The Simple guide to Computer Studies

The simple Guide to computer

studies

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By kabogoza iddi
 The Simple guide to Computer Studies

Mob: +256 700 474 977

E-mail: [email protected]

All rights reserved by the author there fore, NO part of this publication may be retrieved in any form
without his consent.

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my appreciation to all those who worked
tiredly towards the preparation of this manual.
Gratitude’s go to my fellow colleges in the department who helped
me compile the work.

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Introduction to Computer Study

Computer study is a discipline (study) that involves the history and
evolution of the computers as well as their classification.
A computer is an electronic device that can accept data stores,
processes and, outputs it as information.
A computer is an electronic device which when given instructions by
the user performs them and produces the desired output.
A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control
of instructions stored in its memory unit.
Structure of Computer

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Characteristics of Modern Computers

1. Accuracy
2. Diligence (consistency)
3. Automation
4. Artificial intelligence
5. Storage
6. Speed
7. Versatility
8. Programmable
9. Volume and complexity
1. Accuracy
Computers are meant to be so accurate in that they do not make
mistakes. The mistakes are rather made by the user hence the
phrase “Garbage in Garbage Out”. In fact, computers are capable
of detecting and correcting any mistakes made by the user.
2. Diligence (consistency):
Computers have the ability to perform the same task over for a
long time without getting tired. Therefore, computing devices must
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be able to perform the same routines repeatedly. This is evidenced

in industrial robotics like those in car assembly lines.
3. Automation
Computers also work automatically. They do not need any
supervision in order to perform programs when instructed. They
are able to perform this by the help of the programs (instructions)
given to them.
4. Artificial intelligence
Computers are artificially intelligent. They can respond to requests
given to them and provide solutions. This is accomplished by the
power of the programs installed in them, e.g. the washing
machines.
5. Storage
For a computer to be able to work, it must have some form of work
space where data is stored before being processed. All information
is stored on a hard disk or in the memory, for example on a RAM
(Random Access Memory).

6. Speed: Computers are quite faster and a computer processor

determines their speed. The computer is measured in millions of
instructions per second (MIPS), that is why are extremely fast.
There for a computer with 15 million instructions per second which
is comparable to a lightening?
7. Versatility: Computers are capable of doing more than one
task at the same time. This is known as multi-tasking.
Computerized vending machines, dish washing machines,
microwave ovens etc. (Multi – tasking is the ability of a computer
to perform more than one task at a time)

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9. Volume and complexity: Computers are capable of handling

very large volumes of information e.g. calculating a target for a
missile as well as the speed to be taken.
Reasons why we study computers
There are many reasons as to why we study computers these
include:-
1. Source of Employment
People learn computers to acquire different skills that can help
them became teachers, computer programmers, Consultants and
computer engineers.
2. Study purpose
Computers in schools are used to teach learners about their
history, present and their future.
3. Research
Many people carrying out research refer to different literature on
the computer with help of the internet.
4. Communication
Computers connected to the internet help people in different
places, even those that are world apart to communicate easily and
cheaply.
5. Entertainment
Through computers one can be able to play music, watch video in
order to kill boredom.
6. Storage facility
Computers in many companies are used to store large volumes of
data for along time and in reliable and convenient manner.

7. To pass exam

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Some people study computers in order to pass exams. E.g.

students of computer
studies.
8. Ease work
Since computers are general purposes they are studied by many
people in order to ease work. E.g. in banks they help in the
counting of money.
Common Terms use in computers
1. Data refers to raw and unprocessed facts, figures and symbols.
Such facts are of little meaning or significance until it is sorted or
put in more useful way. (processed)
2. Information: It refers to the processed data that has meaning and
very useful.
DATA INFORMATION
Letters e.g. a, b, c,.. words e.g. school, orange, cow
etc
Words and symbols a report, a letter, sentence, an
essay
3. Information Technology (IT): It is the combination of computer
and communication technologies that help in the processing of
data into information.
4. Computer literacy refers to having the knowledge and
understanding of computers and their uses.
5. Data entry: It is the act of entering data into the computer. This is
done by the help of input devices like keyboard, mouse etc.
6. Data processing: It refers to the process of converting data into
information.
How Computers Work
All computers follow the four basic operations which include Input,
Storage, Processing and Output. The whole process can be
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explained as seen below: - Data is entered into the computer through

the input devices like Mouse and keyboard, then it is received by
the Main memory (RAM) which stores it temporary as it a waits to
be processed, it is then sent bit by bit (Little by Little) to the central
processing unit for processing and finally it is output through the
output devices like printers or stored on secondary storage device
like a hard disk.

An illustration of the Information processing cycle

Data Input Processing Output Information

Data Processing Information

Storage
Storage

Figure 1: The five basic processing in information processing

The five basic stages of information processing are:

1. Collection of Data
In this stage data is captured from their sources and recording is
done into media e.g. Paper
2. Preparation of data
In this stage data is copied, grouped or arranged in amore proper
and convenient way for input. Here Verification of data is done in
this stage. This involves the checking of the data for mistakes
made when data was being copied from one place to another.
3. Input of Data

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Here data is entered or sent to the processing system for

processing. In this stage Validation of Data, is done which
evolves the checking for the accuracy of the data.
4. Processing of the Data
Here data is calculated and manipulated and also stored for future
use.
5. Output of information
In this stage information (processed data) is given out in readable
form. (Report)
Common data validation techniques
1. Presence Check
This is done to make sure that the data entered is actually correct
2. Range Check
This is to make sure that the data entered is with in a certain
range.
3. Data type check
This technique makes sure that the data entered is of a correct
type e.g. Numeric or Alphanumeric
4. Consistency Check
This technique compares new data with the old data present or
exiting.
Examples of data collecting and processing equipments in offices
- Type writers/Manual
- Fax modems
- Telephones
- Electric mails & Internet
- Computers
Common information Processing Systems
1. Batch Processing

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Is where data is collected together in a batch before processing

starts? Batch processing is suitable for tasks where large amount of
data has to be processed on regular basis. Examples of batch
processing systems include Payroll systems, Examinations Reports in
school.
Advantages of Batch processing
 Computers are only used for specific period of time for the batch
job
 Jobs can be scheduled for a time when the computer is not busy
Disadvantages of Batch Processing
 There is a delay before work is processed and returned
 Always involves an expensive computer
2. Real-time Processing
This is Data processing system that processes data without
significant delay. Examples of real time processing this include: - Anti
– Missile Defense, Electronic Fund transfer System and Tickets
Reservation Systems.
Advantages of Real-time Processing System
 No significant Delay for Response
 Information is always up to date
Disadvantages of Real-time Processing System
 Computers must be dedicated solely to the task
 Computers must be always on line

Manual Information Systems against Computerized

Information System
Advantages Manual Information Systems
 Cheap
 Simple to Understand
 Power failure does not affect the system
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Disadvantages Manual Information Systems

 Slow, this takes a lot of time to find particular information.
 Rigid, Information is normally kept in a predefined order
 Space, it takes a lot or huge space to store data.
Advantages of using computer information systems
 Computers have the ability to communicate and can be able to
share resources
 With computers tasks can be completed faster
 Computers can also store enormous amounts of data
 Running costs became lower in long run
 Tasks can be completed with les human interaction
 Overall security can be raised due to less human interference
Disadvantages of using computer information systems
 Initial investment costs can be high
 Extra costs is required due to nee staff
 Some staff has to be trained or retrained
 Face to face interaction will be reduced
Application Areas of Computers (Fields or Places were
computers can Work)
Computers have affected almost every sector of operations in the
world, below are some areas were computers are in use: -
 Offices
 Schools
- Factories
- Airports
- Police stations
- Hospitals
- Discotheques
- Internet Café

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Information Technology
This is a combination of computer and communication
technologies that help in process data.
How IT is applied in various areas of every day life
- Pay roll system in factories
- Report card systems in schools
- Electronic funds transfer systems in a bank
- Mailing list systems in a company
- Traffic control system in transportation
- Tick reservation system in a cinema
Other related areas include:
IT applications at Home (How IT is used at Home)
IT applications at School
IT applications at Office
IT applications at Bank
IT applications at E-commerce
IT applications at Entertainment
IT applications at Industry
IT applications at Health care
Areas where IT is applicable and how it is used.
Application of IT at Home
At home IT is used for:-
1. Paying Bills by the help of (PPS)
2. Entertainment in the following ways
- Listening to Music
- Watch Movies and Videos
- Play games
3. Research and Education
- Take college Classes
- Produce assignments and results

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- Young stars for reading and write

4. Personal Business
- Communicating with others around the world
- Organize Names and addresses
Application of IT at School
In schools IT is used in the flowing ways
Computer based training, which includes the following
1. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Here computers and other IT equipments are used for teaching and
delivery data to members.
2. Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)
This is a system that helps students to use computers and appropriate
software to learn at their own pace.
3. Computer Assisted Assessment (CAA)
This is system that reduces the time and labor to mark the answer
scripts.
Advantages of using IT in Learning and Teaching
- It makes teaching and learning more interesting by the help of the
CAI and CAL
- Students can learn by them Selves in the absence of the teachers
- Students can get instructions in absence of a teacher
- It’s easy to explain the subject content
- Students can get results and feed backs immediately.
Disadvantages of using IT in Learning and Teaching
Face to face interaction with students may be difficult
Application of IT in Office
In the office environment IT is used for: -

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- Create Memos, Letters and Reports
- Calculate pay roll, prepare income statements
- Track inventory
- Create web sites to provide information
- For communication by the help of E- Mails, Video conferencing

Application of IT in Banks
In banks it is used for: -
1. Automated Teller Machine (ATM) which is self servicing machine
attached to a host computer through a telephone network. It is
often able to:-
- Deposits and Cash Money
- Cash withdrawals
- Transfer of Money
- Application for cheque books
- Obtaining account balances
2. Online Banking
These involves the following activities
- Transfer of Money electronically from one account to another
- Loans and Credit card application
- Down load of monthly transaction information
3. Electronic Commerce (E- commerce)
This is finical business transaction that occurs over an electronic
network such as the internet.
Advantages of E- commerce
- Feed back is very first
- Customers can compare prices
- Transactions can occur with in 24 hours per day

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- Business will be open for many people
- Information can be available quickly
Application of IT in Entertainment
In the Entertainment IT is used for: -
- Play computer games
- Listen to music
- Watch videos
- Compose and Edit video
- Read books and magazines
- Plan vacations

Application of IT in Industry
In the industry IT is used for:-
- Data sensing and Logging
- Robotics
(A robot is computer controlled device that can move and react to
feed back from the outside world.
Application of IT at Health Care
IT is widely used in health area a seen below
- Maintain patience’s records
- Monitor patient’s conditions
- Research and Diagnoses
- Used for computer aided surgery

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Historians do not agree the origin of computing as well as the first
inventor of the first computing machine since a large number of
machines were invented in different stages. However, there are
notable achievements that were made towards the development of the

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modern computer by different people. The abacus is widely believed to
be the first computing device invented by Chinese.
These include:-
1. Abacus:
Before the 17th Century, the early Chinese invented the ABACUS
COMPUTER. The Abacus is considered to be the first computer
invented by the Chinese called the Babylonians. The abacus is
regarded as the first computing device. The abacus was used for volume
computing in china and Japan for many years. It had frames, Rods on which
beads could be moved when adding and subtracting.

Structure of the Abacus

2. Napier’s Bones(Napier’s Rods)

In 1614, a Scottish Mathematician by the names of John Napier
invented a set of logarithms based on multiplication called the
Napier's bones. This machine operated by calculating figures.

Fig 2: First generation Fig 3: Napier’s bones

computer

3. Slide Rule

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In 1620, a British mathematician by the names of William oughtred
invented another machine called a Slide Rule. It was a simple ruler
structured device that was operated by sliding a set of transparent
plastic slides used by Pilots and ship captains.
It is illustrated as below:-

Fig 3: A slide rule

THE MECHANICAL ERA
The mechanical era is characterized by machines with moving parts,
mechanical gears, electromechanical relays, dials and often used
punched cards and tapes as compared to other machines.
1. Pascal’s Arithmetic Machine
In 1642, a French Engineer called Blaise Pascal invented the first
mechanical machine that could add and subtract numbers called
Pascal's Arithmetic Machine. This machine operated more like the
present day calculator though it had no memory.

Structure of the Pascal’s arithmetic machine

2. Leibniz Calculator
In 1671, a German scientist by the names of William Von Leibniz
developed a device that was not only used to add and subtract, but
also able to carryout multiplication and division. This machine was
known as Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz's calculator. It was
developed as an improvement on the Pascal's machine.

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Structure of the arithmetic machine

3. Jacquard Weaving Loom (1800)

In 1804, a French inventor Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a
device to be used in the rug weaving to automate the process on a
loom. This machine was named the Jacquard Loom or Jacquard
Weaving Loom. It could be programmed to weave the entire rug in a
complicated pattern using a set of punched cards.

Jacquard Weaving Loom (1800)

4. Babbage’s Analytical Engine

In 1834, a French Mathematician by the names of Charles Babbage
invented an Analytical engine. This machine had memory for storing
results and printed output. He was later joined by ADA LOVELACE, a
lady who came up with the idea of programming. They both developed
the idea of programming loops. Charles is therefore referred to be
"The Father of computing" because he developed the concept of
the modern computers.

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Babbage’s Analytical Engine

4. The Hollerith’s Tabulator (1890)

In 1890, Herman Hollarith was an American who invented a tabulating
machine that used punched cards to store and calculate data. This
machine was used by the U.S.A government in the 1890 census. He
started a tabulating machine company and sold his machine all over
the world. He was later joined with other people to form the popularly
known Business machine company called IBM (International Business
Machine). This therefore marked a set of the first generation of
computers.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference
to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of
computer is characterized by a major technological development that

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fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient
and reliable devices.
What is computer generation?
This refers to the accumulation and advancement of computers over
years.
There are four computer generations and these are:-
1. First generation
2. Second generation
3. Third generation
4. Fourth generation
THE FIRST GENERATION (1946-1956)
The UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) and ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator) computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first
commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 1ST GENERATION
1. Computers relied on vacuum tubes to store and process
information
2. They used magnetic drum memories
3. The maximum memory size was approximately 2000 bytes (2
kilobytes)
4. The speed was 10 kilo instructions per second
5. They used punched cards for input and output
6. Programming was done in machine and assembler languages
Setbacks (problems) included;
1. They limited primary memory
2. Consumed much power and generated a great deal of heat
3. They were short lived and needed a standby technician
4. They were very heavy; i.e. weighted about 30 tons

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SECOND GENERATION (1957-1963)

This generation was referred to as the transistor generation
because of the use of transistors as the active element of computers in
the generation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2ND GENERATION
1. Used transistors for internal operation
2. The memory size expanded to 32 kilobytes of RAM memory
3. The speed reached 200,000 to 300,000 instructions per second
4. They used magnetic core memories
5. Introduction of high level programming e.g. FORTRAN, COBOL
6. Introduction of super computers e.g. Livermore Atomic Research
Computer (LARC) and IBM 7030
7. Computers became less expensive
8. Transistors were much more stable and reliable than vacuum
tubes
9. They generated less heat and consumed less power
10. The second generation computers included CDC6600
mainframe computers and IBM7094
THIRD GENERATION (1964-1979)
It was also known as the generation of integrated circuits. This was
also due to wide use of integrated circuits as compared to transistors
and vacuum tubes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 3RD GENERATION:
1. They used integrated circuits (ICs)
2. Magnetic disk was developed for storage purposes
3. Computer memory expended to 2 MB of RAM
4. Speed accelerated to 5 million instructions per second (5 MIPS)
5. There was production of the first microcomputers in 1974
6. There was use of parallel processing

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7. Introduction of operating system e.g. multics
8. Introduction of simple programming languages like BASIC
9. It consisted of fast mainframe computers such as; IBM360,
IBM370 etc.

THE FOURTH GENERATION (1979 – 1989)

This generation started immediately after the 3rd generation with the
development of Large Scale Integration (LSI) of circuits for the internal
operation of the computers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 4TH GENERATION
1. They used large scale integration (LSI) and very large scale
integration (VLSI) circuits.
2. The memories used included magnetic disks, bubble memories
and optical speeds to 50 MIPS.
3. There was limited Artificial Intelligence and expert systems
4. There was development of the micro processor.
5. Development of micro computers
6. Introduction of a wide variety of software
7. Computers became more powerful and cheap enough that
schools and homes were able to purchase them.
Examples of computers included; 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium
I, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, and Apple Macintosh, etc.
FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1990-Todate)
It is also known as the future generation of computers or the
generation of artificial intelligence. Many of the features of this
generation are imaginations of what the computer of the future might
look like.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 5TH GENERATION

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1. The use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) software method
2. The artificial intelligence will be the computer’s ability to make
decisions based on the evidence of the part rather than the set of
programs.
3. Computers that will be equipped with the artificial intelligence
method will take over same human tasks
4. Computers will become cheaper, faster, smaller and more
valuable. E.g. Laptops, mobile telephones etc.
5. Internet is expected to be universal just like televisions and
radios.
6. More people will use computer with multimedia capabilities.
7. Computer applications and software will become more
sophisticated (superior) and more reliable.

Uses and Functions of Computers

1. Process Control:
This means the use of the computer to control the continuous
performance of equipment, as an industrial process case input a
computer can be used to Control temperature, Open and close
valves and to Turn on or electric current like Kettle in home
2. Healthy care (science and medicine)
Computers today allow for access to otherwise inaccessible and
expensive foreign expertise or labour and make possible for
hospital in one country to use consultants or even surgeons in
another country thereby saving patients form traveling.
3. Government institutions:
Computers are used heavily in many government ministries such
as Finance, Planning, and Education to store governmental
records and improve on the efficiency with in the civil service.
4. Education:

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Computers are also widely used in education s teaching aid and
in research computers are used to access reference materials.
Long distance learning using computers has replaced
international correspondence courses offered by postage.
5. Communication Industry:
Computers play every big role today in every aspect of
communication in the following way:
 In the telecommunication industry every telephone exchanged
today relies on the computers to switch in coming and out
going.
 Railway corporations rely on computers to co – ordinate the
movements of their wagons
 In air industry they use din the control of air traffic and
surveillance of the air space using radar equipment as well as
reservation purpose
6. Police and defense (Military & Security)
Computers are of a great importance in keeping law and order,
infighting crime and for security and defense. This so in the
following ways:
 Police is now able to keep databases of finger prints
 Computer are also used for communication amongst the
police its self.
7. Entertainment and Leisure
This day many people use computers for shopping purposes in
the following ways:
Computers provide people with lists of shopping item and the
princes for each item and electronic money transfer.
 They also provided entertainment for those looking for it.
 They are programmed to play games
8. Employment

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By having the computer knowledge one has changes of getting
employment n the computing industries. Case in point in south
eastern Asia 60 % of employment opportunities are in the
computing industry.
Note; the invention and evolution of computers have resulted into
millions of new computer related jobs which include:-
Data input positions, Technical support positions and Sales personal
etc.
9. Research:
Computers are used by different people for searching different
literature and information ion the internet.
10. Home
11. Business:
Computer care and Safety
Computers like any other valuable item in any company/ home, requires a
special kind of care that must be accorded to them. If they are to last for so
long and yield the required results at the minimum time possible. In caring
about the computers and the computer Lab the following aspects need to be
put into consideration.

1. Routine servicing
A qualified experienced personnel needs to service the computers at a
stated interval say one month. Servicing the computer involves blowing out
any dust that might have found its way into the computer, checking any
worn out parts and replacing them with new ones, reinstalling and updating
any software and installing ant viruses and removing viruses.

2. Steady power supply

The computers need a steady power supply and if this is not the case the
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) needs to be attached to control the
amount of power into the computer. This helps to protect the computer
damage by power fluctuations.

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3. Room for breath

The computer should have access to fresh air so that the fan can keep the
electronic cool. Making sure that the computer Lab and the computer are
well ventilated.

4. Keeping computer dry

The computer should also be kept dry in t hat excessive moisture can play
havoc with electricity circuitry. This is done by avoiding drinks and eats in
the computer Lab.

5. Keep it free from dust

The computer should also be kept free from the dust. Covering the computer
and cleaning the air vents occasionally can do this.

6. Avoid exposing it to strong temperatures

The computer should not also be exposed to very strong extreme
temperatures.

7. Proper use.

The computer should also be shut down in the proper fashion, by systematic
closing the applications you have opened.

8. Moving the computer

The computer system should not also be moved when it is on. Putting the
computer on stable table, which is not shaky, can do these.
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS & THEIR CLASSIFICATION
Basically computers can be categorized under the following
classification: -
1. Classification by process
2. Classification by purpose
3. Classification by size
4. Classification by processor power
CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESS

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In this classification, computers are categorized according to how data
processed is represented. They are basically 3 classifications as seen
below:-
1. Digital computer
2. Analog computer
3. Hybrid computer
1. Digital computers:
Digital computers are the ones that process data that is represented
in form of discrete values. These include; Digital watches and
Pocket calculators
2. Analog computer:
Analog computers are computers that process data in a continuous
form or measurable quantities/units. They are also classified because
they measure physical quantities like temperature and convert them
into numeric values.
These include: Thermometer, Speedometer, Barometer and
Voltmeter
Comparison between Digital and Analog computers
DIGITAL COMPUTERS ANALOG COMPUTERS
They use binary code to represent They use a changing trend
information (phenomenon)
Are generally fast Are slow in speed
Data of digital computers do not data of analog computer degrade
degrade (demean) over time over time
Digital computers’ data can be Analog computers’ data cannot be
compressed(reduced) compressed
Digital computers are more Analog computers are less
accurate accurate

3. HYBRID COMPUTERS

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There are computers that combine the feature of both analog and
digital computers.
The hybrid computers are further classified according to the work that
they are designed for. These are categorized into two classes;
1. Special purpose computers
2. General purpose computers
1. Special purpose computers:
These are designed to handle only a particular task. They cannot be
used to do any other task like carrying out computations; e.g.
computers that operate missiles and lifts.
2. General purpose computers:
These are designed to solve a wide range of problems. A typical
computer of this type can perform calculations, keep date and time
and store databases.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
1) Micro computers
2) Mini computers
3) Mainframe computers
4) Super computers
 A MICRO COMPUTER
It is a computer that can perform all of its input, process, output and
storage activities by its self. The micro computers are much smaller
than the mini computers and are single in terms of capacity, i.e. the
keyboard, CPU and monitor can only be used by one person at a time;
implying that all system resources are allocated to a single user.
Micro computers are often known as personal computers (PCs). The
new processor is not only cheaper, it is faster, smaller, more energy
efficient and more reliable.
Micro computers include the following:-

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a) Desktop computers: They are designed so that the system unit,
input devices, output devices and any other devices fit entirely on a
desk or table.

b) Tower model computer: This has a tall and narrow system unit
that usually sits on the floor or in the cabin.

c) Laptop computers or sometimes called notebook computers.

These are portable personal computers (systems) designed for
mobile computing; i.e. if one is boarding a bus or in a plane, he/she
can still work like he is on a desktop.
d) Handheld computer; sometimes called a palmtop computer
(Personal Digital Assistants -PDAs): It is a small portable
computer that fits in the hands of a user.

Characteristics of Micro Computers

1. Micro computers are relatively cheap
2. They are smaller in size than the mainframe, super and mini
computers.

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3. They are fast in processing data
4. Micro computers are reliable
5. They support fewer peripheral devices
 A MINI- COMPUTER
This is often used in situations where a microcomputer is not
powerful enough but a mainframe is too expensive. The mini
computer is physically smaller than a mainframe computer. Mini
computers also support a number of users (50 to 500) but are
usually slower than mainframe computers.
Thus mini computers were developed for use in process control
systems while mainframes were mainly used for commercial
applications.

Characteristics of Mini-computers
1. They are smaller in size than the mainframes
2. They support a limited number of peripheral devices
connected to them.
3. Mini computers have a lower speed than the mainframes
4. They less storage capacity than mainframe computers
5. They support a few number of users at the same time.
 MAINFRAME COMPUTER
This is a large, expensive, but powerful computer that can handle
thousands (500-10,000) of connected users at the same time. Users
typically access a mainframe via a personal computer or a terminal.
Mainframe computers generally require special attention and are
kept in a controlled atmosphere. They are multi-tasking and are
used in areas where large databases are maintained, e.g.
government departments and the airline industry.

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Characteristics of the Mainframe computers

1. They can store a lot of data or information
2. They support a wide range of peripheral devices
3. They can be used by more than one person at a time
4. They are very fast in processing data and transferring data
 SUPER COMPUTERS
It is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computer used
for applications that require complex and sophisticated
mathematical calculations.
Typical tasks carried out by super computers include; weather
forecasting, space exploratory projects, complex and sophisticated
mathematical calculations and weapons research.

Characteristics of Super computers

1. They are large in size but smaller than the mainframes.
2. They have a high processing speed that mainframes
3. They have a high storage capacity
Other terms related to the classification of computer systems
include:-
 Stand-alone computer: It is a computer that is not connected to a
network, and is capable of performing the operations in the
information processing cycle.
 A server is the host or central computer that manages the
resources on a network.

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A server provides a centralized storage area for programs, data and
information.
Types of server
1. Dedicated server: It is a server that performs specific tasks.
2. A file server: This stores and manages files.
3. A print server: It manages printers and print jobs.
4. A network server: This manages network traffic.
5. A database server; it a server that stores and provides access
to a database.
 A client computer: It is a computer that can access the resources
on a network.
 A network computer: It is a computer designed specifically to
connect to a network
especially the Internet.
 A TERMINAL: It is a device with a monitor and a keyboard.
The term terminal can also refer to any device that sends and
receives computer data.
Different kinds of terminals include:-
1. A dumb terminal: This has no processing power, cannot act as
a stand-alone computer and must be connected to a server to
operate.
2. An intelligent terminal: This has memory and a processor so
that it can perform some functions independent of the host
computer.
Examples of intelligent terminal:
An automated teller machine (ATM): It is a self-service banking
machine attached to a host computer through a telephone
network.
An EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale): A terminal used to record
purchases at the point where the consumer purchases the
product or service.

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EFTPOS (Electronic Fund Transfer Point of sale): This is able to

transfer funds from a customer's bank account directly to a retail
outlet's account after reading the customer's debit card.
 An embedded system: This any appliance that contains a
microprocessor, which ispre-
programmed to perform a dedicated task. Examples of embedded
(fixed) systems
are:-
Washing machines, laser printers, calculators, microwave ovens,
rice cookers, video recorders etc.
 A workstation: It is a more expensive and powerful desktop computer.
The term workstation
can also refer to any client computer on a network. Typical users of
workstations include architects, graphics designers and engineers.
Computer System
What is a computer system?
A computer system is a series of input and output devices.
Components of the computer system:-
A working computer system comprises of four (4) components; i.e.
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Human ware
4. Data
5. Communications
1. Hardware:
This is a term used to describe all the various physical or tangible parts
of a computer, e.g. printer, power supply, keyboard etc.
Computer hardware is categorized as follows:-

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i) Input hardware: It is used to collect data and input it
into the computer system in a computer usable form; e.g.
Joystick, mouse, keyboard etc.
ii) Processing hardware: these retrieve (get) and execute
(interpret) instructions (software) provided to the computer; e.g.
CPU and the main memory.
iii) Storage hardware; these provide a means of storing
software and data in a form that is relatively permanent; e.g.
non-volatile (ROM).
iv) Output hardware; they provide a means for the user to
view information produced by the computer system, e.g. printer.
v) Communications hardware; facilitates connection
between computers and computer systems over phone lines and
other channels. E.g. cables, modem, Network Interface Card
(NIC).
2. Software:
This refers to all programs which enable computer hardware to operate
effectively. They also direct a computer in solving problems and over
seeing operation.
3. Human ware (user): This is the user or a person who operates a
computer. Most computers cannot operate without a human being. So
human beings become part of the computer system.

4. Data: These are raw and unprocessed facts we feed into the
computer to be processed into information. Data also serves as part of
the computer system because if you have no data or any problem to
be solved, a computer will be
5. Communications:

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These are the devices that facilitate the connections between
computer and computers systems over phone lines and other
channels. Examples include Modems, cables and Fax machines

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Definition:
Hardware refers to all physical or tangible components of a computer.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is an electronic device that
interprets and carries out the instructions that tell the computer on
how to work.
On larger computers, the various functions performed by the CPU may
spread across many separate chips and sometimes multiple circuit
boards.
On a personal computer, the CPU is usually contained on a single chip
and is often called a microprocessor. A microprocessor usually
contains the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit, registers and
system clock.
The two principle architectures or designs for microprocessor are
CISC and RISC.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing), chips that are used
mostly in personal computers and conventional mainframes that can
support a large number of instructions, but at relatively low processing
speeds.
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) chips that are used
mostly in workstations eliminate a great many seldom-used
instructions, result in working up to 10 times faster than most personal
computers.
The three major types of microprocessors are Intel-type Pentium
series chips, Motorola-type '68000' series-type and RISC chips; other
chips that are now on market are AMD series.

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A block diagram of a Central Processing Unit (CPU)

INPUT DEVICE COMPUTER OUTPUT DEVICE

(CPU)
- Mouse - Printer
- Keyboard - Monitor
BACKING STORAGE
DEVICE
- Hard disk
- CDs

1. The control Unit (CU): It is the part of the CPU, which controls the
activities of other components both with in and outside the CPU. The
control unit also directs and coordinates most of the operations in the
computer.
For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic
operations called the machine cycle or instruction cycle.
Most processors used by personal computers today support pipelining.
Pipelining means that the CPU begins executing a second instruction
before first instruction is completed, and the result is faster processing.
Most new processors can pipeline up to four instructions.
Superscalar CPUs have two or more pipelines that can process
instructions simultaneously.
The four basic operations of the machine cycle are:
 Fetching: It is the process of obtaining a program instruction or
data item from memory. The time taken to fetch is called
instruction time.

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 Decoding is the process of translating the instruction into
commands that the computer understands.
 Executing is the process of carrying out the commands.

2. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): This performs the calculations and
operations of the data. The ALU also performs the execution part of
a machine cycle. Specifically, the ALU performs the arithmetic,
comparison and logical operations.
 Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
 Comparison operations involve comparing one data item to
another, and
determine if the first item is greater than, equal to, or less than
the other item.
 Logical operations work with conditions and logical operators
such as AND, OR,
and NOT.
3. REGISTERS
Registers are high-speed temporary storage locations used to hold
data and
instructions. A microprocessor contains many different types of
registers, and each
performs a specific function.

Common types of registers

 Instruction register, which hold the current instruction fetched
from the memory.
 Instruction decoder, which interprets, or decode the instruction
currently held in the instruction register.

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 Program counter, which holds the address of the next
instruction to be fetched from the memory.
 Accumulator, which holds the data item to be processed and
the results of arithmetic and logical operations.

The main memory: It is used for the storage of data. The main
memory is also called memory, internal memory, or random access
memory (RAM) refers to the working storage.
Main memory does the following:
Holds data for processing
Holds instructions for processing the data
Holds data after it is processed
The two types of memory in use today are RA and ROM.
MEMORY AND STORAGE SIZES
Unit Abbreviation Exact amount (bytes) Approx.
No. of pages
Kilobyte KB 1,024 ½
Megabyte MB 1,048,576 500
Gigabyte GB 1,073,741,824 500,000
Terabyte TB 1,099,511,627,776
500,000,000
HOW CAPACITY IS EXPRESSED
In a computer system, data is represented using the binary system,
combinations of binary digits (bits). There are two binary digits: 1 (on)
and 0 (off). These digits can be arranged in such away that they
represent characters, digits and other values.
Bit: In binary system, each 0 or I is called a bit, which is short for
binary digit. Thus a bit is the smallest unit of measurement of
information.
Byte: It is a group of 8 bits. And a byte represents one character, digit,
but the figure is commonly rounded.

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A kilobyte (KB): It is about 1000 bytes (1,024 bytes)
A megabyte (MB): It is about 1 million bytes (1,048,576 bytes)
A gigabyte (GB): It is about 1 billion bytes (1,073,741,724 bytes)

A terabyte (TB): It is about 1 trillion bytes (1,099,511,627,776 bytes)

EXERCISE:
How many bits are in the word BOY?
1 byte = 8 bits
3 x 8 = 24 bits
= 24bits
Convert the following
512Kb to Mb, 12Mb to bytes, 1000Mb to GB
a) 512 KB to MB
1KB = 1024 bytes
512 x 1024
=524288 bytes
If 1048576 bytes = 1MB
Then 524288 bytes = 524288 MB
1048576
= 512KB = 0.5MB
b) Convert 12KB to MB
1024 KB = 1 MB
1 KB = 1
/1024
12 KB = 1 x 12
1024
= 12
/1024

12 KB = 0.012 MB
OR
Convert 12 MB to MB
1mB = 1048576 bytes

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Then 12mB = 12 x 1048576 bytes
= 12582912 bytes
Thus 12KB = 12582912 bytes

c) Convert 1000MB to GB
1MB = 1048576 bytes
1000MB = 1000 x 1048576 bytes
= 1048576000 bytes
BUT 1GB = 1,073,741,824 bytes
Let the Gb be x
xGB = 1, 1,073,741,824 bytes
1,073,741,824x = 1048576000
X = 1048576000
1,073,741,824
= 0.9765625 GB
1000MB = 0.976 GB (1 GB)
OR
Convert 1000 MB to GB
1024 MB ------- 1 GB
1 MB -------- 1/1024 GB
1000 MB ------- 1 x 1000
1024
= 1000 GB
1024
= 0.976
1000 GB = 1 GB

BINARY CODING SCHEMES

Letters, numbers and special characters are represented with in a
computer system by means of binary coding schemes. That is, the

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off/on 0s and 1s are arranged in such a way that they can be made to
represent characters, digits or other values.
Two common binary coding schemes are ASCII-8 and EBCDIC.
ASCII – It stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.
The ASCII is a standard code for information interchange. It consists of
a set of 256 characters represented by this code.
It is the most commonly used code for information communication,
though some characters in the code do other purposes like the control
of printing.
EBCDIC – stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code.
The EBCDIC was most widely used on the larger computers. It
employed the 8-bit character emulation and it was at times referred to
as the 8-bit ASCII.
BCD code: This stands for Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) and is the least
used code and it employs the 6-bit code.
CharacterASCII EBCDIC character ASCII EBCDIC
A 01000001 11000001 0 00110000 11110000
B 01000010 11000010 1 00110010 11110010
C 01000011 11000011 2 00110011 11110011
D 01000100 11000100 4 00110011 11110011

Revision Questions
1. a) What is a byte?
A byte is eight (8) bits grouped together.
b) Why is the binary number system used for computers?
 Because the computers understand only binary every
character is represented in binary form in the ASCII table.
 ASCII – stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.

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c) Convert the following to binary
256ten to binary
25 R =10000000two
6
2 12 0
8
2 64 0
2 32 0
2 16 0
2 8 0
2 4 0

300ten to 2 2 0 binary
1
30 R
0
2 15 0
0
2 75 0
2 37 1
=101011100two 2 18 1
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
d) Convert 1 the following:
10101010 to its decimal equivalent
1 7 0 6 15 0 4 1 3 02 11 0 0
(1x27) + (0x26) + (1x25) + (0x24) + (1x23) + (0x22) + (1x21) +
(0x20)
128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 +2+0
128 + 32 + 8 + 2

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170

EXERCISE:
Convert 175ten (10101111two),
120ten,
80ten to binary

THE SYSTEM UNIT

The system unit is the rectangular case that houses the electronic
components inside the computer.
The system unit contains the electrical components that make a
computer to work.
Thus the system unit contains the following components:-
1) The power supply
2) Expansion slots and boards
3) The processor chip or CPU
4) Bus lines
5) The motherboard
6) The ports
7) The system clock
8) PC slots and cards
9) RAM chips
10) ROM chips etc.
An illustration of a system unit

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Fig 7: A system unit

COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM UNIT

1. The Power supply: This converts the wall outlet AC power into DC
power to run the
computer.
2. The Motherboard (system board): This is the main circuit board in
the system unit and
this houses the CPU chip, main memory chips and expansion slots.

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3. The Central Processing Unit (CPU): This is the brain of a

computer.
This includes 3 main types namely:-
 The Intel-type Pentium series chips
 Motorola-type ‘6800’ series- type
 RISC chips (RISC-Reduced Instruction Set Computing)
 AMD series (the latest)

Seen in the above diagrams

4. The System Clock: This control how fast all the operations with in
a computer are
performed. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can
execute (perform or carry out) in a second. The speed is measured
in megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1million bits (cycles) per
second.
5. RAM Chips: These are chips that temporarily hold data and
instructions that will be
needed shortly by the CPU. These chips are plugged into the
motherboard.

Question:

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What is the difference between computer memory and
computer storage?
Computer memory refers to the computer chips that store
information for quick
retrieval; for example RAM.
Computer storage: It refers to the permanent storage place of a
computer. That is, where information can be kept for future use, for
example ROM.
RAM chips may be fixed (mounted) on a small circuit board, such as
a SIMM (Single inline Memory Module).

However, modern computers have RAM chips fixed on small circuit

board, such as DIMM (Double inline Memory Module).
RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM temporarily stores data and
instructions for quick retrieval or access.
RAM is said to be a Volatile memory; i.e. it can lose data when
power is switched off.
Types of RAM

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is a type of memory that must be re-

energized
(strengthened/boost) constantly or else its contents will be lost.
 SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) is a faster version of DRAM
because it is
synchronized (coordinated) to the system clock.

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 RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) is a newer type of DRAM that is even
faster than
SDRAM.
 SRAM (Static RAM) is faster and more reliable than any form of
DRAM, but are
more expensive.
6. ROM Chips: These contain data which is recorded permanently by
the
manufacturer.
ROM (Read Only Memory): It contains critical information and
software that must be permanently available for the computer. ROM
is also known as the Non-volatile memory; i.e. it cannot lose data
when power is switched off.
Examples of non-volatile memory include; ROM, flash memory and
CMOS.
ROM chips contain data, instructions or information which is
recorded permanently by the manufacturers and are known as
firmware.

BIOS; is a firmware that contains the computer's startup

instructions.
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): It should be noted that ROM
contains the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS); which is a sequence
of instructions the computer follows to load the operating system
and other files when the computer is turned on.
Variations (kinds) of ROM chips include:-

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 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM); which is a type of
ROM chip on which permanently items can be placed.
 Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EPROM).
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory (EEPROM);
are ROM chips designed to be modified by users.
Other forms of memory
- Cache memory
- Video memory or VRAM
- Flash memory
i) Flash memory, also known as Flash ROM or Flash RAM is a
kind of non-volatile memory that can be erased electronically and
reprogrammed.
Flash memory is used to store programs and data on personal
computers, cellular phones, printers, digital cameras, pagers and
personal digital assistants (PDAs).
CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor) is used to
store configuration information about the computer, which includes
amount of memory, types of disk drives, current date and time
keyboard, monitor etc.
CMOS chips use battery power to retain information even when the
computer is turned off. Unlike ROM, the information stored in CMOS
can be changed. The CMOS is updated whenever new components
are installed.
ii) Cache memory: It is a high speed memory that the CPU can
access (find or get) quickly.
Cache memory is used in computers with very fast CPUs so that the
CPU does not have to wait for data to be delivered from RAM. Thus
the most frequently used instructions are kept in the cache
memory.

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iii) Video memory (VRAM): These are chips used to store and
display images for the monitor. The amount of VRAM determines
how fast images appear and how colors are available.
VIRTUAL MEMORY: With virtual memory (VM), the operating
system allocates a portion of a storage medium, usually the hard
disk, to function as additional RAM.
The area of the hard disk used for virtual memory is called a swap
file. The amount of data and program instructions swapped or
exchanged at a given time is called a page.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RAM AND ROM
RAM ROM
Ram is volatile It is non-volatile
Ram is read and write it is read only
Ram is temporally it is permanent
Ram can be increased is normally not increased
7. Expansion slots and boards: Expansion slots are sockets on the
motherboard into
which you can plug expansion cards. Among the types of expansion
cards are expanded memory, display adapter or graphics adapter
cards, controller cards etc.
8. THE BUS: It is an electrical channel that allows the various devices
inside and
connected to the system unit to communicate with each other. ALL
BUSES consist of two (2) parts namely:
 Data bus; which transfers actual data
 Address buses; that transfer information about where the
data should go in memory.
There are two types of buses found in the computer namely:-
 System bus
 Expansion bus

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A system bus; it connects the CPU to memory.
An expansion bus; this allows the CPU to communicate with
peripheral devices. Expansion buses include; AGP bus (Accelerated
Graphics Port), ISA bus (Industry Standard Architecture), USB bus,
Local bus, 1394 bus etc.

9. PORTS:
Ports are sockets on the outside of the system unit that are
connected to an expansion board on the inside of the system unit.
These include the following:
 Serial Ports: These transmit only one bit of data at a time.
Serial ports are used to connect devices that do not require fast
data transmission rates, such as Mouse, keyboard or modem.
 Parallel Ports: These are capable of transferring more than one
bit of data at a time. Many printers connect to the system unit
using a parallel port. And thus, it can transfer 8 bits of data
simultaneously through 8 separate lines in a single cable with a
25-pin female connector.
 USB Ports (Universal Serial Bus): These can connect up to 127
different peripheral devices daisy-chained to one general-purpose
port.
USB also supports hot plugging/hot swapping (the ability to
add or remove devices while a computer is running) as well as
Plug and Play.

female parallel port male serial port

USB port

 SCSI Ports (Small Computer System Interface): These are

special high-speed

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parallel ports used to attach peripheral devices such as printers
and disk drives to the system unit.
 The 1394 Ports: These are also called FireWire, and can connect
multiple
types of devices requiring faster data transmission speeds. Such
devices connected to these ports include; Digital Video
Camcorders, Digital VCRs, colour printers, Scanners, Digital
cameras and cellular phones.
The 1394 ports also support Plug and Play (the computer’s
capability to recognize any new devices and assisting in the
installation of the device by loading the necessary drivers
automatically.

Fig 8: FireWire 6-pin

cable

 MIDI Ports (Musical Instrument Digital Interface): Are designed

to connect the
system unit to a musical instrument, such as electronic keyboard.
 Games Ports: These allow you to attach a joystick or similar
game playing
device to the system unit.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STORAGE
Primary storage (main memory) refers to RAM, where both data and
instructions are temporarily held for immediate access and used by the
computer’s microprocessor.
Secondary storage (auxiliary storage): It is any storage device
designed to retain data and instructions (programs) in a relatively
permanent form.

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Secondary storage is non-volatile; meaning that saved data and
instructions remain intact (together) when the computer is turned off.
STORAGE MEDIA AND STORAGE DEVICES
Storage media: It refers to the media on which data, instructions and
information are written and stored: These include:-
 Hard disk
 Floppy disk
 Compact disk
 Magnetic tape
Storage devices: Are devices that record and retrieve (get back)
items to and from a storage medium.
Thus storage devices act as input devices when they read and act as
output devices when they write.
Such examples of storage devices include;
 Zip drive
 Tape drive
 Hard disk drive
 Floppy disk drive
 Compact disk drive

These include:-
1. FLOPPY DISK:
A floppy disk is a thin, circular, flexible plastic disk with a magnetic
coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic shell.
The most widely used floppy disk today is 3.5 inches wide. Before
anything can be written on a new floppy disk, it must be formatted
(erasing the data on it).
Formatting is the process of preparing a floppy disk or hard disk for
reading and writing by organizing a disk into storage locations called
tracks and sectors.

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A Floppy disk drive (FDD) is a device that can read from and write to
a floppy disk.
If a computer has only one floppy disk drive, the drive is usually
designate (labeled) drive A (i.e., A:). If the computer has two floppy
disk drives, the second one is usually designated drive B (i.e., B

Advantages of floppy disks

ii) Floppy disk is portable and inexpensive
iii) Data on a floppy disk can be accessed randomly
(indiscriminately).
iv) Data on a floppy disk can be write-protected from being
changed accidentally.
v) Floppy disk can be used to transfer data from one
computer to another.
Disadvantages of floppy disks
- A floppy disk is not durable and can be destroyed by
magnetic field.
- The storage capacity of floppy disk is limited to only 1.44
MB.
- The access time of floppy disk is slow (about 84
milliseconds or 1/12 seconds)
Taking care of diskettes
1. Do not touch the disk surface i.e. the data access area.
2. Diskettes should be handled gently by;
 not bending them
 not stapling a disk to a file folder
 not sticking them with sharp objects like needles.

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3. By avoiding risky physical environment which include;
 keeping them in their disk banks
 should not be placed near magnetic fields
 disposing them to direct sunshine or near to the heat
 should not be exposed to chemicals such as cleaning
solvents and spilled water
2. HARD DISK
A hard disk usually consists of several inflexible, circular disks called
platters on which items are stored electronically.
The hard disk in most desktop and laptop computers is housed
(kept) inside the system unit, and is considered fixed disk because
of being not portable (easier to be carried). They are also sealed
tightly to keep out of contaminants e.g. dust and smoke particles
which may result in head crash.

Fig 10: hard

disk
Advantages of hard disks over floppy disks
1. Hard disks provide far larger storage capacities.
2. They have a much faster access time than floppy disks
3. A hard disk is cheaper than floppy disk per megabyte
4. Hard disks usually are more reliable (dependable) than floppy
disks (i.e. have a better protection against dust and dirt).
5. Because they reside inside the system unit, there are fewer
chances of them being misplaced or stolen

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Disadvantages
1. Head crash may occur due to extreme shock or contaminants.
2. Hard disks are not portable (except removable hard disk) which is
not the case with floppy disks.
3. Data becomes less secure if left on the hard disks
4. Disks may fail due to violet shaking (vibrations).
5. Have a problem of virus attack and thus causing data loss.
3. COMPACT DISK
A compact disc is a flat, round, portable, storage medium that is
usually 4.75 inches in diameter and less that one-twentieth of an
inch thick.
Variations (kinds) of Compact Disks include:-
- CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is a compact
disc that uses the same laser technology as audio CDs for
recording music. The contents of standard CD-ROMs are written
or recorded by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the
user.
A CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player is required to read items on
a CD-ROM.
- CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a technology that
allows a user to write on a compact disc using his or her own
computer.
- A CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable) is an erasable
compact disc that can be written and rewritten onto it multiple
times.
CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive are required in order to
write and rewrite on a CD-RW.

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- A DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-ROM) is an extremely
high capacity compact disc capable of storing from 4.7 GB to 17
GB.
- DVD-RAM; is the recordable and rewritable versions of
DVD-ROM, which allows items to be erased and recorded on it
multiple times.
- DVD-R; is a recordable version of DVD-ROM, which can be
written once and read (play) for many times.
- DVD+RW; is the recordable and rewritable versions of
DVD-ROM, which can be written and read (play) for many times.

A DVD+RW; is similar to a CD-RW, except that it has storage

capacities up to 4.7 GB.
- A PhotoCD; is a type of CD that contains digital
photographic images saved in the photoCD format developed by
Eastman Kodak.
CARE FOR COMPACT DISKS
1. Always store the compact disc in a jewel box when not in use.
2. Always hold a compact disc by its edges.
3. Never touch the underside of the compact disc.
4. Never stack discs on top of each other.
5. Never expose the discs to excessive heat or sunlight.
NOTE: Floppy disks, compact disks and hard disks all use direct
access, or random access; which means that a particular data item
or file can be located immediately without having to move
consecutively through items stored in on it.
4. MAGNETIC TAPE: A magnetic tape is similar to cassette tapes.
This is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing
large amounts of data and information at a low cost.

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It is one of the first storage media used with mainframe computers.

NOTE:
Tape storage requires sequential access; which refers to reading or writing
data consecutively, that is; one after another. They are also used most often
for long-term storage and backup.
5. TAPE DRIVE: A tape drive is used to read from and write data
and information onto a tape. Three common types of tape drives are
QIC (Quarter-inch cartridge), DAT (Digital audio tape) and DLT
(Digital linear tape).
6. ZIP DRIVE: A zip drive is a special high-capacity disk drive
developed by Iomega that uses a 3.5-inch zip disk, which is slightly
larger than and about twice as thick as a standard 3.5-inch floppy
disk.

A Zip drive can be 100 MB, 250 MB or 750MB in storage capacity.

Tape drive Zip drive

Other types of storage media include:-
 PC card
 MO card
 Smart card
 Online storage
 Microfilm & micro fiche

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1. PC card: A PC card (personal computer); is a thin credit card-sized
device that is used to add capabilities to a laptop computer.
2. Magneto-optical (MO) disk: This combines the best features of
magnetic and optical disk technologies.
3. A smart card, this is similar in size to a credit card or ATM card;
stores data on a thin microprocessor embedded (fixed) in the card.
Applications of smart cards
 Stores a prepaid dollar amount e.g. a prepaid telephone calling
card
 Stores patient records and other health-care information
 Tracks information of customers and employees
4. Online storage: This is sometimes called an Internet hard drive;
it is a service on the Website that provides storage to computer
users for free or for a minimal monthly fee.
Advantages of using online storage
 It works like an offsite backups of data
 It share s large audio, video and graphics files with other on the
Internet
 Files stored on an Internet hard drive can be accesses from any
computer
5. Microfilm and microfiche: they are used to store microscopic
images of documents on roll of sheet film.
A microfilm uses from 100 to 215 feet roll of film where as a
microfiche uses a small sheet of film, usually about 4 inches by 6
inches.

Advantages of using microfilm and microfiche

 It is inexpensive
 It has the longest life of any storage medium
 It greatly reduces the amount of paper used

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Revision question:
1. What are the different computer storage media? Give the
strengths and limitations
of each?

INPUT DEVICES
Input is any data or instructions entered into the memory of a
computer, e.g. voice, words, graphics etc.
Memory is a temporary area for holding data, instructions and
information
Memory is also known as main store or primary memory.
An input device is any hardware component that allows a user to
enter data and instructions into a computer.
The input devices include;
1. Keyboard,
2. Mouse,
3. Scanner
4. Digital camera
5. Digital video camera
6. Pc camera
7. Scanner
8. Microphone
9. Bar Code Reader
10. Light pen
11. Web Cam
12. Track ball
13. Touch screen

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1. KEYBOARD: This contains keys that allow a user to enter data
and instructions into the computer.
All computer keyboards have a typing area that includes; the
letters of the alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks and other
basic keys.
A standard computer keyboard is sometimes called a QWERTY
keyboard because of the layout of its typing area.

A standard keyboard has three (3) significant areas. These include;

 The keyboard area
 The Function key area
 The Numeric keypad area including the cursor control keys.
With the development of the Internet and multimedia capable
computers, two other areas were added to this 105-button keyboard.
These areas include; the multimedia buttons area and the Internet
shortcut buttons area.
a) The keyboard area:
The keyboard area is the basic area on a keyboard because it consists
of all the alphabetical characters. It is arrangement of characters was
adapted from the QWERTY typewriter. It is called the QWERTY
arrangement because this is how the keys are arranged from the study
of convenience of key placement. Thus, from the left of the keyboard
the letter “Q” comes first, then “W”, “E”, “R”, “T” and “Y” follows.
Other keys in this area include the following:-
 Enter key: This key also known as the carriage return is almost
the basic key since almost all computer commands end with this
key. It is used for various purposes depending on the application

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being used. In Word processors, it is used to mark the end of a
paragraph.
 Shift keys: The shift keys are used in combination with other
keys in the typewriter area thus; you press and hold down this
key then press another key in this area. For example, when you
hold down the shift key and press any of the alphabetical
keys, you get an uppercase (CAPITAL) letter corresponding to
that key if the Caps Lock is off. In addition, when you hold a Shift
key down and press any of the keys labeled with more that one
character then you get the top most character on that key.
 Caps Lock key: This special key permanently locks the
alphabetical character keys into only uppercase letters whenever
they are pressed if this key is on. The lowercase letters are also
obtained if it off. When the Caps Lock is on, a green LED light,
labeled “Caps Lock” is lit the reverse is true.
 Back space key: The back space is a special key located at the
top-right of the typewriter area. This key is used to delete a
single character to the left of the cursor position whenever it is
pressed.
 Tab key: This key shifts the cursor position usually by five
characters to the right when pressed. It can also be configured to
shift the cursor by a specified number of characters depending on
the application in use.
 The Alt and Ctrl keys: These are specialized keys referred to as
system keys. They are commonly used in combination with other
keys in order to work directly with the system. E.g. when you
press the Alt + Ctrl + Delete key combination, you restart your
computer.

 The Application key ( ): It is one of the keys that were

added to the standard keyboards. When this key is pressed, it

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acts exactly like what would happen if one pressed the right
mouse button at the cursor position when working with Microsoft
Windows.

 The Windows key ( ): This is a Microsoft Windows

logo and it one of the keys that were added on the standard
keyboard after the introduction of Microsoft Windows95. It is also
one of those keys used in combination with other keys to
accomplish shortcuts. E.g. when one is working in a windows
environment and you press this key with the D key, all open
windows will be minimized to display the desktop.

b) The Function key area:

This area consists of the Function keys F1 to F12 inclusive of the Esc
(Escape) key. These keys are usually left for application programmers
to use as utility keys that control their customized application
programs. For most Microsoft applications, the F1 key is frequently
used to invoke (call for) the help system.

Fig 2.1: The Function key area

c) The Numeric keypad area:

The numeric key area offers convenience with entry of numerical
digits. It features the following type of keys:-

Fig 3.1: The Numeric keypad

area

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The Numeric keypad area consists of the following areas:-

 the ten numeric digit keys, i.e. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 keys
 the arithmetic operation keys; (+), (-), (*), (/) and the decimal
point (•) keys.
d) Cursor control keys
These keys are mainly used to navigate the cursor in applications. This
area includes ten (10) keys which behave as follows when pressed
once in a text editor.

CURSOR FUNCTION
KEY
Left Arrow Moves the cursor one character position to the left
Right Moves the cursor one character position to the right
Arrow
Up Arrow It moves the cursor to the previous line
Down arrow Moves the cursor down to the next line
Page Up Moves the cursor up one screen-full or 24 lines up
Page Down Moves the cursor down one screen-full or 24 lines
down from the current cursor position
Home It repositions (relocates) the cursor to the beginning
of the line
End It repositions (moves) the cursor to the end of the
line

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Delete It erases the next character to the right of the cursor
position
Back space It deletes the next character to the left of the cursor
position
Print screen It captures a snap-short of the current screen
Pause This key freezes the active screen when browsing a
list or display like those from a DIR command
Insert It enables characters to be inserted at the current
cursor position without deleting the adjacent
.characters
Scroll Lock It locks the cursor in the current position when
scrolling through a spreadsheet
Numeric This key locks the numeric keypad area found at the
Lock .right side of the keyboard

Fig 3.1.2: the cursor control keys

e) Shortcuts Key Area:

This area is an addition to the standard keyboard for the easy access
and browsing of the Internet and the easy control of frequent tasks on
computers equipped with multimedia capabilities. This area consists of
some or all of the following buttons:-
 The Power buttons like Sleep, Standby and Power.
 The Internet browse buttons like the Refresh, Back, Next and
Home.

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 The Up and Down volume control; Play, Next and Pause/Stop
buttons.
 Other Accessory buttons like the Calculator, My Computer and
several other buttons.
Advantages of using keyboards
 Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster
than with other pointing devices.
 It is not necessary to buy additional keyboards because most
computer systems ate normally supplied with keyboards.
 Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors
than other input methods such as voice input and optical
character recognition.
Disadvantages
 It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and
accurately
 Tying speeds are still very slow when compared with computer
speeds
2. MOUSE:
This is a pointing device used to manipulate (control) onscreen objects;
it also inputs data or instructions into the computer.
Types of mouse/mice
 A mechanical mouse: this has a rubber ball on its underside to
detect movement of the mouse.
 An optical mouse; this uses devices that emits (produces) and
senses light to detect the mouse’s movement.
 A cordless /wireless mouse (either mechanical or optical)
transmits data using wireless technology such as radio waves or
infrared waves.

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Mechanical Optical mouse Wireless

The following provides a brief description of some of the

ways the mouse can be used:-
1. CLICK: By default, the left mouse button is considered the
primary button. When instructed to click the mouse, it means
the left mouse button should be pressed once. Clicking is done
to position the insertion point or select an object on the
screen.
2. DOUBLE CLICK: Double clicking is performed by pressing the
left mouse button twice in rapid succession (sequence /series).
It is important that the mouse does not move while double
clicking.
3. CLICK AND DRAG: To accomplish this, press the left mouse
button and hold it while dragging or moving the mouse. This
action can be used to select large blocks of text.
4. RIGHT CLICK: Pressing the right mouse button once will open
a short-cut menu. The right mouse button is also known as the
secondary button and it is not typically pressed more that
once at a time.
5. SCROLL WHEEL: When a mouse is equipped with a scroll
wheel, it can be used to quickly move a page up or down. It is
an easy way to navigate through lengthy documents or
Websites.

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Advantages of using a mouse
 It is user-friendly for computer beginners
 It is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface
 Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position
on the screen is faster than using a keyboard.

Disadvantages
 It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
 It is not easy and convenient to input text (words) with a
mouse
 Issuing commands by suing a mouse is slower that by using a
keyboard
 A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate
 A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high
precision (accuracy).
 A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared
with a track ball
3. JOYSTICK: It is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted
on a base for playing computer games.
A joystick is also an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on
a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is
controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and
usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be
read by the computer.

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4. DIGITAL CAMERA: It takes pictures and stores the images

digitally rather than on traditional films.

Advantages of a digital camera

- It saves money for buying films and developing costs.
- Images can be reviewed and even edited in the camera
- Photographic images can be digitized directly without using
a scanner
- Unwanted images ca be deleted immediately after the
preview
- Digital cameras are best for three-dimensional objects (3-D)
while scanners are only best for two-dimensional objects.

Disadvantages
- Photo printing cost for digital cameras is generally higher
that that for ordinary film cameras.
- Digital cameras are normally more expensive than ordinary
film cameras with similar functions.
5. DIGITAL VIDEO CAMERA: It records video as digital signals
rather than analog signals. Many video devices e.g. video camera,
television etc use analog video signals and require a video
capture card to convert the analog video signal into digital signal
so that the computer can understand.
6. PC CAMERA:

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It is a kind of Digital video camera that allows home user to record,
edit and capture video and still images and to make phone calls on
the Internet.
PC cameras can be set to take digital photographs at present time
intervals or whenever it detects motion.
7. SCANNER: It is a light-sensing input device that converts printed
text and graphics into a digital form that can be further processed
by the computer.

Popular types of scanner

 A handheld scanner; this can be manually passed over the
images to be scanned.
 A flatbed scanner: this works like a copy machine except that
it creates a file of the document rather than a paper copy.
 A sheet feed scanner; this has motorized rollers that can feed
the source document across the scanning head during the
scanning process.

8. MICROPHONE: An input device that allows a user to speak to the

computer to enter data and instructions into the computer.
9. BAR CODE READER: A bar code reader reads a bar code by
using light patterns that pass through the bar code lines. It is

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widely used in supermarkets, pharmacies, department stores,
libraries etc.
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale (
POS ) scanner; is a hand-held or stationary input device used to
capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode
reader consists of a scanner , a decoder
(either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the reader
with a computer.

10. LIGHT PEN: It is a pointing device that can detect the presence
of light. Light pens are used by health care professionals such as
doctors and dentists.
A light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector
to select objects on a display screen. A light pen is similar to a
mouse, except that with a light pen you can move the pointer and
select objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the
objects with the pen.

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Advantages of using light pens

 Light pens are more direct and precise than using a mouse.
 Are convenient for applications with limited desktop space.
Disadvantages
 Light pens normally require a specially designed monitor to
work with.
11. Voice recognition device or speech recognition: It is the
computer’s capability to distinguish spoken words.
12. WEB CAM: It is a video camera whose output displays on a Web
page.

13. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Reader (MICR): it reads

text printed with magnetized ink and they used most exclusively
by the banking industry for processing checks / cheques.
14. TRACK BALL: It is a stationary pointing device with a ball
mechanism on its top for feeding data into the computer.
A track ball is an electronic device consisting of a Rota table ball
in a housing used to position the cursor and move images on a
computer screen; "a trackball is essentially an upside-down
mouse''.

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15. TOUCH SCREEN: It is a type of display screen that has a touch-
sensitive transparent panel covering the screen. Instead of using a
pointing device such as a mouse or light pen, you can use your
finger to point directly to objects on the screen. A touch screen is
also is a touch-sensitive display device and is used for ATM
machines to allow easy access of bank accounts.

16. TOUCH PAD: It is a small, flat and rectangular pointing device

that is sensitive to pressure and motion.
It is also is a pointing device consisting of specialized surface that
can translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a
relative position on screen.
They are a common feature of laptop computers and also used as
a substitute for a computer mouse where desk space is scarce.

17. Stylus and graphics tablet:

A stylus is a pen-like pointing device, which uses pressure to write
text and draw lines. A graphics tablet is a flat, rectangular,
electronic plastic board on which stylus write or draw. Stylus and
graphics tablet are mainly used for computer-based design and
drafting by architects, map makers, artists and designers.
18. Optical Mark Recognition Reader (OMR): It is used to sense
hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles made on
pre-printed forms in certain places.
The OMR reader first reads the answer key sheet to record the
correct answers based on the patterns of light, and then reads the

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remaining documents and matches their patterns of light against
the answer key sheet.
19. Optical Character Recognition Reader (OCR): These include
a small optical scanner for reading characters and sophisticated
OCR software for analyzing what is read. OCR readers are often
used for turn around documents e.g. electricity bills.
20. Sensor and Remote Sensor: It is an input device that can
detect external changes in an environment. External changes
include levels of light, temperature, sound, position and humidity.
21. Terminal: It is a device with a monitor and a keyboard.
The term ‘terminal’ can also refer to any device that sends and
receives computer data. There are two types of terminal namely: -
A dumb terminal; this has no processing power, cannot act as a
stand-alone computer and must be connected to a server to
operate.
An intelligent terminal; this has memory and a processor so that
it can perform some functions independent of the host computer.

OUT PUT DEVICES

Output is data that has been processed into a used form, called
information.
An output device is a hardware component that displays information
to a user.
Examples of output devices;
1. Display device
2. Printer
3. Audio output device
4. Data projector
5. Facsimile machine (fax)
6. Multifunction machine
7. Terminal

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1. DISPLAY DEVICE (Monitor):
A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics and
video information to a user. Information on a display device is
sometimes called a soft copy because it exists electronically and
displays only for a temporary period.
Display devices can be monochrome or colour.
Monochrome means that information displays in one colour on a
different colour background (e.g. black and white).
Some display devices use gray scaling, which involves using many
shades of gray from white to black for better contrast on the images.
Types of display devices
 Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
a) Cathode ray tube CRT)
A CRT monitors works like a standard television because it also
contains a cathode ray tube (CRT). The front of the CRT is the screen,
which is coated with tiny dots of phosphor material. Each dot
consists of a red, a green and a blue phosphor, and the three dots
combine to make up each pixel.

Advantages of CRT monitors

 Can produce fast and rich color output
 Can be viewed from a very wide angle
 They are cheaper than LCD monitors in general
 Technical personnel to repair CRT monitors are many unlike the
LCD monitors.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors

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 They consume more energy than LCD monitors
 Emit higher electromagnetic radiation (EMR) than LCD monitors
(i.e. the light causes eye defects or problems).
 They consume much more power/energy than the LCD monitors.
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitor;
This uses liquid crystal rather than a cathode ray tube to create images
on the screen.
LCD monitors produce color using either passive matrix or active
matrix technology.

Advantages of LCD monitors

 LCD monitors do not produce much heat.
 They take up less desk space unlike the CRT monitors.
 Radiation emitted by LCD monitors is neglect able (the light does
not affect eyes).
 LCD monitors consume less power (one-third of power) than
traditional CRT monitors.
Disadvantages
 LCD monitors can only be viewed from a very narrow angle.
 LCD monitors are usually more expensive than CRT monitors.
 They need trained personnel to repair them in case they get
mechanical problems.

A video card is required to display colour on a monitor. A video card,

also called a graphics card or video adapter, converts digital output

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from the computer into an analog video signal that is sent through a
cable to the display device.
CRT monitors use an analog signal to produce a picture while LCD
monitors use a digital signal to produce a picture.
Thus the quality of a display device depends on its resolution, dot pitch
and refresh rate; and resolution is often expressed in dots per pitch
(dpi).
2. PRINTERS
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a
physical medium such aas paper, plastic boards etc.
Printed information is often called hard copy because the information
exists physically and in a more permanent form of output that is
presented on a display device.
CATEGORIES OF PRINTERS
IMPACT PRINTERS: They form characters and graphics on a piece of
paper by striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that physically
contacts the paper.
Common types of Impact printers
a) Dot-matrix: These produce individual characters on a page by
means of series of dots. The speed of a dot-matrix printer is
normally measured by the number of characters per second
(cps) it can print. The dot-matrix printers can be found in some
business settings because they are useful for printing multiage
forms such as invoices or purchase orders.

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Advantages of dot-matrix printers

 Dot-matrix printers can print multipart forms.
 They can withstand dusty environment, vibrations and extreme
temperature.

Disadvantages
 They are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism.
 Print quality of dot-matrix printers is not as good as those from
inl-Jet and laser printers.
b) Line printer
A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire
line at a time.
The speed of a line printer is measured by the number of lines
per minute (lpm).
Line printers are often used with mainframes, microcomputers or
with a network in applications such as manufacturing or shipping.
c) Daisy wheel printer:
It is an impact printer that uses a wheel as a print head against
the paper to print a character.
d) Plotter

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A plotter is a sophisticated (stylish) printer used to produce high-
quality drawings that can be quite large e.g. with width up to 60
inches. There are Two basic types of plotters are;
 Pen plotters
 Electrostatic plotters

e) Ball printer
A ball printer is an impact printer that uses a rotating ball as a
print head. The printing characters are on the surface of the ball,
which strikes a ribbon to transfer the character onto paper.

f) Braille printer:
A Braille printer outputs information in Braille onto paper so that
it can be read by visually impaired people. The printing speed of
a printer is usually expresses in pagers per minute (pmm); and
printer resolution is often expressed in dpi (dots per inch). Hence
the larger the number of dots, the higher the resolution.
Other printers include;
 Large format printer
 Portable printer
 Label printer
 Photo printer
Factors to consider when buying a printer

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1. The memory of at least 2 MB
2. Page per minute print out (ppm)
3. Price of the cartridge or toner
4. Printer drivers (i.e. a driver is a small program that tells the
operating system how to communicate with the printer or
device).
5. Purpose for which the printer is going to be put to use
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
These form characters and graphics on a piece of paper without
actually striking the paper.
Types of Non-impact printers
a) Inkjet printers
It is a non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by
spraying tiny drops of liquid ink onto a piece of paper.
Inkjet printers can produce letter-quality (LQ) text and graphics in
both black and white and colours.
The speed of an ink-jet printer is measured in pages per minute
(ppm).
Advantages of ink-jet printers
 ink jet printers are generally quiet
 They can produce high quality colour output

Disadvantages
 The ink may smear when printed on ordinary paper
 The ink cartridges and specialized papers are expensive
 Specialized papers are required to produce high quality colour
output

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Ink-Jet
printer
Laser printers Laser printer

This produces high quality output.

Laser printers are also known as page printers because they
process and store the entire page before they print it.
Two common page description language of laser printers are PCL
(Printer Control Language) and Postscript.
Advantages of laser printers
 They are generally quiet and fast
 They can produce high quality output on ordinary papers
 The cost per page of toner cartridges is slower than other
printers
Disadvantages
 the initial cost of laser printers can be high
 laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers and dot-
matrix printers

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IMPACT PRINTERS AND NON-IMPACT
PRINTERS
IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

.i They can withstand .i Cannot withstand dusty and

dusty environment, .extreme temperatures
vibrations and
.extreme temperatures
.ii Are ideal for printing .ii They cannot print multipart forms
multipart forms .e.g. inkjet printers
because they can
easily print through
.many layers of paper
iii They are generally iii They are not noisy because do not
. noisy because of the . strike papers. E.g. Inkjet printers
striking activity e.g.
Dot-matrix printers
iv Produce less quality iv They produce high quality output
. output e.g. Line . e.g. LaserJet printers
printers

3. DATA PROJECTOR
This displays photographic slides on a screen in bigger size. It works
like a film projector only that it is connected to the computer from
which it derives/gets the information.

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An LCD projector, which uses liquid crystal display technology, can

produce lower-quality images only.
A DLP (digital light processing) projector, which uses tiny
mirrors to reflect light can produce mush better images even in a
well lit room.
4. FACSIMILE MACHINE

A facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and receives

documents over telephone lines.
Documents sent or received via a fax machine are called faxes.
Fax capability can also be added to the computer using a fax
modem.
A fax modem is a communication device that allows a user to send
and receive electronic documents as faxes.
5. Audio output devices:
These are components of a computer that produce music, speech
and other sounds.
Two common used audio output devices are speakers and headsets.

6. Multifunction machine:

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A multifunction device is a single piece of equipment that provides
the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy machine and a facsimile
machine

Advantages of a multifunction machine

 It takes up less space than having a separate printer, scanner,
fax machine and a copy machine.
 It is less pensive than purchasing each device separately.
Disadvantages
 If a multifunction machine breaks down, the user loses all its
functions.
Computer Peripherals
These are attachments to the computer (devices connected to the
computer).
Examples include:

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1. Printers,
2. Fax modems (converts analog signals to digital and ice versa)
3. Digital camera
4. Joysticks, scanner,
5. speakers, keyboard,
6. Mouse, monitor, plotter
7. Light pen Web cam
8. Touch screen microphone
9. Touch pad
10. Web cam
11. Bar code reader

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software refers to all programs which enable computer
hardware to operate effectively. A group of instructions is called
programs and a computer program is called software. The
preparation of such instructions is done by human being through the
process called programming and a person who under takes
programming is called Programmer.
Software is broadly grouped into 2 main categories:
1) System software
2) Application software

COMPUTER SOFTWARE CLASSIFICATION

(Software tree)

SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Operating Utility Programming

system programs languages

Low level
Programming
languages

Operating
system for
standalone High level
computers programming
Languages

Operating system for

networked computers
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Custom/tailored Off shelf/canned
packages packages
 Simplified Notes on Computer Studies

Software Tree

1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software consists of programs that control the operations
of the computer and its devices.It is also a type of software, which
performs the control function on the computer system. Examples of
system software include; the Operating System (O/S), programming
languages and utility programs.
System software also serves as the interface between the user, the
application software and hardware.
The user interface controls how users enter data and instructions
into the computer and how information is displayed on the screen.
There are 2 types of user interfaces, namely:-
a) Command Line Interface (CLI): It is n
interface where the user types key words or press special keys on
the keyboard to enter data and instructions.
Advantages of command line interface (CLI)
 A command line interface takes up little memory and normally
does not require a very fast processor.
 Many commands can be grouped as a batch file so that repetitive
tasks can be automated.
 Operation is fast because commands can be entered directly
through the keyboard.
Disadvantages of a CLI
 A command language has to be learnt and memorized.

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b) Graphical User Interface (GUI): It allows a user to use menus and
visual images such
icons, buttons and other graphical objects to issue commands.
Advantages of a graphical user interface
 The graphical user interface is similar to any application.
 It is user-friendly because it is easy to learn and work with.
 There is no need to type and memorize any command language.

Disadvantages of a GUI
 It requires more memory as well as a faster processor.
 It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.
 It occupies more disk space to hold all the files for different
functions.
2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
It also refers to programs that perform specific tasks for the users.
OR:
It is the one that is used to solve the day-to-day business problems.
Such software includes; Word processors, spreadsheets, graphics
presentations etc.
Application software falls into two main categories namely:-
1. Special purpose packages/custom made software which are
written to meet the specific needs of an organization that cannot
be usually satisfied by other sources of software.
2. General purpose packages/off the shelf software packages,
which may be used for a wide variety of purpose. These include;
Spreadsheet programs.

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3. CUSTOMIZED SOFTWARE: it is a type of software developed
specifically and specially to customers on orders. These include; Air
traffic control, systems and security detectors among others.
Advantages of customized software
 It is suitable for all jobs.
 Change is possible with customized software.
 It is a source of competitive advantage. This is because the
company may be able to do anything with its software that a
competitor cannot do.
Disadvantages
 Costs of developing the software are higher compared to canned
package.
 Software may not work at all.
4. CANNED/OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE: A type of software developed
and sold on open
market to customers who need them. For example; Database
programs, word
processors, spreadsheet programs, presentation programs, Adobe
PageMaker etc.

Advantages of canned software

 It is relatively cheap
 It can be customized
 Has less errors
 The software is readily available.
5. UTILITY PROGRAMS: These are programs designed to support
the development of

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application programs, for example Anti virus utility, uninstaller utility
etc.
TYPES OF UTILITY PROGRAMS
a) Data sorting: This involves taking in data and re-arranging in
order as specified by the user.
b) Anti-virus utility: It is a program that prevents, detects and
removes viruses from a computer’s memory or storage devices,
for example Norton Antivirus.
c) Merging: It is a utility that involves combining data.
d) Screen saver utility: A utility that causes the monitor’s screen
to display a moving image or blank screen if no keyboard or
mouse activity occurs for a specified period of time. Screen
savers originally were developed to prevent a problem called
ghosting, in which images could be permanently etched on a
monitor’s screen. They can also be used for security reasons,
business or entertainment.
e) Detection and removal of virus: A virus is a computer
program that interferes in the computer operating system. Thus
the utility program helps to heal the virus.
f) File viewer utility: it is a utility that displays and copies the
contents of a file.
g) File Compression utility: This reduces or compresses the size
of a file.
A compressed file takes up less storage on a hard disk or floppy
disk, which frees up room on the disk and improves system
performance.
Compressed files sometimes are called zipped files because they
usually have a .ZIP extension, and therefore they must be
unzipped or restored to its original form before being used.

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h) Diagnostic utility: This compiles technical information about a
computer’s hardware and certain system software programs and
then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.

i) Disk scanner utility: It is a utility that detects and corrects both

physical and logical problems on a hard disk or floppy disk, and
searches for and removes unwanted files.
A physical problem is one with the media, such as a scratch on
the surface of the disk.
A logical problem: It is the one with the data, such as a
corrupted file allocation table (FAT).
j) Disk defragmenter utility: It is a utility that reorganizes the
files and unused spaces on a computer’s hard disk so that data
can be accessed more quickly and programs can run faster.
When the contents of a file are scattered across two or more non-
contiguous sector, the file is fragmented.
k) Uninstaller utility: It is a utility that removes an application, as
well as any associated entries in the system files.
l) Backup utility: This allows a user to copy or backup selected
files or the entire hard disk onto another disk or tape.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A programming language is a set of instructions (symbols and
usage rules) employed to direct the operation of a computer.
OR
Programming languages are coded instructions which are used
when designing computer programs.
They can also be defined as artificial languages used by
programmers to write instructions (computer programs) that can be
run by the computer.

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A programming language is a set of words and rules governing the
use computers employed in constructing programs.
It is the only language that a computer understands. A programming
language combines words, symbols and rules of grammar known as
the syntax of the language.
PROGRAMMING: This is the process of writing a program to solve a
given problem, testing it to ensure it is accurate or correct and
preparing documents to support it.
Programming languages also have vocabulary, grammar and syntax
just like any other natural language. However, natural languages
cannot be used for programming because

they are too complex i.e. the grammar and vocabulary can be
interpreted in very many ways yet programming languages bust have
simple logical structure and must be precise.
Characteristics of programming languages
 they are instructions for calculations
 Have instructions for data movements
 Every programming language has instructions for input and output

CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The highest level is occupied by languages that make it easy for
people who are not necessary trained programmers to develop
computer applications.
Going from lowest to the biggest, the classifications are:-
 Machine languages
 Assembly languages
 Low Level Languages
 High Level Languages

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 Application generators
1. LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES: These are languages which the
computer can easily
understand and are strongly related to the processor since they can
easily be memorized.
Low level languages are machine oriented and very difficult for
programmers to understand.
They are categorized into two:-
 Assembly Languages
 Machine Code Languages: These are first generation languages
consisting on 0s and 1s. Machine language is written in binary codes
i.e. digits of 0s & 1s. It is a language that consists of binary numbers
that represent instructions normally locations and data which can be
processed.

2. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE:
This is a language that uses a group of letters to represent a whole
group of words instead of presenting a binary operation of zeros and
ones (0s & 1s). They use more English words and therefore easily
understood by the programmers. E.g. "ADD" for addition, "SUB" for
subtraction.
However, each assembly language instruction is eventually
translated into machine language by the compiler.
Advantages of Assembly languages
 It has closer control of the computer hardware and executes
officially.

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 It is useful for writing operating systems and game programs
which require the fast and efficient use of the Central Processing
Unit (CPU).
Disadvantages
 Execution may be too slow since the language has to be
translated into machine code which can easily be understood by
the computer.
 It is designed for a specific machine and specific processor thus
not easily compatible with every machine.
3. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
These are language which programmers can easily understand but
not immediately understood by the computer.
These languages are user-friendly and problem oriented rather than
machine based. Just like machine language, instructions in high
level languages are written in English like words. E.g. phrases,
symbols etc.
They consist of phrases that are closer to human language or
mathematical notations. They are later translated into low level
languages for the computer to easily understand. High level
languages are also referred to as Third (3rd) Generation
Languages.

EXAMPLES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

a) BASIC: Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. This is
used for training computer programmers. Today; is a common

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language in Micro computers and can almost do all the
processing tasks.
b) COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language. This is an
international accepted high level language used for general
commercial purposes. It is known for its capability to handle the
input and output of very large volumes of data, and it came into
in 1960’s.
c) FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
This is a procedure oriented language used for mathematical and
engineering services. It is known for its simplicity /conciseness,
efficiency and accuracy.
d) PASCAL (Pascaline Arithmetic):
This language was named after Blaise Pascal a French
mathematician who invented a mechanical calculator commonly
known as a Pascaline. It is used for fast execution for
mathematical problems.
e) ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
This is suitable for scientific and engineering computations; and it
is suitable for scientific and engineering computations.
f) ADA: This language was named after Lady AUGUSTA ADA
LOVERACE. This language was used on the first commercial
computer invented by Charles Babbage at the University of
Cambridge in England. It is suitable for both scientific and
commercial purposes.
g) C- Language: This is also a high level program oriented
language used for software development. C is a concise versatile
and portable general purpose language and compatible with
many operating systems and application programs.
Other Programming Languages include

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a) LISP (List Processing): This was developed in the late 1950’s by
John McCarthy and it is a prominent language used in artificial
intelligence.
b) PROLOG (Programming in Logic):; is a language from LISP by the
Japanese and it is designed for use with expert systems and
artificial intelligence.

c) LOGO: This was developed for educational use in which children

can explore and develop concepts through programming the
movement of a pen.
d) DBASE etc.
4. OBJECT ORIENTED LANGUAGES
The current state of the art in programming technology is Object
Oriented Programming (OOP). An example of OOP is Visual
Basic Web development languages:
It is the most commonly used language for creating web pages on
the World Wide Web, and it is written using Hyper Text Markup
Language (HTML). These include languages like HTML and JAVA.
HTML is one of the languages used to create Web pages for the
Internet or intranet. This language allows programmers to compose
text (also known as ASCII) data, pictures, animations, sound, video
and audio for screen display.
HTML is a collection of platform independent styles indicated by
markup tags.
The markup tags define the various components of the World Wide
Web document such as heads, paragraphs and tables.
LANGUAGE PROCESSORS, COMPILERS & INTERPRETERS

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1. A compiler: A compiler is a program which translates a source
program from high level language to low level language which
can easily be understood b the computer.
2. Interpreters: This is a program that translates the source
program line by line while the program is running from high level
language to low level language.
3. Assembler: This translates assembler instructions from
assemble language to machine code language or the binary code.
4. Linkers: These combine compiled programs and determine
where the program will be located in the memory.
5. LANGUAGE PROCESSORS: These have to translate high level
languages to machine code languages which the processor can
understand. They are used to work backwards to the processor.

OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system is a set of programs containing instructions
that coordinate all the activities among computer hardware devices.
It also refers to all programs which coordinate the operation of all
hardware and software components of a computer.
The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate with
each device in the computer.
A device driver is a small program that tells the operating system
how to communicate with a device.
Thus each device on a computer such as keyboard, printer etc has
its own specialized set of commands and thus requires its own
specific driver.
EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
1. Disk Operating System (DOS)

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2. WINDOWS, e.g. Win98, Win2000 etc
3. Mac OS (Macintosh)
4. Windows NT Server
5. UNIX
6. LINUX
7. OS/2 Wrap
8. Novel NetWare OS
9. Solaris
10. Palm OS
11. Pocket PC 2002
1) Disk Operating System (DOS): DOS is a collection of programs
and commands that are used to control the overall computer
operations in a disk-based system.
The two more widely used versions of DOS were PC-DOS and MS-
DOS, both developed by Microsoft in 1980s. DOS is not widely
used today because it does not offer a graphical user interface
(GUI) and it cannot take full advantage of modern 32-bit micro-
processors.

2) WINDOWS, and these include;

a) Windows 95: It is a multi-tasking operating system that does
not require DOS to run.
b) Windows 98: This is an upgrade to the Windows 95 operating
system.
Advantages of windows 98
 It provides faster system startup and shutdown
 It is more integrated with the Internet
 It includes the Active Desktop interface option

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c) Windows 2000 professional: This is a standalone version for
business desktop or laptop computers, as well as for
computers connected to the Internet. It is an upgrade to the
Windows NT operating systems.
i. The two basic versions of Windows are; Windows
2000 Server family and Windows 2000 professional.
d) Windows Millennium: It is an upgraded version of Windows
98 for the consumer that uses a computer to surf the Internet
or for entertainment. Windows millennium is designed mainly
for home users.
e) Windows XP Home: It is an upgrade to Windows ME
f) Windows XP Professional: It is an upgrade to Windows 2000
professional. Added features of Windows XP professional
Edition include:
 Greater data security through encryption of files and
folders.
 Remote access to computers
 Support for secured wireless network access
3) Mac OS (Macintosh): Mac OS was first commercially successfully
graphical user
Interface.
4) Windows NT Server: It is an operating system designed for
client-server networks.
5) UNIX: It is a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system
developed in the early
1970s by scientists at Bell Laboratories. UNIX is capable of
handling a high volume of transactions in a multi-user environment
and working with multiple CPUs using multiprocessing.
6) LINUX: It is a popular free UNIX-like multi-tasking operating
system.

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Linux is open- source software, which means its code is made
available to the public.

7) OS/2 Wrap: It is an IBM’s multi-tasking graphical user interface

operating system
designed to work with 32-bitt micro-processors.
8) Novel NetWare OS: It is a widely used network operating system
designed for client-server networks. It is a widely used network
operating system deigned for client-server networks.
9) Solaris: Solaris is a version of UNIX developed by Sun
Microsystems. It is a network operating system designed
specifically for E-commerce applications.
10) Palm OS: It is an operating system for PDAs that can manage
schedules and contacts and easily synchronize this information
with a desktop computer.
11) Pocket PC 2002: It is a scaled down operating system developed
my Microsoft that works on a specific type of handheld computer,
called a Pocket PC.
POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEM FOR MICROCOMPUTERS
Standalone operating systems are;
1. DOS,
2. Windows 3.X,
3. Windows 95,
4. Windows NT Workstation,
5. Windows 98,
6. Windows 2000 professional,
7. Windows ME,
8. Windows XP Home,
9. Windows XP Professional,
10. Mac OS,

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11. OS/2 Wrap
12. UNIX,
13. LINUX
Network operating systems are;
1. NetWare,
2. Windows NT Server,
3. windows 2000 Server
4. Windows.Net Server,

5. OS/2 Wrap for E-Business,

6. UNIX,
7. LINUX,
8. Solaris
Command Line Interface operating systems are;
1. DOS,
2. UNIX,
3. LINUX
4. Solaris
Graphical User Interface operating systems are;
1. DOS,
2. Windows 3.X,
3. Windows 95,
4. Windows NT Workstation,
5. Windows 98,
6. Windows 2000 professional,
7. Windows ME,
8. Windows XP Home,
9. Windows XP Professional,
10. Mac OS,
11. OS/2 Wrap

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12. Windows NT Server,
13. Windows 2000 Server
14. Windows.NET Server,
15. OS/2 Wrap for E-Business
16. Windows CE,
17. Palm OS
18. Pocket PC 2002

Multi-taking operating systems are;

1. DOS,
2. Windows 3.X,
3. Windows 95,
4. Windows NT Workstation,
5. Windows 98,
6. Windows 2000 professional,
7. Windows ME,
8. Windows XP Home,
9. Windows XP Professional,
10. Mac OS,
11. OS/2 Wrap
12. Windows NT Server,
13. Windows 2000 Server
14. Windows.NET Server,
15. OS/2 Wrap for E-Business
16. UNIX,
17. LINUX,
18. Solaris,

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19. Windows CE
20. Pocket PC 2002
Multi-user operating systems are;
1. NetWare,
2. Windows NT Server,
3. Windows 2000 Server
4. Windows.NET Server,
5. OS/2 Wrap for E-Business
6. UNIX,
7. LINUX,
8. Solaris

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system has a lot of functions which includes the
following:-
1. Memory management: This is used to optimize the use of RAM.
The operating system has to allocate or assign items to areas of
memory called buffers.
A buffer is an area of memory or storage in which data and
information is placed while waiting to be transferred to or from an
input or output device.
2. Spooling print jobs: With spooling, the print jobs are placed in
a buffer instead of being sent immediately to the printer.
As soon as the print job is placed in the buffer, the CPU is
available to process the next instruction and the computer can be
used for other tasks.
3. Configuring devices (build-up): In the past, installing a new
device often required setting switches and other elements on the
motherboard. Most of the operating systems today support plug
and play and can configure devices automatically.

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Occasionally (rarely), the user needs to know the IRQ device
should use for communications.
An Interrupt Request (IRQ): it is a communications line
between a device an d the CPU.
4. Monitoring system performance: A performance monitor is a
program that accesses and reports information about various
system resources and devices.
5. Administering security:
Most multi-user operating systems require each user to log on.
Some operating systems also allow a user to assign passwords to
files so that only authorized users can open them
Log on: It is the process of entering a user name and a password
into the computer.
A password; is a combination of characters associated with a
username that allows a user to access a computer or a network.
6. Managing storage media and files:
Most operating systems include a file manager program that
performs functions related to storage and file management.
A file manager; is a program that performs functions related to
storage and file management.

Functions of a storage manager

 Copying and formatting disks
 Displaying a list of files on a storage medium
 Copying, renaming, deleting, moving and sorting files
 Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage
medium.

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7. Support for built-in utility programs: The O/S uses utility
programs for maintenance and repairs. Utility programs help
identify problems, locate lost files and backup data.
8. Rescheduling of a computer processor.
9. Starts set up: When a computer is switched on, an O/S initially
sets up, i.e. helps in the process of booting a computer.
10. It manages hardware errors and loss of data
11. It coordinates the flow of data between the various
application programs and the user.
12. The O/S enables the user to load programs into the
computer.

SYTEM START – UP AND CONFIGURATION

The following terms needs to be understood:-
- Booting

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- Kernel
- Memory resident
- Single user operating system
- Multi-tasking operating system
- Multi-user operating system
- Multiprocessing operating system
- Batch operating system
1) BOOTING
Booting is the process of starting or resetting a computer which
involves loading an operating system into memory.
The steps that occur during a cold boot using the Windows
operating system are:
i) The power supply sends an electric signal to the motherboard
and other devices located in the system unit.
ii) The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the
BIOS.
iii) The BIOS executes the Power On Self Test (POST) to make sure
that the computer hardware is connected properly and
operating correctly.
iv) The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS
chip on the motherboard.
v) If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS looks for the
boot program that loads the operating system.
vi) Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and
executed, which then loads the kernel of the operating system
into RAM.
vii) The operating system loads system configuration
information, and the remainder of the operating system is
loaded into RAM, and the desktop and the icons display on the
screen.

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Summary for booting process

1. Power on

2. CPU loads the ROM-BIOS

3. ROM-BIOS executes the POST routine

4. BIOS locates the config.files

5. BIOS loads the Dos system files from the boots record either
from drive A:\ or C:\
6. Dos system file loads the command.com files
7. Command.com loads the Auto exec. files

The command prompt is displayed

Booting is of two types namely:

 Cold boot
 Warm boot
Cold boot: Cold boot is the starting of a computer of a computer
which has not been in use.
How cold boot is carried out:
- When we turn on the computer, it switches on its ROM

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- Then checks the RAM part and it also performs a test on the
peripherals to ensure that all are working properly say; mouse,
keyboard etc.
- If anything is wrong, it displays a message; else it copies DOS
from the secondary memory i.e. a floppy diskette or it copies
DOS from the secondary memory that is; from the floppy disk
or from the hard disk.
Warm boot: This is the process of restarting or resetting a
computer that is already turned on. The warm boot; sometimes the
computer stops responding to the commands given by the user. In
such cases, we need not switch the power off to restart the system.

We can restart the computer by pressing CTRL + ALT + DEL keys

together. On some computers, RESET switch is there; the reset
switch can be used to restart or reboot the system. In warm boot,
ROM does not test RAM or the peripherals. This is known as warm
booting.
2) The Kernel (core)
The kernel or core of an operating system is responsible for
 Managing memory, files and devices.
 Starting applications and assigning the computer’s
resources
 Maintaining the computer’s clock
3) Memory resident
For any program or command that remains in memory while the
computer is running; e,g the operating system is known as memory
resident.
4) Single user operating system: It is an operating system that
allows only one user to run one program at a time.

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5) Multi-user Operating System: This enables two or more users
to run a program simultaneously.
6) Multi-tasking Operating Systems. This allows a single user to
work on two or more applications that reside in memory at the same
time.
7) Multi-processing operating system: This can support two or
more CPUs running programs at the same time.
8) Batch operating systems: Some computer systems, especially
some of the early ones, only did one thing at a time. They had a list
of instructions to carry out - and these would be carried out, one
after the other. This is called a serial system.
9) Command Line Interface (CLI): A command line interface that
allows the user to type keywords or press special keys on the
keyboard to enter data and instructions.
10) Graphical User Interface (GUI): It is an interface that
allows a user to use menus and visual images such as icons, buttons
and other graphical objects to issue commands.

PC CONFIGURATION
The hardware and software specification required for PC or any other
type of computer is termed as the computer configuration. Thus a
typical configuration is given below:-
- Computer processor or microprocessor Pentium series
- Hard disk in gigabytes
- Floppy disk drive 3.5 inch, 1.44 MB
- CD-Rom drive, DVD drive
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- 14” or 17” colour digital monitor
- System software with the latest windows version
- Application software with the latest Microsoft Office version
- Multimedia e.g.; speakers, sound card etc.
CARING FOR MICROCOMPUTER
It should be noted that microcomputers need to be serviced regularly
to maintain their operability. Some of the measures that should be
taken are as follows:-
1. Switch off the computer every after use. This should be
done by following the exact procedures. These include; clicking on
windows “start” button and then choose to “Turn Off”
completely.
2. Avoid making connections when the computer is on power
e.g. keyboard connections, mouse, monitor, printer etc.
3. Avoid abrupt switching off and on of the computer system;
thus one should follow the proper way of shutting down all the
programs then shut down the computer from the start button.
4. Switch on your computer hardware system starting from the
wall socket switch, UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), or
stabilizer, computer and then printer.
5. Food or drinks should not be allowed near the computer.
This is done to avoid food from pouring into the computer
hardware components.
6. The microcomputer should not be exposed to direct sunlight
or heat.
7. Place the computer in a dust-free environment with good
ventilation. Thus dust covers should be used to cover the computer
when not in use; and if you are using polythene covers then do not
cover the computer immediately after switching off because it will
trap the heat.

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8. The computers should be regularly serviced for at least

once or more frequently if the environment is dusty. The service
should include blowing the dust from the system unit and other
hardware components.
9. Always use anti-virus software to scan all viruses from your
computer. This helps to safe guard your files.
10. In areas where the power fluctuates, it is important to use
either a stabilizer or uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), to ensure
a steady input power to the computer system.
11. Diskettes from outside should not be allowed to enter in the
computer lab. This is done to prevent the virus from entering your
computer.
12. Computer should not be kept in a hot environment. It is
advisable to have air conditioners in every computer lab.
13. Do not open the computer for inside cleaning; this should be
handled by a qualified personnel.
14. The floppy disks or compact disks for installation of
programs and backups should be kept safely in disk banks and
kept away from sunlight and magnetic media.
15. It is a good practice to keep a record of the daily condition
in case of computer failure.
16. Never obstruct (cover) the ventilators on the computer
since they allow in cool air and give out warm air.
17. A computer must be rest on a firm table, i.e. it must not be
shaking to damage some devices.

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Dos & Windows operating system

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following:
- File Icon: It is a graphical representation of a program or an
application.
- List Box: It offers a list of choices that can be selected from.
Usually list boxes contain options to the text boxes.
- Control panel: is a nifty control panel applet that allows you to
easily configure which programs run when your computer starts.
- Screen saver: It is a utility that causes the monitor’s screen to
display a moving image or a back screen if no keyboard or mouse
activity occurs for a specific period of time.
- Pop up menus: A menu that, when requested, is displayed next
to the object with which it is associated. A menu that can be set
to appear when a specified mouse button is pressed in a window.
A pop-menu consists of multiple menu items.
- Window: It is a rectangular area on a screen defined by specific
borders called window borders.
- Pop down Menus: It is a menu of options that appears below
the item when the computer user clicks on it. It comes down from
the top of the computer screen, in the gray area.
- Task bar: A bar commonly located at the bottom of Microsoft
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows

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ME, Windows XP operating systems that displays the programs
that are currently running.
- Toggle buttons:
A toggle button is a button that represents a setting with two
states--on and off. Toggle buttons look similar to command
buttons and display a graphic or text (or both) to identify the
button.
- Commands buttons: These initiate an action in progress such
as canceling a command or confirming to process the required
action.
- Text box: This offers a rectangular space for typing in additional
information. This information may be either a file name or a path.

- Drop-down list boxes: These offer options like the list boxes
except that initially they look like text boxes with an arrow
pointing down on the right of the box.
- Options buttons: These represent a group of mutually exclusive
options only one of
which can be selected. For example, in the dialog box you can
only select either Center or Tile but not both.
- Check boxes: These offer non-exclusive options in a group of
options. All check boxes can be selected or un-selected
depending on what is desired.
- A radio button or option button is a type of graphical user
interface element that allows the user to choose only one of a
predefined set of options.
DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)
Definition of DOS:

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DOS is a collection of programs and commands that are used to control
the overall computer operations in a disk-based system.

Brief history of DOS

Microsoft developed the Disk Operating System in 1981. DOS, which is
sometimes known as MS-DOS was designed for IBM PCs. Disk operating
system is abbreviated as (DOS). It is a term describing an operating
system that is loaded from disk devices when a system is started or
rebooted.
DOS is one of the most popular operating system that operates by use
of commands other than graphics. DOS is not user-friendly because
one must cram (memorize) a set of commands in order to carryout a
given operation. Below are the characteristics of DOS
 It operates by direct use of the keyboard.
 It uses a command line interface
 Involves little or no graphics such as menus, icons and the mouse
 It primarily works with file management
 It is a text-based operating system

Functions of the DOS

 It controls programs on how they can run
 Processes commands which are reserved words or instructions
for the computer to perform a particular task e.g. DEL, DIR, CLS
etc
 It manages various of peripheral devices such as printers.
 It manages system resources such as the operating system, the
computer memory etc.
 It optimizes and controls the entire operation of the computer.
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 It provides a tool to store and organize files in the computer.
 It co-ordinates the various resources of the computer and
ensures they perform their intended tasks properly.
 It controls the way programs input and output the data
 It provides the tools for creation of files and some simple text
through its text editor.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOS AND WINDOWS
- DOS is a command line interface while Windows is a user
interface.
- Dos does not involve any graphics such as pictures, photos etc
while Windows allows the use of graphics.
- Dos takes up little memory and normally it does not require a
very fast processor,
while Windows requires a lot of memory and very fast processor.
- With operations are fast because commands can be entered
directly through the keyboard, yet operations with windows
depend on the strength of the processor in terms of speed.
- Under DOS, many commands can be grouped together as batch
file so that repetitive tasks can be automated, where as with
Windows it is difficult to automate functions.
- With DOS commands have to be learnt or memorized, while with
Windows are user-friendly because one works with the mouse.
- Windows have versions each stronger and more reliable than the
previous, yet DOS mainly has improvements but not version.

The DOS file structure

A computer file is like a paper file folder which holds related
information. A DOS file can be up to 8 characters known using letters,
numbers or symbols plus an extension of 3 characters with a period
separating it form the first 8 characters. A file is a collection of related

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information stored on a disk. DOS allows the creation of files and
folders in order to enable proper management of these files.
A DOS file has three (3) parts i.e.
- The file name
- The period
- The extension
A period is a dot (like a full stop) that separates the file name and the
extension.
An extension: It is an identifier of a particular file with a group of files
made from the same application or designed to execute the same
command

E.g. My work . doc

File name Period Extension

Files are stored in directions organized in 3 levels i.e.
 The Root directory, (upper level),
 Main directory and
 Sub directory (low level)
 The root directory should never be removed because if removed,
all files and
directory will be removed.
 The main directory branches from the root directory and the main
directory contains
sub directories which then contain folders in which files are stored.

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SPECIAL PURPOSE EXTENSION

An extension or a file extension refers to a combination of
characters that identifies a file with a group of a batch of file or
program. In order to know a type of file or location of a file, one needs
to look at the extension that appears on the file name.
An extension appears in form of a 3 character word that appears after
a period on a file name.
Some of the most common DOS extensions include:-
.command Command file
.x/l Excel file
.doc Document file
.txt text file
.sys system file
.gif graphics file
.pdf Aerobat reader
.ini system information file
.tmp template file
.htm Web file
.hlp help file
.bat batch file
.exe Executable file .bmp
.nmp Bitmap file / picture file
.dll Dynamic Library Link file
.log Program Information file

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Batch file: These are usually programs or utilities or virus guards or

even DOS commands.
System files are usually drivers or programs that help other programs
to run
Executable file: These are usually files or programs that use the
same operating system.
The basic layout of Drives in DOS
A:\ First Floppy Drive (Default floppy drive)
B:\ Second Floppy Drive (usually a USB Floppy Drive)
C:\ Local disk or hard disk containing operating system
D:\ CD Drive- (CD-ROM, DVD ROM, VCD)
E:\ Flash disk or removable device drive
F:\
G:\
H:\
I:\
J:\
Command prompt (C :\>)
This signifies/indicates the end of the booting process and indicates
that the computer is ready to accept and receive any valid commands
or instructions. It appears as (C:\>) for a computer loading from drive
hard disk and A:\> for a computer loading from drive floppy drive.
C – Drive letter

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It represents the current drive from which the program loads and it is
usually the hard disk.
: Colon: It is the drive specified used to signify that the letter stands
for drive and not nearly.
\ Back slash: It indicates the root directory of the drives specified.
> Greater than sign: It shows the user where to type a command.
_ Blinking underscore: This acts as the cursor in Dos. It indicates
where the next character will appear when typed.
Note:
If an invalid command is entered at the command prompt, the
computer will send an error message "Bad command of file name".
Specifying a file (moving from one file to another)
DOS can work from different drives on a computer but needs to be told
which drive to use. When specifying the drive to use, type the drive
letter at the command prompt e.g. S:\then press enter button (
) and the default drive becomes A:\> To change from drive A:\> to
drive C:\>, type C: and press enter then C: becomes the default
drive C:\> To change from C:\ to D:\, type D: and press enter then D:
becomes D:\> To change from D:\> to Z:, type Z: and press enter
button , then Z: becomes Z:\>
For example:

D:\>Z:
To change from Z:\> to A
Type Z:\>A

NAMING FILES
A file is a collection of related information or data stored on a drive.
Each file must have a name for identification. The naming of files has
rules and therefore, a file cannot be given a name anyhow.
These rules include the following:-
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i) Files name must have two important parts i.e.
 The main file name
 Extension
ii) A Dos file name must have up to 8 characters
iii) A file name must have an extension so as for it to be identified
with a batch of files which may be up to 3 characters.
iv) The main file name and extension must be separated by a dot
called a period e.g. Selector. bat
v) Some characters especially symbols can be used in a file name
while others cannot be used in naming of files. Acceptable
characters include:-

Acceptable characters include:

 Letters of the alphabet i.e. A-Z
 Numbers i.e. 1-9
Special characters i.e.
_ Underscore
^ Exponential
$ Dollar sign
~ Tilde
! Exclamation mark
# Number sign (hash)
% Percentage sign
- Hyphen
() Brackets
{} Sets signs
@ Each (at)

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£ Pound sign

The following are NOT allowed in title naming

* Asterisk
? Question mark
/ Forward slash
. Dot, full stop or period
; Semi-colon
: Full Colon
+ Plus sign
= Equal sign
[] Square brackets
<> Greater than or greater than signs
"" Quotation marks
' Invited commas
, Commas

Names having special meanings to DOS should not be used e.g.

LPT 1, LPT 2, LPT 3
Com 1, com 2, com 3, com 4
NUL, CLOCK, CON, AUX, PRN, COFIG etc.
NB:
While naming a file, it is useful to use a name which can help you to
easily identify the type of the file and the information it contains.
For example; A file that contains names of S.1 students with their
performance for computer for term I can be named: Result I_S.2

GLOBAL FILE NAMING

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A global file name refers to a group of files that can be given a
common name.
There are two (2) characters which can be used with in a global file
name. These characters are called Wild cards.
A wild card is a special character that is used to represent parts on
the entire file name in DOS. There are 2 characters that form the Wild
cards and these are:-
 Asterisk (* )
 Question mark (?)
Asterisk:
This stands for a number of characters arranged in any order up to 8.
Question mark: This stands for a single character that may appear in
a group of files.
Examples are:
 P*.doc It represents global file name for all files whose names
begin with letter P
followed by any number of letters of any type but with
extension.doc.
 *.doc This represents all files with the extension doc with any type
of character.
 Posho ** This represents all files beginning with posho but having
any extension.
 *.*: This represents all files with any extension.
 A*.?? This represents all files whose names begin with letter A and
whose extension
have 0,1 or 2 characters.

 SA?.doc This represents all file names which start with SA

followed by one character

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but with extension doc. E.g. SAP.doc, SAT.doc, SAD.doc
 ???.X/S This represents all files with up to 3 characters in the main
file name but with
extension X/S
 Pail? This represents all files that begin with pail with any
extension e.g. pail
1.X/s.pailed.doc.pail.com

TYPES OF FILES
There are 4 main types of files in DOS i.e.
 Program files
 Data files
 System files
 Batch file
1. PROGRAM FILES
These are files that contain instructions which a computer carries
out while performing a task. The instructions or commands are
written in a format which c a computer can interpret. Program files
are also known as Extension files and they usually carry an
extension.exe or .com
2. DATA FILES
These contain text or numeric information and are created during
the execution of a task using a specific computer program by the
computer e.g. using a word processing program like Microsoft Word
which may be used to create a file containing minutes from a
meeting.
Data files are sub divided into two (2) i.e.
 Text file: These contain data written and stored in the cell
format. ASCII files also contain alphabetic and numeric characters
and some standard characters.

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 Specialized data files: These are data files created by specific
computer programs such as Word processing, spreadsheets,
presentation software etc and can only be interpreted by specific
programs which created them

3. SYSTEM FLES:
These files contain information which a computer uses to operate or
control the actions of the hardware devices connected to it.
These files are usually called Device drivers and usually have the
extension.sys e.g. the drivers which enable the computer to use a
printer may be called printer.sys
4. BATCH FILE (PROGRAMS)
It is an ASCII text file which contains a group of or batch of Dos
commands to be executed as a single unit in the sequence in which
they are listed in the batch file. Batch programs automate
themselves while using the Dos commands.

Example of the structure of directory tree

In a school where there are 2 categories of studies i.e. Arts and
sciences where each of the categories is sub-divided into departments
from others. The directory tree will cook as follows:-
Root (Desktop)

ARTS SCIENCES

MEC
H
ICT
CO ENT OR PHY PLT EU
M G
ART EU PE

COM
P
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UG PHYEN IRE CRE
G
PLT AN MEC ELEC
H
 Simplified Notes on Computer Studies
HIST GEO BUSS R.E CHEM BIO MTC PHY
AGRIC IT

A COMMAD PATCH
A patch is a route taken or a procedure taken to reach a desired file. A
patch can be fully described by a path name which enables the user to
specify one or more directories.
A path name begins with the default/current drive C: followed by the
back slash then the sub directory and lastly the file.
Each of the contents of the path is separated by a back slash e.g.
To access Computer Science, the following would be the command
path:-
C:\Hardware\software\ Computer Science

Root Main Sub File

Desktop\My computer\Floppy A:\ Computer Science

SYNTAX: It refers to the It is a rule of writing programming

statements.

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All Dos commands have command names which tell Dos what function
is wished to be carried out or formed.
For example:
- dir for directory
- md make directory
- rd remove directory
- ren Rename directory
- date for date
- ver version
The syntax is the most important part of a Dos command name
without which the computer will send an error message i.e. it gives
Bad command or file name.

Basic DOS commands.

A DOS command is an instruction that DOS executes from the command line. DOS
contains internal commands, which are built into the operating system. And external commands,
which must be executed from a file.
COMMAND FUNCTION

Dir Lists a directory of files

TIME Changes the system time
DATE Changes the system date
DEL Deletes named files (for example: C:\del myfile.txt)
COPY Copies files or disks. To copy al files from the “my files”
subdirectory to the A: floppy drive, the command would
be: Copy C:\myfiles\*.*a:

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CHDIR or CD Changes the directory
CHKDSK Examines the File Allocation Table (FAT)
CLS Clears the screen
TYPE Displays a text file
VER Displays the version of MS-DOS in use
DIR/P Views directories one page at a time
DIR/p Displays wide format in columns

SECTION B QUESTIONS
1. As a computer student explain briefly what you understand by
the following: -
 Computer software
 Computer hardware
 Customized software
 Off shelf software
 Application software
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 System software
2. Give the functions of the following computer hardware;
 Monitor
 Mouse
 CPU
 Keyboard
 Printer
 Scanner
3. State five input devices of a computer:
 Keyboard: It inputs data/ information or other instructions.
 Joystick: It is a pointing device with vertical lever for playing
games.
 Mouse: Inputs data or information or instructions into the
computer.
 Digital camera: It takes pictures and stores the images
digitally and cannot work separately.
 Digital video camera: It records video as digital signals
rather than analog signals.
 PC Camera: It is a kind of Digital video camera that allows
home user to record, edit and capture video and still images
and to make phone calls on the Internet.
 Scanner: It is a light input device that converts printed texts
and graphics into a digital form that can be further processed
by the computer.

 Microphone: An input device that allows a user to speak to

the computer to enter data and instructions into the computer.
 Web Cam: It is a video camera whose output displays on a
Web page.

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 Track ball: It is a pointing device for inputting data into the
computer.
 Light pen: It is a pointing device that can detect the presence
of light
 Touch screen: It is a touch-sensitive display device used for
information kiosks located in departments and ATM banks.
 Touchpad: It is an input device that is sensitive to pressure
and motion.
 Voice Recognition Device: It is the computer’s capability to
distinguish spoken words.
 Optical Mark Recognition Reader: It is used to sense hand
written mars such as small circles or rectangles made on pre-
printed forms in certain places.
 Optical Character Recognition Reader (OCR): These
include a small optical scanner for reading characters and
sophisticated OCR software for analyzing what is read.
 Bar Code Reader Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
Reader: This inputs or reads text printed with magnetized ink
in super markets.
 Sensor and Remote Sensor: It is an input device that can
detect external changes in an environment
OUT PUT DEVICES OF A COMPUTER
 Monitor (Display device): An output device that conveys texts,
graphics and video information to the user.
 Data projector: This takes the images that display on the
screen and projects them into a larger screen so that
students/people can see the images clearly.
 Printer: This produces out hard copies.
 Speakers (Audio output devices): These produce music,
speech and other sounds.

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 Terminals: These are devices with a monitor and a keyboard.
 Facsimile machine: It is a device that transmits and receives
documents over telephone lines.

4. a) Distinguish between customized software and canned

software.
b) State four advantages of canned programs or
packages;
- Programs are readily available
- They can be customized
- Programs are cheap
- They have fewer errors.
5. a) What is a computer
b) Mention any 3 measures taken in a computer
laboratory.
c) What is system software?
d) Name any three examples of system software.
- Operating system
- Programming languages
- System utilities
e) Mention four functions of utility programs
- For backup utility
- Helps to design screen saver
- Help as file viewer
- Act as disk defragmenters
- Act as file decomposition utility
f) Write the following in full
- FTP
- HTTP

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- IP
- SMTP
6. a) State any four major characteristics of the 3 rd
generation
 Computer memory expanded to 2MB of RAM
 Introduction of the first micro computers
 Computer consisted of fast main frame computers like
IBM360, IBM 370
 Development of micro computers e.g.(8086, 80286, 80386
etc)

b) What do you understand by the following terms?

 Graphical user Interface: It allows the user to use menus
and visual images such as icons, buttons, and commands.
 Command Line Interface: It is where a user types
keywords or presses special keys on the keyboard to enter
data
OR: Keying in commands
 Mechanical computers: Are computers composed of
mainly movable parts like wheels and axles.
 Electro-mechanical computers: Are computers that
electronic and have movable parts.
c) Give 2 examples of operating systems with the following:
i. Command Line Interface
 Unix
 Linux
 DOS
ii. Graphical User Interface
 Windows e.g. Winxp

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 Macintosh
iii. Electro-mechanical computers
 Analytical engine
 Mechanical calculator
 Leibniz Stepped Reckoner
7. a) Mention any 3 measures taken in a computer
laboratory.
 Use dust free cover computer ventilators.
 Avoid abrupt switching off and on the computer
b) What is system software in a computer system?
c) Name 3 examples of system software.
 Operating systems (e.g. DFOS, windows etc)
 Programming languages e.g. Basic Fortran, COBOL, C++,
Java etc.
 System utilities, e.g. Anti-virus software

d) Name 4 functions of utility programs.

 Are used for disk defragmenting.
 Screen saver
 Used as a backup utility
 File compression utility
 File viewer
e) What do you understand by the following terms?
 Saving: It is the transferring of data/information from
memory to secondary
storage.
 Editing: It is correction of errors.
OR: It is the formatting or improving on the appearance of
work. Trouble shooting:
8. Distinguish between mainframe computers and mini computers:

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Mainframe computer Micro computer
Mainframe is faster and Micro is slower and less
more powerful powerful
Can be connected 500-100 Can be connected between
users
It is physically larger than Physically smaller compared
mini to mainframe
It is used commercially and It is used commercially in
academically as an Internet super markets and bigger
node organizations.

b) Write the following in full:

 BASIC= Beginners All Purposes Symbolic Instruction Code
 COBOL= Common Business Oriental Languages
 LSI= Large Scale Integration
 CLI= Command Line Interface
 GUI= Graphical User Interface
 ASCII= American Standard Code for Information Interchange

 EBCDIC= Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

 URL= Uniform Resource Locator
 E-mail= Electronic Mail
 E-business= Electronic Business
 E-learning= Electronic Learning
c) Name 2 types of instructions that computers use to do
their work.
 Data signal
 Control Signals

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d) Name five components that make up the system unit.
 System board, motherboard
 CPU/ Processor chip
 Expansion slots
 ROM Chips
 RAM Chips
 Bus lines e.g. Universal Serial Bus
 Ports e.g. parallel port, serial ports etc.
 Power supply
9. a) Explain the following Internet services:
 WWW= It is the World Wide Web; It is a system of Internet
servers that
supports the hyper text markup language documents.
 Telnet= It is a terminal emulation protocol that allows a user
to long onto a
remote device.
 E-mail= (Electronic Mail: It is the transmission of electronic
messages to one or
more recipients over a network.
b) What do you understand by the following terms?
 Computer file: It is a document containing tables or
characters.
 File name extension: It defines what type of file and may
and may also define
from which application it belongs.

c) Specify the file types associated with the following file

extension:
 .exe : executable file

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 .txt : text file
 .doc : document file
 .xls : excel file
 .htm : Internet file
10. a) State four major characteristics of the third generation
of computers.
 Introduction of simple programming languages like BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN
 Introduction of operating systems like Multics
 Use of parallel processing
 Computer memory expanded to 2 mega bytes (MB) of RAM
 Low cost high reliability, small size, low power made
computers popular.
 Development of Microprocessors e.g. 8088, 80286,80386,
80486 etc
b) What do you understand by the following terms?
( 2 marks)
 Command Line Interface (CLI): This is where by a user types
keywords or
presses special keys on the keyboard to enter data and
instructions A user is also provided with a virtually empty screen
with a blinking cursor (prompt) where commands are keyed in
and the computer executes them on pressing the enter key.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): With this interface a user is
provided with a
coloured screen with icons each representing a program and a
mouse may be used. A GUI allows the user to use menus and
visual images such as icons, buttons and other graphical objects
to issue commands

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 Mechanical computers: These are computers composed of
mainly movable
parts i.e. wheels and axles.
 Electro-mechanical computers: Are computers that
electronic and have
movable parts.

c) Give two examples of operating system with the

following:
 Command Line Interface
- DOS
- UNIX
- LINIX
 Graphical User Interface
- Windows (win95, win98, win2000, win XP, win Vista)
- Susie Linux
- Novel Netware
 Mechanical computers
- Mechanical calculator
- Leibniz Stepped Reckoned
 Electro- mechanical computers
- Analytical Engine
25. (a) Define the terms as applied to computer language.
 Syntax: It is a rule of writing programming statements.

 Bug: It is an error made in programming.

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 Compiler: It is a program that translates a source program
from high level
programming language to low level language which can easily
be understood by the computer. (01 marks)
(b) Examples of common computer high level languages:
 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language
 FORTRAN
 PASCAL
 ADA
 Java

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 Visual Basic
 ALGOL

(c) Examples of low level languages:

 Assembly language
 Machine language
Computer programming language: It involves the language
being read and understood by the processor and execution takes
place.
WHILE, HTML: It is an electronic page that has tags and frames.
(d) Executable file: This is the one that can be read and
understood by the processor, executes it and produces results.

26. (a) Write the following abbreviations related to

computers:
 LCD: This stands for Liquid Crystal Display.
(01 mark)
 ASCII: America Standard Code for Information Interchange.
(01 mark)
(b) For each of the printers types below. State the
characteristics specified: (04 marks)
PRINTER DOT MATRIX LASER JET INK JET
S
Type of Red black Toner in Cartridge in ink
ink ribbon powder form form

Printing Impact Non- impact Non-impact

mechanis (laser beam) (pressure)
m

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Printing Poor and not Crystal clear Crystal clear but
quality clear takes time to dry

Advantages of LCD over CRT

 LCD monitors take up less desk space while CRT take much desk
space
 LCD consume less power (one third of power), where as CRT
consume much power.
 LCD do not emit higher Electromagnetic Radiations (EMR) while
CRT emit higher
EMR.
 LCD monitors are portable where as CRT are not portable
 LCD do not produce much heat where as CRT produce too much
heat.

SECTION C
27. Identify and explain the various ways in which computer
are used in business
today (20 Marks)
APPROACH:
- Define computer
- In the introduction, list ways how computers are used
in business today
 Communication: We use computers to send and receive
messages from one

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organization to another using E-mail service, thus files and
folders can be attached onto e-mail messages. People use
computers to call others using electronic gadgets like mobile
phones, fax machines and this allows business to be carried on
smoothly.
 Banking: Computer users can know how different bank accounts
operate while
using computers as well as transferring money from one account
to another using Internet. This is at times known as Internet
banking. People are able to check on their bank statements from
their homes without necessarily going to banks. This reduces on
the time that one would have spent going to line- up in banks.
 Security: Computers are of great advantage in keeping law and
order in fighting
crime and maintaining stability. For example; the police are now
able to keep a database of finger prints (biometrics) which are
automatically analyzed by the computers.
 Research: Businessmen can be able to know various prices of
commodities while
using computers. This enables them to produce the commodities
of high quality to compete with others on the market. In
agriculture, researchers use computers to determine fertilization
programs that optimize yields of various crops
 Employment opportunities: Computer users are able to find
jobs by visiting
different websites that provide job tips and numerous online job
listings. Computers have provided career chances like database
administrators, computer trainers, web designers, network
administrators, system analysts and computer programmers.

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 Transport: Passengers are able to know the flight schedules by

visiting the websites
of different travel companies. Such travel companies include;
British Airways, Air
Uganda etc. Travel tickets are always computerized which enable
transport officers to enter passengers’ data who traveled in a
given period of time, say weekly or monthly journeys.
 Marketing: Different business organs and companies use
computers to know how
best their products are competing with other competitors. This is
done by checking on business websites like the
www.amazon.com to know which companies are booming and
which ones have gone out business.Also different websites
provide a list of catalogues where customers are able to choose
their best commodities and prices as well. These include;
www.wansung.com , www.jomayi.co.ug among others.
 Commerce: This refers to the buying and selling of goods and
services. Thus people
are able to carry out commerce over the Internet by placing
orders of goods they want. This is also known as the Electronic
Commerce (E-commerce).
 Health care: Computers have greatly been used to maintain
patients’ records, data
where by health workers and doctors are able to know the
particulars about their patients. These include; patient’s name,
place of birth and the diagnosis to be examined. Doctors use
computers to monitor patients’ vital signs in hospital rooms. They

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also use computer-controlled devices during operations like heart
surgery.
 Data storage: Computers can store large volumes of data for
the users. This helps
businessmen to keep business related records for future
reference.
 Entertainment: Computers have played a big role in
entertainment. A Musical
Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) exists to link a musical
instrument to a computer to control very many instrumental
sounds.
 Automated production: It involves computerization of
production in factories. In
other words, it is computer-aided production which does not
require high man power. This also reduces on the costs of
production because of the efficiency of machines.
 Education: Students are able to carry out research and
assignments using
computers. Thus they visit different search engines to find the
related websites and
even web pages which enable them get the research materials.

28. Trace the development of computers from the first to

today’s computers (20 marks)
 Identifying characteristics of each generation
 Monitoring the technological pattern in past, present and future
computers.
Introduction:
The real time computing started with Charles Babbage who is
known as the “father of computing”. The development of

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computers went through different generation and these were;
first generation, second, third, fourth and fifth generation.
In the body;
o Clearly show the characteristics of each of the generations
First generation computers: They had vacuum tubes to store
and process information, used magnetic drums memories,
memory was only 2 KB, used punched cards and programming
was done in machine and assembler languages. However; they
had limited memory, consumed much power and weighed around
30 tons.
These included; ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer), EDVAC (Electrical Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer) and UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer).
2nd generation computers: they used transistors, memory
expanded to 32 kilobytes of RAM, increased in speed, used
magnetic core memories, introduction of programming languages
e.g. FORTRAN, COBOL, introduction of super computers, and
computers became less expensive, and had less heat.
3rd generation computers; They used integrated circuits (ICs),
computer memory expanded to 2 MB of RAM, speed increased,
there was use of parallel processing, introduction of O/S e.g.
multics, introduction of simple programming languages like BASIC
and it also consisted of mainframe computers such as IBM360.
4th generation computers: They used large scale integration
(LSC & VLSI), there was limited artificial intelligence and expert
systems, development of micro processors, introduction of a
wide variety of software, development of micro computers and
computers became more powerful, e.g. 8088, 80286, 80386,
80486, and then Pentiums.

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29. (a) Give seven input devices

(07 marks)
 Define input devices
 Then list seven input devices
(b) Explain clearly showing where each is best suited for
use. (13 marks)
 KEYBOARD: It is an input device used feed data into the
computer and the
commands as well. It is the most used input device than the
mouse to input commands.The types of keyboards include; the
cable connected keyboards, in-built keyboards, and touch
screens.
The keyboard has got various parts namely;
- Function key area
- Type write area
- Numeric area
- And command buttons.
 MOUSE: It is an input device used to manipulate onscreen
objects, as well as
executing commands. It has got various types namely;
- Rolling ball mice
- Infrared mice
- Infrared but wired
- Touch screen mice

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