defined by u i = g ij u j , v i = g ij v j show that u i = g ij u j , u i vi = u i v i and u i g ij u j = u i g ij u j
7. Define magnitude of a unit vector. prove that the relation of a vector and its associate vector is
reciprocal.

8. If θ is the angle between the two vectors Ai and B i at a point, prove that

(g hi gik −g hk gij ) A h Ai B j B k
sin θ =
2
ghi g jk Ah Ai B j B k

9. Show that the angle between two contravariant vectors is real when the Riemannian metric is positive
definite.
 CHAPTER – 4

CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS AND COVARIANT

DIFFERENTIATION

4.1 CHRISTOFFEL'S SYMBOLS

The German Mathematician Elwin Bruno Christoffel defined symbols
1  ∂gi k ∂g j k ∂g i j 
[ij, k ]
= 2  j +
∂x i
− k  , (i, j, k =1, 2,...n ) ...(1)
 ∂x ∂x 
called Christoffel 3-index symbols of the first kind.
k
and   = g k l [ij, l ] ...(2)
i j 
called Christoffel 3-index symbols of second kind, where g i j are the components of the metric Tensor
or fundamental Tensor.
There are n distinct Christoffel symbols of each kind for each independent g i j . Since g i j is
1
symmetric tensor of rank two and has n (n + 1) independent components. So, the number of
2
1 1
independent components of Christoffel’s symbols are n ⋅ n(n + 1) = n 2 (n + 1) .
2 2
k
THEOREM 4.1 The Christoffel's symbols [ij, k ] and   are symmetric with respect to the indices i
i j 
and j.
Proof: By Christoffel’s symbols of first kind
1  ∂g ik ∂g jk ∂g ij 
[ij, k ] = 
2  ∂x j
+ i ∂ − k 
∂x ∂x 
Interchanging i and j, we get
1  ∂g jk ∂gik ∂g ji 
[ ji, k ] =  + j − k 
2  ∂x i ∂x ∂x 