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Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

Transformers Based on External Environmental Factors

Article in International Journal on Electrical Engineering and Informatics · March 2023

DOI: 10.15676/ijeei.2023.15.1.2

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Vinit Mehta Jayashri Vajpai

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 International Journal on Electrical Engineering and Informatics - Volume 15, Number 1, March 2023

Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

Transformers Based on External Environmental Factors
Vinit Mehta1 and Jayashri Vajpai2
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Jodhpur Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Jodhpur, India 2Department of Electrical Engineering, Mugneeram Bangur Memorial
University, Jodhpur, India
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: The variation in daily environmental conditions has a notable effect on the thermal
performance of the electrical machines, especially power transformers. The objective of this
paper is to see the effect of solar radiation and wind flow external to the outdoor operating
power transformers. The research work in this field involves the development of computational
thermal models based on conventional International Electro-technical Commission (IEC)
loading guide using appropriate software tools in order to determine the hot spot temperature.
These thermal models are then modified by incorporating the effect of solar radiation and wind
flow. The proposed method is validated using the operational data gathered from a 500MVA
power transformer located at 400kV Grid Substation, Kankani, Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India). The
comparative study between the conventional and modified thermal models helps in the reliable
operation of power transformer and optimizes the use of forced cooling arrangements.

Keywords: thermal modeling, power transformer, hot spot temperature, solar radiation, wind
flow.

1. Introduction
Power transformers occupy prominent positions in the electric power system, being the vital
links between different power stations and points of electric power utilization. It is very
important for a power transformer to operate within the safe limits prescribed by the power
system designers. The safe operation and loading limit of the power transformer is decided by
the thermal limits of the insulation used in the design of the power transformer. The most
challenging problem in every power transformers is heat dissipation. Greater the heat
accumulated without being dissipated, lesser is the life of the power transformer. The inner
temperature of the power transformer is directly affected by its internal as well as external
conditions. The internal conditions include the increase in the power losses of the windings and
the core which rises the temperature of the power transformer drastically. Whereas, the external
surrounding conditions that impact on the heat dissipation process may include natural
conditions as well as built- in- conditions. The natural conditions include the effect of solar
radiation, wind flow, rain, dust deposition, natural landscape and humidity. Likewise, the built-
in- conditions include transformer external layout, sheds, buildings, abstractions and design of
enclosures, etc.
The most important factor while studying the thermal behavior of power transformer is the
hot spot temperature (HST), which is a major reason for the loss of life of transformer. The
HST of a transformer primarily depends on the ambient temperature, the rise in the top oil
temperature (TOT) over the ambient temperature and the rise in the winding HST over the top
oil temperature.
The research work in this field is mainly based on either IEC standards for oil- immersed
power transformers. IEC standards have been adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards and
are employed for studying the thermal behaviour of the power transformers. IEC 60076-7 [1]
is the loading guide which describes its thermal performance under time varying load and
ambient temperature conditions. This standard also covers the understanding and development
of thermal models for the determination of HST of the power transformer as attempted in this

Received: September 16th, 2022. Accepted: January 31th, 2023

DOI: 10.15676/ijeei.2023.15.1.2

17
Vinit Mehta, et al.

paper. Many researchers have employed the IEC based thermal model of power transformers
in order to determine the HST.
B. Gorgan et. al. [2] have modified the existing hot spot temperature model of power
transformer by taking into account the influence of solar radiation. The authors have shown the
effect of solar radiation on the winding paper insulation by determining its remaining life. In
this study, the authors have used the IEC60076-7 thermal model for the temperature calculation
and the solar radiation is modeled with Adnot model. 2013 M. Srinivasan [3] has proposed a
physical model comprising of variable environmental conditions for the estimation of hot spot
temperature in power transformer and along with a MATLAB/Simulink-based valid model. J.
R. Silva and J. P. Bastos[4] have addressed the influence of simplifications to be made on the
geometries of power transformers for the performance of thermodynamic simulations to
diminish the computational time and to obtain the magnetic fields, temperatures and heat flow
in the interior of the transformer. Longnv et. al.[5] have presented an alternative approach for
hot spot temperature rise estimations in a single phase auto transformer to compute the stray
losses using finite element method along with the average surface convection heat transfer
coefficients of the structural parts of the transformer. M. Djamali and S. Tenbohlen[6] have
developed a physical thermal model for the calculation of top oil temperature in power
transformers with consideration of ambient temperature, load, number of operating fans and
pumps as well as the position of the tap changer.
R. Bouhaddiche et. al. [7] have developed a thermo-electrical model with the help of finite
element method to estimate the temperature of the windings inside a power transformer. The
study includes the effect of oil viscosity on the thermal behavior of the transformer and
concluded that there is only slight influence of oil viscosity in the temperature changes of
various components of the transformer. Z. Radakovic et. al.[8] have designed a dynamic
thermal model of an indoor oil immersed power transformer and extended it to include the
thermal models of walls and ceiling of the kiosk and natural air ventilation through the
ventilation holes. The model is validated by comparing calculation results with the results of
measurements on the transformer. The aging of transformer has been detected by K. Diwyacitta
et. al.[9] by performing dissolved gas analysis of the insulation oil using the linear regression
method. The results have showed that the dissolved gases inside power transformer have strong
correlations with transformer age. Y. Zhang[10] has introduced an MATLAB based model for
the determination of hot spot temperature of oil-immersed power transformer and the real-time
on-line monitoring system. Subsequently, the simulation of transformer hot spot temperature
instance is enumerated with the MATLAB environment.
A. Gamil et. al.[11] have presented an approach for matching the thermal performance of
power transformers with measurements by adapting some well-known assumptions for building
a theoretical thermal model for the specified temperature rises while including an optimized
economical cooling system. Also, H. Wang et. al.[12] have conducted an in-depth study on the
overload capacity of the distribution transformer based on the HST model. Further, they have
determined the allowable overload time of the distribution transformer during the short term
and long term emergency load period. O. J. Soto et. al.[13] have carried out thermal and
chargeability tests on the solid state transformers for determining the performance and the level
of deterioration caused by thermal stresses in an electric arc furnace transformer. They have
then compared the rate of deterioration of the insulation system in a solid state transformer and
an oil- filled transformer and found that the rate of aging doubles for every 20ºC in case of solid
state transformer whereas the rate of aging doubles for every 6ºC in case of oil- filled
transformer. Also, Y. Chen et. al.[14] have modelled a simplified equivalent thermal circuit of
a dry- type transformer using the finite element simulation for improving the computational
efficiency. S. Bal et. al.[15] have also modelled the thermal circuit of a 25kVA 3-phase
transformer based on finite element method on ANSYS Maxwell simulation program. The
results have been compared with the similar studies in the literature and found to be better.
A. Santisteban et. al.[16] have developed a Thermal- Hydraulic Network Model (THNM)
for determining the thermal characteristics of a power transformer tested with three different

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Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

fluids, namely; mineral oil, natural ester and synthetic ester. The results are then compared with
the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) model for estimating the temperature inside a power
transformer. The predicted results of the THNM model are in good agreement with the CFD
results. M. Aslam et. al.[17] presents a comparative analysis of different thermal models for
predicting the hotspot temperature and top oil temperature of power transformers by performing
a real-time experimental validation. M. Hasir et. al.[18] have presented a remote monitoring
system that detects temperature, humidity, and gas densities employed for low and medium
voltage transformers in the indoor environment. Tests were conducted to identify the
relationship between ambient temperature data with operating voltages. R Duan [19] have
determined the HST as per the IEC based thermal model and compared with the real time
temperature data received from the optical fiber sensors for seeking superior thermodynamic
models. M. Soleimani et. al. [20] have adopted the IEC based thermal model and have used the
Arrhenius- Weibull model for the life assessment and the probability of failure of power
transformer. Y. Odarenko of Wilson Transformer Company, Australia, [21] has made an
attempt to clarify the effect of environmental conditions on the power transformer surface. The
author has categorized these conditions into natural and built in conditions.
In general, many simplifying assumptions have been made in the various proposed methods
for calculating the HST of power transformers and considering environment factors, as reported
in the published literature. However, there is limited literature that involves the environmental
effects on the thermal performance of the power transformers. The aim of this paper is to
develop a dynamic thermal model of power transformer for estimating HST with the
consideration of solar radiation and wind flow on the power transformer surface.

2. Methodology
The real time thermal monitoring of hot spot temperature (HST) in power transformers is
done by considering the connected load and the external ambient temperature as time varying
input functions. HST values for different load and ambient conditions can be determined using
differential equation method as mentioned in the conventional IEC loading guidelines. This
method includes the simultaneous solution of two differential equations, one each for
estimating top oil temperature rise and hot spot temperature rise, as follows:

A. Equation for Top Oil Temperature Rise

Taking input as load factor K and ambient temperature 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 , the first order differential
equation for the top oil temperature 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 will be[1]:
𝑥𝑥
1+𝐾𝐾 2 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
� � (∆𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ) = 𝑘𝑘11 𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜 + (𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 ) (1)
1+𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where, R is the ratio of load losses at rated current to no-load losses, x is the oil exponent, ∆𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
is the rated top oil temperature rise (in oC), k11 is the thermal constant and 𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜 is the oil time
constant (in minutes). The above differential equation (1) is converted into difference equation
as follows[1]:
𝑥𝑥
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 1+𝐾𝐾 2 𝑅𝑅
𝐷𝐷𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 = �� � (∆𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ) − (𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 − 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 )� (2)
𝑘𝑘11 𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜 1+𝑅𝑅
where, the difference operator D is the difference in the corresponding variable 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 with respect
to time step Dt. At each time step of interval n, the nth value of 𝐷𝐷𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 is determined from its
previous (n-1)th value using the following equation[1]:
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑛𝑛) = 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑛𝑛 − 1) + 𝐷𝐷∆𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑛𝑛) (3)

B. Equation for Hot Spot Temperature Rise

Taking load factor K as input, the value of hot spot to top oil gradient ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ is determined by
taking the difference of two differential equation of ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 and ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 .
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ = ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 − ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (4)

19
Vinit Mehta, et al.

The two differential equations for the terms ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 and ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 are given by[1]:
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃
𝑘𝑘21 𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 (∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑘𝑘22 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 ℎ1 + ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (5)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃ℎ2
(𝑘𝑘21 − 1)𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 (∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 ) = (𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜 /𝑘𝑘22 ) + ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (6)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

here, k21 and k22 are the thermal constants, y is the winding exponent, ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 is the rated hot spot
temperature rise (in oC) and 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 is the winding time constant (in minutes). Both the differential
equations (5) and (6) are now converted into difference equations as:
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐷𝐷∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 = (𝑘𝑘21 . 𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 . ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 − ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 ) (7)
𝑘𝑘22 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐷𝐷∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 = [(𝑘𝑘21 − 1). 𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 . ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 − ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 ] (8)
(1/𝑘𝑘22 )𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜
The nth value of the terms ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 and ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 at each time step of interval n are calculated in the
same manner as in equation (3) by determining their (n-1)th value as follows. [1]
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (𝑛𝑛) = ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (𝑛𝑛 − 1) + 𝐷𝐷∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (𝑛𝑛) (9)
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (𝑛𝑛) = ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (𝑛𝑛 − 1) + 𝐷𝐷∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (𝑛𝑛) (10)

Now, the nth value of the HST rise will be:

∆𝜃𝜃ℎ (𝑛𝑛) = ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (𝑛𝑛) − ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (𝑛𝑛) (11)

C. Equation for Hot Spot Temperature

Using equation (3) and (11), the nth value of HST 𝜃𝜃ℎ (𝑛𝑛) is calculated by adding top oil
temperature and HST rise values at nth time interval as[1]:
𝜃𝜃ℎ (𝑛𝑛) = 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (𝑛𝑛) + ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ (𝑛𝑛) (12)
It should be noted that for getting an accurate solution for hot spot temperature values, the
time step Dt should be as small as possible, certainly no greater than one- half of the smallest
time constant in the thermal model.

D. Initial Conditions and Input Thermal Parameters

Assuming the system to be in the steady state at the start, the initial values of 𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 , ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 and
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 are calculated as follows[1]:
𝑥𝑥
1+𝐾𝐾 2 𝑅𝑅
𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜 (0) = � � (∆𝜃𝜃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ) + 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎 (13)
1+𝑅𝑅
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ1 (0) = 𝑘𝑘21 . 𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 . ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 (14)
∆𝜃𝜃ℎ2 (0) = (𝑘𝑘21 − 1). 𝐾𝐾 𝑦𝑦 . ∆𝜃𝜃ℎ𝑟𝑟 (15)

Also, the values of input thermal parameters like time constants, thermal constants and
exponents for different type of oil- immersed transformers and respective cooling arrangements
are specified under the IEC 60076-7 guidelines and can be recommended using Table I.

Table 1. Recommended Thermal Parameters for Transformers [1]

Distribution
Power Transformer
Thermal Parameter Transformer
ONAN ONAN ONAF OFAF
Oil time constant (𝜏𝜏𝑜𝑜 ) 180 210 150 90
Winding time constant (𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 ) 4 10 7 7
Thermal model constant (k11) 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0
Thermal model constant (k21) 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.3
Thermal model constant (k22) 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0
Oil Exponent (x) 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0
Winding exponent (y) 1.6 1.3 1.3 1.3

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Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

In order to validate the proposed thermal model, the data gathered under various load
conditions from the field deployed power transformer may be recorded and the differential
equation based methodology can be employed for determination of the HST with ease of
application offered by the MATLAB software.
This paper also attempts to incorporate the effects of solar radiation and wind flow on the
thermal analysis of the power transformer because these two factors have higher level of impact
on the safe and reliable operation of power transformer and also their long term service life.

E. Effect of Solar Radiation[5,8]

There are three major conditions involved during the heat transfer in the power transformers
due to the solar radiation at the outside surface.
Condition I: From sunset on Day 1 to sunrise on Day 2: During this period of heat transfer, the
inner transformer oil gets highest temperature values over the outside surface temperature. The
heat dissipation is by, firstly, convective heat transfer on the inner surface of the transformer
wall in oil, secondly, by thermal conduction through the transformer wall and, finally, by
convection and radiation on the outside surface to the ambient air.

Condition II: From sunrise on Day 2 to sunset on Day 2: During this interval of time, solar
radiation appears directly on the transformer outside surface. The temperature of the outside
surface increases to the same level as that of inside transformer oil. Gradually, the heat
dissipation through the inner surface reduces to zero. After that, the outside surface temperature
will start to rise above corresponding inner oil temperature and start transfer heat into the inner
oil. The inner temperature of the power transformer may also rises even if it is out of service.

Condition III: From sunset on Day2 to sunrise on Day3: During this stage, the temperature of
the transformer surface get reduces until the temperature of the transformer surface reach steady
state.
The effect of solar radiation on the inner temperature of the power transformer is modeled
by adding an additional PS(t)/(PNL+PLL) in the equation of top oil temperature rise. Here, PS(t)
is the solar power at time t, PNL and PLL are the no load and load losses respectively. The solar
power PS(t) is given by:
𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐 . 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 . 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) (16)
where, c is the emissivity factor, Atr is the collecting surface area of the solar radiation and IR(t)
is the solar irradiation at time t. The emissivity factor c depends on the material of the surface
and its colour. This factor affects the amount of radiation being absorbed and being emitted.
The factor c of solar irradiation for different surface conditions are given in Table II.

Table 2. Factor c of solar irradiation for different surface conditions

Type of Surface Factor c
White paint 0.25
Light cream paint 0.35
Aluminum paint 0.55
Gray paint 0.75
Mat black paint 0.97

The solar irradiation IR(t) represents the global radiation in the outdoor condition and is the
sum of direct and diffuse radiation. This parameter was modeled using the ADNOT model,
which is the efficient method for estimating the global radiation in outdoor conditions.
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) = 951.39(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)1.15 (17)
where, α is the sun elevation angle which is given by
𝛼𝛼 = {𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠. 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝐿𝐿) + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝐿𝐿) . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)]}−1 (18)
where, δ is the declination angle (in degrees), L is the Latitude of area (in degrees) and HRA is
the hour angle (in degrees). The value of declination angle is given by:

21
Vinit Mehta, et al.

360
𝛿𝛿 = 23.450 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 81)� (19)
365
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 150 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 12) (20)
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (21)
The equation (16) is then used in the equation of top oil temperature rise by modifying the
conventional differential equations as presented in standard documentation.

F. Effect of Wind Flow

Wind is a random dynamic phenomenon in space and time. Wind speed can be interpreted
as a superimposed combination of constant value and random gusts in form of fluctuations.
Wind speed mean value increases with height above the ground. There is no obvious correlation
between the wind oscillations at the different heights, the waveforms do not repeat, and the
wind speed at any time can be described statistically but not predicted exactly.
The wind has some positive impact on heat dissipation from the heated matter when blowing
directly on it. In the paper, qualitative impact on heat dissipation is presented for the particular
site. The wind model represent transformer bay in ambient with free surface boundary
conditions of external air. Only radiator bank is used because in the case it is the main heat
dissipating surface.
Consider a “packet” of air with mass m moving at a speed v. Its kinetic energy is given by:

m
v

1
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸. = 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 (22)
Since the power is energy per unit time, the power represented by a mass of air moving at
velocity v through area A will be
A

𝑚𝑚̇ v

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 1 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Power through area A= = � � 𝑣𝑣 2 (23)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
The mass flow rate ˙m, through area A, is the product of air density ρ, speed v, and cross-
sectional area A:
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ 𝐴𝐴
� � = 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 (24)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

Combining equation (23) with (24) gives us an important relationship:

1
𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 3 (25)
2

In S.I. units; Pw(t) is the power in the wind (watts); ρ is the air density (kg/m3) (at 150C and
1 atm, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3); A is the cross-sectional area through which the wind passes (m2); and
v = wind speed normal to A (m/s).
The effect of wind flow on the inner temperature of the power transformer is modeled by
adding an additional Pw(t)/(PNL+PLL) in the equation of top oil temperature rise as presented in
IEC and IEEE based thermal models. The comparison of the environmental conditions, i.e.,

22
Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

solar and wind effects have been presented in terms of how it is affecting temperatures of
different parts of the power transformer in following section.

3. Results and Discussions

The differential equation method as mentioned in the loading guide for oil- immersed power
transformers (IEC60076-7) is applied for determining HST of a 500MVA, 400/220kV power
transformer operating at 400kV GSS, Kankani, Jodhpur (Raj.), India. The location where the
proposed power transformer is installed has a hot arid climate due to its very high potential
evapotranspiration. The ambient temperature is extreme during the month of March till
October. In April, May, and June, the ambient temperature may exceed 40°C. During the
winters from November till February, the ambient temperature may fall up to 10°C. Firstly, the
effect of variable electrical load and time- varying ambient temperature will be considered as
per the loading guide. In the later stages, the effect of other environmental conditions, i.e., solar
irradiation and wind flow will be taken into account by modifying the existing IEC based
thermal model. The specifications of the proposed power transformer are shown in Table III
and the installed power transformer is shown in Fig.1.

Table 3. Specification of the Power Transformer under consideration

Makers S. No. 6007723, Elec. Spec. No. 601395, Year of
Manufacture 2018
To Standard : IEC 60076
Type of Cooling ONAN/ONAF/OFAF
Rating MVA 500
No Load Voltage HV (kV) 400
No Load Voltage MV (kV) 220
No Load Voltage LV (kV) 33
Line Current HV (Amps) 721.7
Line Current MV (Amps) 1312.2
Line Current LV (Amps) 2921.7
Rated Temperature Rise Oil (oC) 50
Rated Temperature Rise Winding (oC) 55
Phase 3
Frequency (Hz) 50
Connection Symbol YNa0d11
Core and Winding (kg) 212300
Weight of Oil (kg) 84195
Total Weight (kg) 388500
Oil Quantity (Litre) 97600

Figure 1. 500MVA, 400/220kV Power Transformer situated at 400kV GSS, Kankani,

Jodhpur

23
Vinit Mehta, et al.

Figure 2(a) shows the pictorial view of the OTI and WTI located near the 500MVA power
transformer, each of which consist of a sensor bulb, capacity tube and a dial thermometer. These
temperature readings are also monitored in the nearly located control room with the help of
SCADA system as shown in Figure 2(b).

Figure 2(a). OTI and WTI located near the 500MVA Power Transformer
Figure 2(b). OTI and WTI readings on SCADA System

The various input parameters like time constants, thermal constants and exponents of the
proposed power transformer are taken from the IEC 60076-7 standard according to the type of
the cooling arrangement used. The values of the thermal constants, i.e., k11, k21 and k22 are 1.0,
1.3 and 1.0 respectively. Similarly, the values of oil and winding exponents are chosen as 1 and
1.3 respectively. The oil and winding time constants are 90 min and 7 min respectively.
According to IEC loading guide, the time interval of the various input parameters is chosen
such that its value should be less than half of the smallest time constant for getting the accurate
results. As the value of smallest time constant 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 is 7 min. Therefore, the time interval Dt is
taken as 3 minutes.

A. Conventional IEC Based Thermal Model under Operation

The typical load profile of 500MVA power transformer and the ambient temperature of the
Jodhpur location are used as the input data for determining the HST using the differential
equation method. Figure 3 shows a simplified block diagram of the thermal model of power
transformer. The inputs to the thermal model are the load factor K and ambient temperature 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴
on the left. The differential equation of top oil temperature rise as shown by equation (1)
suggests that the oil temperature inside the power transformer depends on both the ambient
temperature 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 and load factor K, whereas the differential equation of hot spot temperature rise
as shown by equation (5) and (6) recommends that the hot spot temperature depends only upon
the load factor K. The output from the top oil and hot spot temperature models get added up in
order to get the desired hot spot temperature 𝜃𝜃𝐻𝐻 . The graphical representation of load profile
and ambient temperature for Kankani, Jodhpur (26.2389ON, 73.0243OE) for a complete day
(21st September 2020) is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5, respectively.

24
Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

Ambient
Temperature
(𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 )
Top Oil
+
Temperature
Model Hot Spot
Temperature
(θH )

Load Factor
(K)
+
Hot Spot
Temperature
Model

Figure 3. Block Diagram Representation with inputs as θA and K for determining the θH
1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Per Unit Load Factor

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 4. Normal Load Cycle Profile
p , p ( , ) p ,
50

45

40
Ambient Temperature in degC

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 5. Ambient Temperature of the Kankani, Jodhpur Location on Sept. 21, 2020

25
Vinit Mehta, et al.

The practical temperature data of oil and windings (hv, mv and lv) of the 500MVA power
transformer are recorded by oil and winding temperature indicators. Fig.6 shows the
temperature curves of the OTI and WTI readings at an interval of 3 minutes for the same day.
It is observed from the Fig.6 that the maximum temperature occurs at the mv winding as it
encounters maximum power losses in the power transformer.
70

Top Oil Temperature

60 HV Winding Temperature
MV Winding Temperature
LV Winding Temperature
OTI and WTI Readings in degC

50

40

30

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 6. OTI and WTI Readings of 500MVA Power Transformer, Kankani,
Jodhpur on Sept. 21, 2020

The proposed differential equation method is now applied for the determination of top oil
temperature and hot spot temperature of the 500MVA power transformer by considering time
varying load as well as time varying external ambient temperature as discussed above. The
equations as mentioned in Section II are solved for determining the top oil and hot spot
temperature rise. The comparative graphical representation of practical (data obtained from
OTI and WTI) and calculated (solved as per IEC loading guidelines) readings is now shown in
Figure 7 and Figure 8. The HST is then calculated by solving equation (12).
p p p
100
Calculated
90 Practical

80
Top Oil Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 7. Comparative results of Practical and Calculated Readings of Top Oil Temperature

26
Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

Calculated and Practical Hot Spot Temperature of 500MVA Power Transformer on Sept. 21, 202
100
Calculated
90 Practical

80

Hot Spot Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time

Figure 8. Comparative results of Practical and Calculated Readings of Hot Spot Temperature

B. Improved IEC Based Thermal Model under Operation

Figure 9 shows a modified block diagram of the thermal model of the power transformer
taking the input as solar irradiance Ir and wind speed vw along with the ambient temperature 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴
and load factor K on the left. Since the solar power Ps(t) and wind power Pw(t) as shown in
equation (16) and (25) respectively directly effects the equation of top oil temperature rise,
therefore, the top oil temperature model as shown in Figure 9 is directly effected by all the four
parameters, i.e., Ir , vw , 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 and K. Whereas, the hot spot temperature model depends only upon
the load factor K. Further, the output from the top oil and hot spot temperature models get added
up in order to get the desired hot spot temperature 𝜃𝜃𝐻𝐻 .

Solar
Irradiation
(Ir)

Wind Speed
(vw)
Top Oil +
Temperature
Ambient Model
Temperature
Hot Spot
(𝜃𝜃 )
Temperature
(θH )

Load Factor
(K) +
Hot Spot
Temperature
Model

Figure 9. Block Diagram Representation with inputs as Ir, vw, 𝜃𝜃𝐴𝐴 and K
for determining the θH

27
Vinit Mehta, et al.

The input data of solar irradiance Ir and wind speed vw on hourly basis for a day (24 hours)
is taken from [22]. Fig.10 presents the variation of the solar radiation (W/m2) for a complete
day (21st September 2020) and the wind speed (m/s) during the same day is plotted as shown
in Figure 11. It is clear from Fig.10 that the maximum value of solar radiation occurs around
11:00AM on September 21, 2020. Also, the effect of solar radiation on the hot spot temperature
of the power transformer is valid only for around 12 hours (between the rise of sun and when
sun gets set) during the proposed time interval of 24 hours. Therefore, the effect of solar
radiation will only affect the computed hot spot temperature during day time. However, the
wind flow around the power transformer will influence the computed hot spot temperature at
every time interval.
Also, as observed from the graphical view of Figure 11, the wind speed is more in first half
of time period as compared to second half. The effect of solar radiation on the top oil
temperature rise and hot spot temperature is represented first in Figure 12 and Figure 13,
respectively. The combined effect of solar radiation and wind flow on the top oil temperature
rise and hot spot temperature is then plotted as shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15.
p ( ) p
1000

900

800

700
Solar Irradiation in W/m2

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 10. Variation of Solar Radiation (W/m ) during the proposed interval of time
2

3.5

3
Wind Speed in m/s

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 11. Variation of Wind Speed (m/s) during the proposed interval of time

28
Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

100

90

80

Top Oil Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40 Calculated TOT (with Solar Effect)

Calculated TOT (without Solar Effect)
30
Practical TOT

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 12. Effect of Solar Radiation on Top Oil Temperature Rise
100

90

80
Hot Spot Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40 Calculated HST (with Solar Effect)

Calculated HST (without Solar Effect)
30 Practical HST

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 13. Effect of Solar Radiation on Hot Spot Temperature
p p
100

90

80
Top Oil Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40 Calculated TOT (with Solar and Wind Effect)

Calculated TOT (without Solar and Wind Effect)
30 Practical TOT

20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 14. Effect of Solar Radiation and Wind Flow on Top Oil Temperature Rise

29
Vinit Mehta, et al.

p p
100

90

80

Hot Spot Temperature in degC

70

60

50

40 Calculated HST (with Solar and Wind Effect)

Calculated HST (without Solar and Wind Effect)
30
Practical HST
20

10

0
12:00 AM 6:00 AM 12:00 PM 6:00 PM 12:00 AM
time
Figure 15. Effect of Solar Radiation and Wind Flow on Hot Spot Temperature

The effect of solar radiation on the top oil temperature rise and hot spot temperature is to
increase their values ranging from 8oC to 10oC in the proposed modeling. Also, the effect of
wind flow will reduce the temperature ranging from 2oC to 3oC during first half of the time
period. As the wind speed is comparatively lesser in second half of the time period, its effect
on temperature values is negligible.
The TOT errors as depicted from standard deviation method with convention IEC model,
conventional IEC model including only solar effect and conventional IEC model including
solar as well as wind effect are 20.74%, 19.16% and 15.61% respectively. Similarly, the HST
errors as depicted from standard deviation method with convention IEC model, conventional
IEC model including only solar effect and conventional IEC model including solar as well as
wind effect are 15.72%, 14.06% and 13.91% respectively. Also, the maximum deviation of
practical and calculated values of HST with convention IEC model, conventional IEC model
including only solar effect and conventional IEC model including solar as well as wind effect
are 7.24oC, 6.39oC and 5.98oC respectively. This shows that as the number of environmental
parameters is added to the existing thermal models, the errors get reduced.

4. Conclusion
The proposed model gives the approximate HST values that are in close agreement with the
measured field data. It can be concluded that with the inclusion of the effect of solar radiation
and wind flow, the life of the power transformer also reduces. Providing proper cooling
arrangements especially during the impact of solar radiation has great potential to save the
percentage loss of life.
The thermal model is only considering the effect of solar radiation and wind flow, assuming
the negligible effect of the other environmental factors. Therefore, it will be important to
develop such thermal models that consider the effect of other environmental conditions so that
more accurate and precise results can be achieved. However, further research and development
is needed to improve the existing monitoring systems and introduce designs and applications
that include better thermal modeling. These thermal models will allow the power transformer
manufacturers to provide better specifications and users to operate the power transformers on
appropriate loading.

5. Acknowledgment
This research work is supported by Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Prasaran Nigam Ltd. (ISO-
9001: 2015), 400kV Grid Substation, Kankani, Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India), which is a company

30
Improved IEC Based Thermal Modeling of Outdoor Power

under the Companies Act, 1956 and vide No. 17-016485 of 2000-2001, under the provisions of
the Rajasthan Power Sector Reforms Act, 1999 as the successor company of Rajasthan State
Electricity Board (RSEB).

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Vinit Mehta is presently working as Associate Professor and Head

(Mentoring) in the Department of Electrical Engineering at JIET Group of
Institutions, Jodhpur. He is pursuing PhD in the Department of Electrical
Engineering at MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur. His area of expertise is
in Thermal Modeling of Power Transformers. The areas of interest are in the
subjects of Electrical Machines (AC and DC), Electrical Machine Design,
Electric Drives and their Control and Transmission & Distribution of Electric
Power.

Jayashri Vajpai is presently Professor at Electrical Engineering Department

of Jai Narain Vyas, University, Jodhpur. Her research interests include Soft
Computing, Artificial Intelligence, Fault Diagnosis, Adaptive Control and
Image Processing. She has published over 130 papers in various International
and National Journals, Conferences and Seminars. She is reviewer of several
research journals including Nonlinear Dynamics of Springer and on the
editorial board of two International Journals. She is the presenter and subject
expert of over 90 educational films on “Artificial Intelligence” being broadcast in the UGC
Country-Wide Classroom Programmes. She has delivered invited lectures in a large number of
institutions and also rendered services as Guest Faculty in Indian Instituted of Technology,
Jodhpur.

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