Download the full version and explore a variety of ebooks

or textbooks at https://ebookultra.com

Computational Methods for Two Phase Flow and

Particle Transport Wen Ho Lee

_____ Follow the link below to get your download now _____

https://ebookultra.com/download/computational-methods-for-
two-phase-flow-and-particle-transport-wen-ho-lee/

Access ebookultra.com now to download high-quality

ebooks or textbooks
We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit ebookultra.com
for more options!.

Gasdynamic Aspects of Two Phase Flow Hyperbolicity Wave

Propagation Phenomena and Related Numerical Methods 1st
Edition Herbert Städtke
https://ebookultra.com/download/gasdynamic-aspects-of-two-phase-flow-
hyperbolicity-wave-propagation-phenomena-and-related-numerical-
methods-1st-edition-herbert-stadtke/

Two Phase Flow Boiling and Condensation In Conventional

and Miniature Systems 1st Edition S. Mostafa Ghiaasiaan

https://ebookultra.com/download/two-phase-flow-boiling-and-
condensation-in-conventional-and-miniature-systems-1st-edition-s-
mostafa-ghiaasiaan/

Computational Methods in Multiphase Flow IV 1st Edition A.

A. Mammoli

https://ebookultra.com/download/computational-methods-in-multiphase-
flow-iv-1st-edition-a-a-mammoli/

Particle Technology and Applications 1st Edition Sunggyu

Lee

https://ebookultra.com/download/particle-technology-and-
applications-1st-edition-sunggyu-lee/
Phase II Conjugation Enzymes and Transport Systems 1st
Edition Helmut Sies

https://ebookultra.com/download/phase-ii-conjugation-enzymes-and-
transport-systems-1st-edition-helmut-sies/

Randomized Phase II Cancer Clinical Trials 1st Edition

Sin-Ho Jung

https://ebookultra.com/download/randomized-phase-ii-cancer-clinical-
trials-1st-edition-sin-ho-jung/

Two Phase Heat Transfer 1st Edition Mirza Mohammed Shah

https://ebookultra.com/download/two-phase-heat-transfer-1st-edition-
mirza-mohammed-shah/

Flow and Transport in Porous Media and Fractured Rock 2nd

Edition Muhammad Sahimi

https://ebookultra.com/download/flow-and-transport-in-porous-media-
and-fractured-rock-2nd-edition-muhammad-sahimi/

Computational Methods in Water Resources Volume 47 Two

Volume Set 1st Edition S Majid Hassanizadeh

https://ebookultra.com/download/computational-methods-in-water-
resources-volume-47-two-volume-set-1st-edition-s-majid-hassanizadeh/
Computational Methods for Two Phase Flow and Particle
Transport Wen Ho Lee Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Wen Ho Lee
ISBN(s): 9789814460279, 9814460273
Edition: Pap/Cdr
File Details: PDF, 5.72 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
 Computational Methods for
Two-Phase Flow
and Particle Transport

8683_9789814460279_tp.indd 1 1/3/13 5:24 PM

March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

This page intentionally left blank

 Computational Methods for
Two-Phase Flow
and Particle Transport

Wen Ho Lee
Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering
National Cheng Kung University
Tainan, Taiwan
and
Department of Aerospace and Systems Engineering
Feng Chia University
Taichung, Taiwan

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI

8683_9789814460279_tp.indd 2 1/3/13 5:24 PM

 Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

COMPUTATIONAL METHODS FOR TWO-PHASE FLOW AND

PARTICLE TRANSPORT
(With CD-ROM)
Copyright © 2013 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN 978-981-4460-27-9 (pbk)

Printed in Singapore.

Chelsea - Computational Methods for.pmd 1 3/4/2013, 2:51 PM

March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Dedicated to my wife, Sylvia and the children

Alberta, Kavita Sharma, and Chung

v
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

This page intentionally left blank

March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Preface

The physical and mathematical formulations of two-phase flow problems

has been a controversial topic over the past 30 years. Since the partial dif-
ferential equations of two-phase flow system are hyperbolic, many scientists
at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory insist that conservation equa-
tions should possess real characteristics to assure the well-posed nature as
an initial-value problem. On the other hand, researchers in the Theoretical-
3 Group of the Los Alamos National Laboratory believe that the problem
will be resolved when one solves the partial differential equations by using
finite difference methods.
In Chapters 2–4, the interfacial momentum transfer, the interfacial en-
ergy transfer and the high order damping mechanism introduced by the
finite difference approximations tend to stabilize the calculations. Chap-
ters 2–4 and Appendix A (which contains complete code listing and the
descriptions of input and output data) can be used for a one semester
graduate or senior course for mechanical, nuclear, or aerospace engineering
students.
Chapter 5 provides detailed computer modeling of air pollution trans-
port problems which can be used as lecture notes for environmental engi-
neering students. Chapters 6 and 7 describe fission energy and radiation
hydrodynamic calculations. Appendix B discusses the numerical methods
for solving photon transport. Appendix C is for charge particle transport.
Appendix D is a brief description of neutron transport. Therefore, Chap-
ters 6, 7, and appendices B, C, and D can be used for nuclear engineering
or physics students. Chapter 8 deals with natural convection heat trans-
fer modeling. This chapter can also be used for mechanical or aerospace
engineering students.

vii
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

viii Computational methods for two-phase flow and particle transport

I would like to express my gratitude to Robert Lyczkowski of Argonne

National Laboratory for his valuable input to the material in Chapter 2.
I would also like to thank Vipin Shah, Hank Domanus, Robert Schmidt
and William Sha, also with Argonne, for developing the early version of
two-phase codes. Prof. Tzong-Hann Shieh taught me LATEX. Yong-Yi Lin,
Min-Chun Chen, and Yan-Lin Chen, graduate students I taught at National
Cheng Kung University and Feng Chia University, also made significant
contributions to the mathematical formulation of Chapter 2. The author
want to thank Dr. Jin H. Huang, Dean of College of Engineering, Feng Chia
University, for the financial support to finish this book.
Special gratitude will go to Alberta Lee for her help in editing this book.

Wen Ho Lee
Taichung,Taiwan
June 2012
E-mail: [email protected]
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Contents

Preface vii

1. Introduction 1

References 3

2. Differential Equations of the Two-Phase Flow System 5

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Governing Equations and Characteristics of the
Homogeneous, Equilibrium Model . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Invariance of Characteristics to Change of
Dependent Variable and EOS . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.3 Eigenvectors and Compatibility Conditions . . . . 13
2.1.4 The Ill-Posed Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Mass and Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 The Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 The Viscous Stress and Drag Function . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Energy Equation of Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

References 22

3. Finite Differences of the Governing Equations 25

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 The Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 The Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 The Viscous Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

ix
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

x Computational methods for two-phase flow and particle transport

3.5 The Internal Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.6 Finite Difference for the Enthalpy Equation . . . . . . . . 55

References 59

4. A Pressure Iteration Scheme for Two-Phase Flow Modeling 61

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Two-Fluid Model and Constitutive Correlations . . . . . 63
4.3 Numerical Solution Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
∂Dv ∂Dd ∂Dv ∂Dd
4.4 Derivations of ∂P m , ∂P m , ∂θ m and ∂θ m . . . . . . . . . . 67
v v
4.5 Simulation of Two-Phase Jet Impinged on Vertical Plate . 78
4.6 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

References 82

5. Pollution Particle Transport 83

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2 The Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2.1 Governing Equations of the Meso-Scale Meteorology 87
5.2.2 Plume Rise Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.3 Eddy Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.4 Quality Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3 A Simple Model for Wind Field Computation from Sparse
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4 Downwind SO2 Concentration Calculations for the Four
Corners Generating Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5 Sulfur Dioxide Concentration Calculations for the
Dickerson Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.6 Behavior of Massive LNG Spills from Storage Tanks at
Prince William Sound, Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

References 114

6. Nuclear Fission 117

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2 The Yield of Fission Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.3 The Fission Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Contents xi

6.4 Possible Fission Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.5 Calculations of the Released Energy Q . . . . . . . . . . . 124

References 125

7. Radiation Hydrodynamics 127

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.2 Inertial Confinement Fusion Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3 Computational Method for Radiation Hydrodynamics . . 135
7.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.3.2 Finite Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3.3 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.3.4 Variable Eddington Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.4 Sample Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.4.2 Diffusion Wave in a Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.3 Tests of the Variable Eddington Factors . . . . . . 156
7.4.4 Compton Scattering Test Problems . . . . . . . . 166

References 180

8. Natural Convection between Two Heated Vertical Plates 181

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.2 Basic Equations and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . 184
8.2.1 Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.2.2 Derivation of the Density Term . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.2.3 Derivation of Governing Equations . . . . . . . . 186
8.2.4 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.2.5 Normalization of the Governing Equations . . . . 192
8.2.6 Laplace Operator, Vorticity and Stream Function 194
8.2.7 Non-Dimensional Forms of Governing Equations . 196
8.3 Finite Difference Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.3.2 Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.3.3 Finite Difference Approximations for First and
Second Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3.4 Alternating-Direction Implicit Method . . . . . . 201
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

xii Computational methods for two-phase flow and particle transport

8.3.5 Finite Difference Forms of Vorticity and Energy

Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3.6 Finite Difference Forms of Stream Function
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.3.7 Finite Difference Forms of Velocity Equations . . 211
8.3.8 Approximation Forms for those Points Near or on
the Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.3.9 Finite Difference Forms of Nusselt Number . . . . 217
8.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.5.2 Calculating Problems Where the Left Plate Tem-
perature is Equal to One and Right Equal to Zero 223
8.5.3 Calculating Problems Where the Temperatures of
both Plates are with Linear Distributions . . . . . 227
8.6 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work . . . 229
8.6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.6.2 Recommendations for Future Work . . . . . . . . 233

References 239

Appendix A The Two-Phase Flow Computer Code 241

A.1 Definition of the Variables and Symbols Used in the Code 241
A.2 Input Data Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
A.3 Sample of the Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
A.3.1 Two Phase Jet Impinged on Vertical Plate . . . . 261
A.3.2 One-Dimensional Fluidized Bed . . . . . . . . . . 266
A.4 Output Data Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
A.4.1 The Output for the Two-Phase Jet Impinged on
Vertical Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
A.5 Complete code listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
A.5.1 The Two-Phase Code Program . . . . . . . . . . 273
A.5.2 The Common Block for the Program Described in
Section A.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
A.5.3 Equation of State of Water Including Liquid and
Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
A.6 CD-Rom of the Computer Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

References 398
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Contents xiii

Appendix B Photon Transport 399

B.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
B.2 The Variable Eddington Approximation Method . . . . . 401
B.3 The Variable Eddington Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
B.4 The Flux-limited Diffusion Description . . . . . . . . . . . 403
B.5 Sn Radiative Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
B.6 Monte Carlo Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
B.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
B.6.2 Discretization of the Diffusion Equation . . . . . . 416
B.6.3 Solving the Discretized Diffusion Equation by a
Monte Carlo Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

References 423

Appendix C Charge Particle Transport 425

C.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
C.2 Fokker-Planck-Boltzmann Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
C.3 Application of the Levermore Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
C.4 Spatial Discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
C.5 Time Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

References 440

Appendix D Neutron Transport 441

D.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
D.2 Criticality of the Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
D.3 Numerical Method for Solving the Diffusion Equation . . 443
D.4 The Method of Obtaining k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
D.5 Solution Method for One-Dimensional, Single Group Dif-
fusion Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
D.6 Computational Method for a Two-Dimensional, Single
Group Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

References 452

Index 453
March 4, 2013 13:42 World Scientific Book - 9in x 6in ws-book9x6

Chapter 1

Introduction

The first part of this book describes mathematical formulations and finite
difference approximations used to solve two-phase flow equations. Primarily,
this code calculates the thermal hydraulic problems related to light water
and fast breeder reactors. The physical model also handles the particle and
gas flow problems that arise from coal gasification and fluidized beds.
Since the present code is written for three-dimensional problems, it is
easier to use the Eulerian coordinate with advection terms appearing in
mass, momentum, and energy equations. In order to obtain a sharp interface
between two materials, such as gas and liquid, the Particle-in-cell (PIC)
method is one option for tracking the material’s interfaces.
An accurate model to compute equation of state (EOS) properties such
as pressure, density, and enthalpy for water and steam, can also be found in
the code. This EOS package can be easily cut and attached to other codes
using Fortran 77 language. It is also possible to transport the PIC package
to other codes, so long as the PIC subroutines are modified.
The physical model of the two-phase flow is based on Harlow’s for-
mulation [1.1] which is also described in Chapter 7 of Ref. [1.2] for two-
dimensional problems. Although the model is theoretically unstable due to
the ill-posed nature from the characteristic analysis of the partial differ-
ential equations, the numerical model is stable since the finite differences
introduce a damping mechanism. The damping mechanism changes the dif-
ferential equations to be well-posed in the time-space domain.
In Appendix A.5, “Complete Code Listing”, there is a listing of the
complete code with all of the programs needed for obtaining the thermo-
dynamic properties of water and steam. For breeder reactor calculations,
one needs only to replace the water EOS by sodium EOS. The simulation
results of two sample problems are described in Appendix A.3. The input

1
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
he often shows himself a very coward. Like most animals he scarcely
ever attacks an armed man unless provoked, that is, unless he (or
she) be a confirmed “man-eater,” although often seizing upon
women and children. He shares with our Domestic Cat a love of
cruelty for its own sake. The author of “Rambles in the Mirzapore
District” says of this essentially feline character:—“It is sometimes an
interesting sight to witness the demeanour of a Tiger towards his
terrified prey (i.e., when a victim is tied up for him, and the
sportsman waits to shoot him in the tree above it). When not raging
with hunger, he appears to derive the same pleasure from playing
with his victim as a Cat in tormenting a Mouse. He gambols around
the Buffalo as if enjoying his alarm; and when the affrighted animal,
in mad despair, feebly attempts to butt at his remorseless foe, the
Tiger bounds lightly over his head, and recommences his gambols at
the other side. At last, as if he had succeeded in creating an appetite
for dinner, he crushes the skull of his victim with one blow of his
powerful fore-paw, and soon commences his bloody meal.”
Another point in which the Tiger resembles the Cat is the
devotion of the female to her offspring, and the remarkably lively
and skittish disposition of the “kittens,” of which from two to five are
usually produced at a birth. These are at first about half the size of
our Domestic Cat. The mother goes with young about 105 days, the
breeding season being in the early part of the year, but varying
slightly according to locality. She is a most affectionate and attached
mother, and generally guards and trains her young with the most
watchful solicitude. They remain with her until nearly full grown, or
about the second year, when they are able to cater for themselves.
Whilst they remain with her she is peculiarly vicious and aggressive,
defending them with the greatest courage and energy, and when
robbed of them is terrible in her rage; she has nevertheless been
known to desert them when pressed, and even to eat them when
starved.
As soon as they begin to require other food than her milk she
kills for them, and teaches them to do so for themselves by
practising on small animals, such as Deer, and young Calves and
Pigs. At these times she is wanton and extravagant in her cruelty,
killing apparently for the gratification of her ferocious and
bloodthirsty nature, and, perhaps, to excite and instruct the young
ones, and it is not until they are thoroughly capable of providing
their own food that she separates from them.
The young Tigers are far more destructive than the old. They will
kill three or four Cows at a time, whilst the elder and more
experienced rarely kill more than one, and this at intervals of from
three or four days to a week. For this purpose the Tiger will leave its
retreat in the dense jungle, proceed to the neighbourhood of a
village, and during the night will steal towards the herds and strike
down a Bullock, drag it into a secluded place, and then remain near
the “murrie,” or kill, for several days, until it has eaten it, when it will
proceed in search of a further supply. When it has once found good
hunting-ground in the vicinity of a village, it continues its ravages,
destroying one or two Cows or Buffaloes a week. It is very fond of
the ordinary domestic cattle which, in the plains of India, are
generally weak, half-starved, under-sized creatures. One of these is
easily struck down and carried or dragged off. The smaller Buffaloes
are also easily disposed of, but the Buffalo Bulls, and especially the
wild ones, are formidable antagonists, and have often been known
to beat the Tiger off, and even to wound him seriously with their
horns.
Some notion of the fearful damages committed by Tigers in India
will be gained from the following extract:—“Cattle killed in my district
are numberless. As regards human beings, one Tiger in 1867–8–9,
killed, respectively, twenty-seven, thirty-four, forty-seven people. I
have known it attack a party and kill four or five at a time. Once it
killed a father, mother, and three children; and the week before it
was shot it killed seven people. It wandered over a tract of twenty
miles, never remaining in the same spot two consecutive days, and
at last was destroyed by a bullet from a spring gun, when returning
to feed on the body of one of its victims—a woman. At Nynee Tal, in
Kumaon, in 1856–7–8, there was a Tiger that prowled about within a
circle, say, of twenty miles, and it killed, on an average, about eighty
men per annum. The haunts were well known at all seasons.... This
Tiger was afterwards shot while devouring the body of an aged
person it had killed.” It is also stated in a Government report that “in
one instance, in the Central Provinces, a single Tigress caused the
desertion of thirteen villages, and two hundred and fifty square miles
of country were thrown out of cultivation. This state of things would,
undoubtedly, have continued, but for the timely arrival of a
gentleman who, happily, was fortunate enough, with the aid of his
gun, to put an end to her eventful career.” Again, it is reported, “that
one Tigress, in 1869, killed 127 people, and stopped a public road
for many weeks, and was finally killed by the opportune arrival of an
English sportsman.”
As might naturally be expected, an enemy so dreadful is sure to
have supernatural power ascribed to it by the credulous natives,
whose property is destroyed, and whose lives are endangered by the
ravages of this terrible beast. People in the state of civilisation of the
ordinary Indian villages are sure to think there is something more
than natural in an animal capable of such wholesale destruction, so
wantonly cruel, of such fearful strength and such terrible beauty;
and the following passages will give some idea of the prowess
ascribed to the Tiger by those who are the greatest sufferers from
his bloody disposition:—
“The natives of India, especially the Hindoos, hold the Tiger, as
they do the Cobra, in superstitious awe. Many would not kill him if
they could, for they fear that he will haunt them or do them mischief
after death. Some they regard as being the tenement of a spirit,
which not only renders them immortal, but confers increased powers
of mischief. In many parts of India the peasants will hardly mention
the Tiger by name. They either call him, as in Purneah, Giahur
(Jackal), Janwar (the beast), or they will not name him at all; and it
is the same in the case of the Wolf. But though they will not always
themselves destroy him, they are quite willing that others should do
so, for they will point out his whereabouts, and be present at his
death; and the delight evinced thereat is intense, for it often relieves
a whole village from an incubus of no slight weight, and saves the
herdsman from his weekly loss of cattle. The conversation and
remarks made by these villagers round the fallen Tiger are often
very amusing and characteristic.
“All kinds of power and influence are ascribed to portions of him
when dead; the fangs, the claws, the whiskers, are potent charms,
medicines, love-philtres, or prophylactics against disease, the evil
eye, or magic. They are in such demand that the natives will take
them; and we have known whiskers, claws, and even fangs,
extracted and carried away during the night, even when the dead
Tiger has been placed under the surveillance of a guard. The fat,
also, is in great demand, for its many potent virtues in relieving
rheumatism and other ailments. The liver, the heart, and the flesh
are taken away and dried, to be eaten as tonics or invigorating
remedies that give strength and courage. There is also a popular
delusion that a new lobe is added to the liver every year of his life. A
Tiger’s skin with its whiskers preserved is a rarity; you cannot keep
them. The domestic, who would preserve any other valuable as a
most sacred trust, will fail under this temptation! The whiskers,
besides other wonderful powers, are said to possess that of being a
slow poison when administered with the food. Such is the belief,
which you may try in vain to disturb! The clavicles, too—little curved
bones like tiny ribs—are also much valued; but they are generally
lost or overlooked when the Tiger is cut up, lying buried in the
powerful muscles near the shoulders.”
It is a very common opinion that the wounds made by a Tiger’s
claw or teeth are poisonous, and consequently highly dangerous. It
is, however, hardly necessary to state that the Tiger’s venom is of
quite the same nature as that of the Frog and Newt, which so many
country people believe in devoutly to this day. The huge jagged
canines, and the carefully sharpened claws make wounds which are
certainly ugly enough, but their danger arises merely from their
depth, and from their liability to fester in a hot climate.
Of course Tiger-hunting is, par excellence, the “royal sport of
India;” the game calling forth more courage and address from the
sportsman than any other, and the “spice of danger” so necessary to
the true sportsman being at its maximum. Usually, a hunt is made
up of a considerable number of sportsmen, accompanied by a crowd
of beaters. The Elephant upon which each hunter rides is provided
with a houdah of light wood and basket work, and consisting of two
compartments, a front one in which the sportsman himself sits, and
a hinder one occupied by his servant, who is in readiness with spare
guns. The driver, or mahout, sits on a cushion on the Elephant’s
neck, armed with a pointed iron rod, or gujbag, to every touch of
which the docile animal answers.
On arriving at a portion of the jungle where Tigers are known to
exist, the sportsmen hold themselves in readiness with loaded rifles,
while the beaters, on foot, encircle the jungle, and endeavour, with
shouts and gesticulations, to drive the game from their lurking-place
to the destruction which awaits them. As soon as a Tiger appears
every piece is levelled at him, and, in many cases, he is despatched
at once; but often he is either entirely missed, or only slightly
wounded, and then he at once makes for the nearest Elephant, and
often succeeds in making Elephant, or mahout, or even sportsman,
feel his cruel teeth and claws, before the coup de grace is given. A
Tiger is at no time the easiest thing to kill; like its humble kinsman,
the Cat, it has “nine lives” to part with, and these lives are much
more tenacious than in the case of poor puss. A Tiger, holding on
with tooth and claw to a writhing Elephant, in such a position that a
mis-directed shot may kill man or Elephant instead of Tiger, is an
extremely awkward beast indeed to deal with, and is often enabled
to sell his life very dearly. When the day’s sport is over, the Tigers
are either carried into camp on pad Elephants, or skinned where
they lie; the natives possessing themselves of the flesh, and
everything else of which they can lay hold.
 TIGER HUNT.

The foregoing is the legitimate method of keeping down the

Tiger race, but many others are employed. “They are snared in
pitfalls and traps, shot by spring-guns and arrows, occasionally
poisoned, and it is said that bird-lime has been used in their
destruction. I have read of this, but know of no authenticated case
in which it has been practised. The bird-lime, it is said, is spread on
the fallen leaves; these adhering to the Tiger’s paws are soon
plastered all over him, including his face and eyes. Blinded and
stupefied by rage and fear, he falls an easy prey to the villagers, who
then either shoot or stab him to death with spears. Another mode of
effecting his death is to lay a bait, by tying up a Cow or Goat in
some spot the Tiger is wont to frequent. Near this, on a machan, or
on the branch of a tree, or from behind some extemporised screen,
the shikarie waits his approach at night, and when the bait is seized
takes aim, and often succeeds in destroying him, though it not
unfrequently happens that in the uncertain light he misses
altogether, or only wounds, in which case a second chance is seldom
obtained.”
The perils of Tiger-hunting are great and varied. In the following
instance related by Sir Joseph Fayrer a large comic element was
introduced, although the fun is probably more striking to us to read
of than it was to the hunter and his mahout who took part in it:—
“A rather curious Tiger-hunt, in which the Tiger seemed to think
that he should have his share of the sport as well as the ‘shikarie,’
occurred some short time ago in the Dhoon. A gentleman, well
known in Dehra, an enthusiastic though rather inexperienced
sportsman, they say, went out about a month ago, into the Eastern
Dhoon, for a day or two’s shooting. Arrived on the ground, he was
seated in his houdah on the Elephant, looking out anxiously for
game of some sort, when the mahout suddenly cried, ‘Shér, Sahib;
burra, Shér!’ for a Tiger had made his appearance unexpectedly
close to the Elephant. The gentleman hurriedly fired, and planted a
ball from his rifle, not in the Tiger’s shoulder, but in his abdomen.
This mistake must have been due to surprise at the Tiger’s sudden
advent on the scene, and the consequently hurried shot; otherwise
such a want of knowledge of anatomy as was evinced in seeking a
vital spot in the abdomen would be unpardonable. The
consequences of the mistake were serious; for the Tiger, resenting
the sudden disturbance in the region where the remains of his last
kill were peacefully reposing, charged the Elephant, and, by a
spring, succeeded in planting his fore-paws on her head, while his
hind legs clawed and scratched vigorously for a footing on her trunk.
“Imagine the feelings of the mahout, with a Tiger within six
inches of his nose! the Elephant trumpeting, shaking, and rolling
with rage and pain, till he was barely able to maintain his seat on
her neck at all; and the occupant of the houdah, too, tumbled from
top to bottom, and from side to side of it, as if he were a solitary pill
in a pillbox too large for him. Of course, in this predicament, he was
utterly unable to use his rifle to rid the Elephant of the unwelcome
head-dress she was, perforce, wearing. The attempt to fire, in all
that shaking, would probably have resulted in his blowing out the
mahout’s brains instead of the Tiger’s, or in his shooting himself.
Meanwhile the mahout, with the courage of despair, slipped out of
the gaddela, or cushion, on which he sat, and, rolling it round his
left arm, and taking the iron gujbag in his right, assailed the Tiger
manfully about the ears. But, being thick-headed, he did not seem to
mind the gujbag at all; for, after taking a bite at the Elephant’s
forehead, he calmly continued his struggles for a footing on the
reluctant and ever-dodging trunk, heedless of the rain of blows on
his thick skull, and, no doubt, promising himself to square accounts
presently by swallowing the mahout, gujbag, and all. But the
Elephant was beginning to see that she couldn’t shake the Tiger off,
so she tried another plan; and, making an extempore battering-ram
of herself, with the Tiger as a buffer, she charged straight at a sal-
tree, thinking to make a Tiger-pancake on the spot. But the sal-tree,
alas! was a small one, and gave way under the shock, and away
went tree, Tiger, and Elephant into an old and half filled-up obi, or
Elephant pit, which happened to be conveniently placed to receive
them just on the other side of the fallen tree. The Tiger and the
mahout were both knocked off by the shock and fall; but the latter,
luckily for himself, fell out of the pit, the former into it, under the
Elephant. The Elephant now had her share of the sport, and gave
the Tiger such a kicking while he lay under her, making a kind of
shuttlecock of him between her fore and hind legs, that the breath
must have been almost kicked out of him; then deeming she had
done enough for honour and glory, and that she couldn’t eat the
Tiger if she did kill him, she commenced climbing out of the pit,
whose crumbled and sloping sides luckily made the scramble out
practicable. The mahout, who had by this time picked himself and
his scattered wits up, rushed round and caught her by the ear just
as she reached the level, and was preparing for a bolt, and
scrambling rapidly up to his perch on her neck, succeeded in
stopping her and turning her face to the foe once more. The
Elephant being now under command, our sportsman at length
resumed his proper share in the proceedings, and the Tiger being
still at the bottom of the pit, breathless, if not senseless, from the
kicking he had undergone, by a well-directed shot put him finally
hors de combat, and had the satisfaction of carrying him into the
station in triumph, where his skin is preserved as a witness of this
strange Tiger-hunt. The Elephant, though it got one nasty bite, and
was badly scratched about the trunk and fore-legs, is now none the
worse for its single combat with the monarch of the Indian forests.”
We mentioned above that the Tiger rarely attacks man unless
provoked. When, however, he is hard pressed for a meal, he will
often visit inhabited spots, and then is as likely to choose human as
bovine food. Imagine the sensation likely to arise in a small village,
inhabited only by a few unarmed, or at least but poorly armed men,
with their wives and children, by such an occurrence as the
following, related by an English traveller:—
“On the 11th of November of the same year I chanced to meet a
Tiger myself. I was on the shore of the mainland opposite Amoy, in
the afternoon, looking out for small birds, in company with a friend.
I carried a gun, but had only small shot and one cartridge. Some
villagers came running to us crying ‘Go and shoot the Tiger!’ I
thought they were making game of us, until some of them assured
us that there really was a Tiger in a neighbouring village, and that
they would be much obliged if we would kill it. They led us to a
village at the foot of a hill near the shore, where we found men,
women, and children huddled outside in great alarm. Many of the
men were armed with matchlocks. They desired us to take off our
boots, and one of the men guided us over the roofs of the houses to
the last house near the hill, and, pointing to a large rock, he made
us listen. We could distinctly hear growls, and peering over I saw the
lips and feet of the Tiger under the overhanging rock. The house on
which we stood presented a wall facing the rock, and about two
yards distant. We went inside, and I persuaded the owner to make a
hole in the wall. I had no means of drawing the charge of my gun,
so I rammed down a cartridge on the top of the small shot in one
barrel, and a few hollow buttons into the other. In the hurry and
excitement no bullets or iron nails were forthcoming. The Tiger
noticed the hole in the wall, but only growled. I fired the button
barrel first, aimed at its neck, but he only answered by a growl, and
I saw that the buttons had done no more than turn up the skin
without penetrating. His jaw was full towards me, and I gave him
the cartridge right between his eyes. He gave a furious roar, and
bounded into the garden, where he stood for some seconds bleeding
from the nose, and with his tongue lolling from his mouth. I had no
more cartridges with me, so I loaded again with the metal-edged
buttons which the villagers tore off their coats for me. The Tiger had
moved away, and I tracked him by his blood into a dilapidated
temple. I looked in at the window, and there stretched beside a
coffin sat the noble beast. He, turned his head and growled as he
saw me, and, without a moment’s thought I raised the barrels and
fired another shower of buttons in his face. I turned and fled; but a
roar followed which I shall never forget, and I found myself,
breathless, at the bottom of a precipice, with my gun upraised,
expecting to see the angry creature upon me; but strange enough
he did not follow. The villagers, who were assembled two hundred
yards away, all ran when I ran; but seeing the Tiger did nut pursue,
one of them came forward and put me on his knees, and patting me
on the back, helped to bring back my breath, which I had lost by the
fall. We crept up to the window again. Every one of the thick
wooden bars had been knocked out by the force of the leap; but
from the blood only splashing the outside of the window, it was
evident the Tiger had not come out of the building. We looked in at
the window, and just below, outstretched on the floor in a pool of
blood, lay the Tiger. I threw up my hand and shouted to my friend,
who watched the proceedings at a distance, that the Tiger was
dead. At the noise, the Tiger raised his head and growled. He was a
Cat, of course, and had the usual nine lives. I went to the villagers
and proposed a joint attack, but they would not consent. Some of
them ascended the hills behind and fired on to the roof of the house
in which the Tiger was sheltered. It was getting dark, so breathless
and hurt I took boat and returned to Amoy. A few hours after the
Tiger is said to have moved away; but whether he died or recovered
his wounds I could never satisfactorily learn, so contradictory were
the stories told.”
Mr. Thomson recounts a tale of a planter in this province, who,
returning home after a carouse, a little too much under the influence
of Scotch whisky, was sorely bested by a Tiger. “It was rather dark,
and verging on the small hours of morning when MacNab, mounting
on his trusty steed, set his face towards home. Feeling at peace with
all men, and even with the beasts of prey, he cantered along a road
bordered with mangroves, admiring the fitful gleams of the fire-flies
that were lighting their midnight lamps among the trees. But soon
the road became darker, and Donald, the pony, pricked his ears
uneasily as he turned into a jungle-path which led towards the
stream. Donald snuffed the air, and soon redoubled his pace, with
ears set close back, nostrils dilated, and bristling mane. Onward he
sped, and at last the angry growl of a Tiger in full chase behind
roused MacNab to the full peril of his position, and chilled his blood
with the thought that his pursuer was fast gaining ground, and that
at any moment he might feel the clutch of his hungry and relentless
claws. Here was a dilemma, the cold creek before him, and the hot
breath of the Tiger in the rear. A moment or two were gained by
tossing his hat behind him, and then Donald cleared the streams at
a bound. The Tiger lost his scent, and Mr. MacNab reached home in
safety, by what he delighted to describe as a miraculous escape.”
To us, who “live at home at ease,” life would seem to be hardly
bearable in a place when one is liable, any day, to meet with such an
adventure as this—with every chance, too, of a less pleasant
termination. But it is astonishing how indifferent to the presence of
wild beasts the inhabitants of these countries become. Even
Europeans soon acquire the same fearlessness, or, rather, apathy. Of
this Mr. Thomson gives a striking illustration:—“In these sparse
settlements of Malays and Chinese, Roman Catholic missionaries are
at work. I once fell in with one of these priests, shod with straw
sandals, and walking alone towards Bukit, Mer-tangrim (the pointed
hill), to visit a sick convert who had a clearing upon the mountain-
side. His path lay through a region infested with wild animals; and
when I inquired if he had no dread of Tigers, he pointed to his
Chinese umbrella, his only weapon, and assured me that with a
similar instrument a friend of his had driven off the attack of a Tiger
not very far from where we stood. But the nervous shock which
followed that triumph had cost the courageous missionary his life.”
 [17]
THE LEOPARD.

The Leopard, or Panther, is undoubtedly the third in importance

and interest of the great Cats. From a historical point of view it is
more interesting than the Tiger, and would naturally come
immediately after the Lion, but its size, ferocity, and beauty are so
very inferior to the Tiger’s that it must needs yield to the glorious
Bengalee. In the matter of beauty alone it is eclipsed by the Jaguar,
but the fact of its having been known from very ancient times, and
that of its occurrence in our own hemisphere, must decide us, in the
absence of any important characters, anatomical or otherwise, to
give it the precedence of its very nearly related American cousin.
The Leopard was the only one of the greater feline animals,
except the Lion and Tiger, that seems to have been known to the
ancients. It is always represented as drawing the chariot of Bacchus,
and the forlorn Ariadne is sculptured as riding on one of the spotted
steeds of her divine lover. The Panther was also constantly used in
the barbarous sports of the amphitheatre, and, in common with the
Lion and Tiger, has been both executioner and grave to many a
bold-hearted martyr.
The Leopard’s skin was a favourite mantle in the olden times in
Greece. In the “Iliad,” Homer, speaking of Menelaus, says—

“With a Pard’s spotted hide his shoulders broad

He mantled o’er.”——

and the Leopard, or Panther, is given in the “Odyssey” as one of the

forms assumed by Proteus, “the Ancient of the Deep.”
A curious ancient superstition about the Leopard is embodied in
its name. It was thought not to be actually the same animal as the
Panther or Pard, but to be a mongrel or hybrid between the male
Pard and the Lioness: hence it was called the Lion-panther, or
Leopardus. This error, as Archbishop Trench tells us, “has lasted into
modern times; thus Fuller, ‘Leopards and Mules are properly no
creatures.’” Another word-combination was made by the Romans
when wishing to find a name for the Giraffe. It is “a creature
combining, though with infinitely more grace, yet some of the height
and even the proportions of a Camel, with the spotted skin of the
Pard.” They called it “Camelopardus,” the Camel-panther.
Some authors give it as their opinion that the Leopard outshines
all the great beasts of prey in beauty and elegance, and, indeed,
called it the Carnivore par excellence. Unfortunately, most English
people have no means of forming a true opinion on a matter of this
sort, as we see the animals only in menageries; but judging from the
specimens we have seen in confinement, we should incline to the
belief that it is far behind both the Lion and Tiger, and is even
beaten by the Jaguar in the matter of colouring, although the surly
look of the latter makes him, on the whole, a far less attractive
beast. The adult Leopard in the London Zoological Gardens is
perhaps the clumsiest brute in the whole Lion-house—fat, bull-
necked, and stupid-looking. Stupid-looking, and even clumsy, that is,
when lying lazily asleep on the floor of his den; but watch him when
four o’clock comes, and the meat-barrow goes round, and then
where will you find more marvellous agility? All the Cats are alike in
this; they are very lazy at times, but when they do begin to move,
there is no more complete example of perfectly graceful movement,
and one feels as if he could watch them “on and off for days and
days,” as Alice’s frog-footman puts it.
 LEOPARD.

The characters of the hide are so characteristic that they must be

given in some detail, especially as the spots must be distinguished
from those of the Jaguar, the great spotted Cat of the New World.
The skin is described as follows:—“On an orange-yellow ground,
passing below into white, are spots of deep or brownish-black,
sometimes distinct, sometimes composed of two, three, or even four
points disposed in a circle, and surrounding a space, always
somewhat darker than the ground-colour, and shading into it below.
On the medio-dorsal line, in the hinder part of the body, the spots
are so arranged as to produce three or even four regular parallel
bands. On the side of the body, also, bands are found, but they are
indefinite in number, and irregularly disposed. On the head and legs,
the circular spots pass by degrees into mere points. The belly is
strewn with great double points, irregularly disposed, and on the
legs the points, also double, unite and form bands. The tail is
covered over the greater part of its length with annular spots. On
the hinder part of the ears is a clear spot.”
It must not be supposed, however, that all Leopards have exactly
the kind of marking here described, for it varies according to habitat,
age, sex, and season. Still, the skin-markings are definite enough to
enable one to tell the true Leopard, either from the Hunting Leopard
(Cheetah), the Jaguar, or the Clouded Tiger, the only animals with
which there is any possibility of confounding it.
In size the Leopard is decidedly inferior to either the Lion or
Tiger; being not more than some seven feet six inches from snout to
tip of tail, and two feet seven inches high at the shoulder. The tail
itself is about three feet eight inches long. The female is somewhat
smaller than the male, to which the above measurements apply. The
whiskers are strong and white, and the eyes yellow.
The head-quarters of the Leopard are the African continent,
where its range is almost co-extensive with the Lion’s, as it occurs
from Algeria in the north to Cape Colony in the south. In the latter
locality it is known by the settlers as the Tiger, but this is quite a
misnomer. The Tiger of the Cape colonists is a spotted, not a striped
Cat, and is indeed nothing but the African variety of the Panther. Like
the Lion, the Leopard extends into Asia, penetrating, however, much
farther into that continent than the king of beasts. In the western
parts of Asia it occurs, amongst other places, in Palestine, where “it
is found all round the Dead Sea, in Gilead, and Bashan, and
occasionally in the few wooded districts in the West.” Leopards are
found in Ceylon, where they are the only great Carnivores, but
where they are neither very numerous nor very dangerous, as they
seldom attack man. By the Europeans the Ceylon Leopard is
erroneously called a Cheetah, but the true “Cheetah” (Felis jubata),
the Hunting Leopard of India, does not exist in the island.
The Leopard is found at its extreme easterly range in Japan,
where it occurs under a distinct variety, known as the “Northern
Leopard,” the skin of which is “much like that of a fine-coloured
Hunting Leopard, but it is at once distinguished by the comparatively
shorter legs, by the larger size and brown centre of the black spots,
and from all the varieties of the Leopard by the linear spots on the
nape and the spots on the back not being formed of roses or groups
of spots. The skin in its tanned state is four feet six inches, and the
tail two feet ten inches long.”
Another variety from Formosa is distinguished by the shortness of
its tail, which is not more than a foot and three-quarters long, or
about half the length of that of its African brother. Some naturalists
propose to consider both these varieties as distinct species, but such
characters as the length of the tail and the form and disposition of
the spots are eminently variable, and when we consider that another
Leopard from Formosa has been described with a tail one foot one
inch long, and another whose caudal appendage was two feet seven
inches in length, we shall certainly be justified in concluding that
such slight difference must have been produced by the innate
tendency of all animals to vary in unimportant particulars, and by
the influence of surrounding conditions, and we may safely put all
these various kinds of Leopard under the common label Felis pardus.
There is, however, one very interesting character about the
“Northern Leopard” which, although by no means entitling it to rank
as a species, yet makes it a very instructing instance of the way in
which a breed or race is produced by the modifying influence of
climate. The animal in question is found not only in Japan, but in
Mantchuria, “extending probably to Corea, and the Island of
Saghalien,” and is remarkable from the fact that its hair is long and
shaggy, a condition of things evidently brought about by the cold
climate it has to endure. Hence we see that the British climate need
not have differed from its present condition to have been the home,
as indeed it once was, of the larger beasts of prey.
Perhaps the most interesting variety of this species is the Black
Leopard of Java. It has exactly the appearance of an ordinary
Leopard painted black, the paint, however, not being laid on
sufficiently thick to hide the spots, which are of a more intense black
than the rest of the hide. The Black Leopard is sometimes described
as a distinct species, and is called Leopardus melas, but there can be
very little doubt that it is, in reality, a mere variety, differing only in
colour—the most variable of characters—from the common kind. It
is, however, so singular as to require the special notice which we
have given it.
“Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture-lands in quest of the
Deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; and the
villagers often complain of the destruction of their cattle by these
formidable marauders. In relation to them the natives have a curious
but firm conviction that when a Bullock is killed by a Leopard, and, in
expiring, falls so that its right side is undermost, the Leopard will not
return to devour it. I have been told by English sportsmen (some of
whom share in the popular belief), that sometimes, when they have
proposed to watch by the carcase of a Bullock recently killed by a
Leopard, in the hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search
of his prey, the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though
earnestly desiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be
in vain, as, the beast having fallen on its right side, the Leopard
would not return.
“The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely
beautiful skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and
occasionally in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the
ground, within which a Kid is generally fastened as a bait, the door
being held open by a sapling bent down by the united force of
several men, and so arranged as to act as a spring, to which a noose
is ingeniously attached, formed of plaited Deer’s hide. The cries of
the Kid attract the Leopard, which, being tempted to enter, is
enclosed by the liberation of the spring, and grasped firmly round
the body by the noose.”[18]
There is a Scottish adage which says that “Hawks will not peck
out hawks’ een;” but the Leopard, a Carnivore, has a confirmed
liking for the flesh of the flesh-eating Dog. This fact has been
observed by a writer who states that the Leopard has quite a mania
for that sort of diet, and will not hesitate to penetrate into a tent at
night in quest of his favourite game.
There is a rather curious habit of the Leopards which we have
observed at the Zoological Gardens, though whether it holds good
with all Leopards we are not prepared to say, never having seen the
circumstance mentioned. The Lion and Tiger, when devouring their
reeking bones at their four o’clock dinner, at Regent’s Park, lie down
at full length, and hold the meat between their fore-paws, in this
way steadying it while they take their tremendous bites. The
Leopards, on the other hand, do not lie down, but squat on their
haunches, the fore-legs being kept almost vertical, and the head, of
course, correspondingly bent down to reach the food. The paws are
rarely used to steady the piece of meat, and only, in fact, when the
beast comes across a particularly fractious morsel which he finds it
impossible to manage with his teeth alone. For this reason, a
Leopard in the act of feeding is a far more awkward-looking beast
than the Lion or Tiger, both of which hold their food in quite a
civilised way.
In connection with the Leopard’s mode of feeding, we may
mention a curious tale about its diet. There can be little doubt that it
is a mere “yarn,” or rather a piece of folk-lore, but still it is
interesting, especially when we think of the many tales of clay-eating
men:—“The natives [of Ceylon] assert that it devours the kaolin clay,
called by them kiri mattee, in a very peculiar way. They say that the
Cheetah [Leopard] places it in lumps beside him, and then gazes
intently on the sun, till, on turning his eyes on the clay, every piece
appears of a red colour like flesh, when he instantly devours it.”
As a rule, the Leopard seems to be far more cowardly than the
Lion or Tiger. Jules Gérard, the Lion-killer, holds the beast in the
greatest contempt for its pusillanimity. Still, it often shows a good
deal of pluck, chiefly, however, when in want of food. As to this
matter, the actual experience of those who have observed the
animal in its native land will convey a truer idea than any summing
up of its good and bad points. “One night I was suddenly awoke by
a furious barking of our Dogs, accompanied by cries of distress.
Suspecting that some beast of prey had seized upon one of them, I
leaped, undressed, out of my bed, and, gun in hand, hurried to the
spot whence the cries proceeded. The night was pitchy dark,
however, and I could distinguish nothing; yet, in the hope of
frightening the intruder away, I shouted at the top of my voice. In a
few moments a torch was lighted, and we then discovered the marks
of a Leopard, and also large patches of blood. On counting the
Dogs, I found that ‘Summer,’ the best and fleetest of our kennel, was
missing. As it was in vain that I called and searched for him, I
concluded that the Tiger [Leopard] had carried him away; and, as
nothing further could be done that night, I again retired to rest; but
the fate of the poor animal continued to haunt me, and drove sleep
away. I had seated myself on the front chest of the wagon, when
suddenly the melancholy cries were repeated, and on rushing to the
spot, I discovered ‘Summer’ stretched at full length in the middle of
a bush. Though the poor creature had several deep wounds about
his throat and chest, he at once recognised me, and, wagging his
tail, looked wistfully in my face. The sight sickened me as I carried
him into the house, where, in time, however, he recovered. The very
next day ‘Summer’ was revenged in a very unexpected manner.
Some of the servants had gone into the bed of the river to chase
away a Jackal, when they suddenly encountered a Leopard in the act
of springing at our Goats, which were grazing, unconscious of
danger, on the river’s bank. On finding himself discovered, he
immediately took refuge in a tree, when he was at once attacked by
the men. It was, however, not until he had received upwards of
sixteen wounds—some of which were inflicted by poisoned arrows—
that life became extinct. I arrived at the scene of conflict only to see
him die. During the whole affair, the men had stationed themselves
at the foot of the tree, to the branches of which the Leopard was
pertinaciously clinging, and, having expended all their ammunition,
one of them proposed, and the suggestion was taken into serious
consideration, that they should pull him down by the tail.”
 One of the most remarkable circumstances related about the
Leopard is the way in which it is attracted by persons suffering from
small-pox; the odour attending that disease seems to have an
irresistible fascination for them. Sir Emerson Tennent says that the
medical officers at small-pox hospitals have to take special
precautions against Leopards, which invariably haunt the spot.
As with the other Felidæ, the only value of the dead Leopard is
the price of its skin, no truly carnivorous animal being good eating;
although it is related that one of the South African tribes will eat the
flesh, not only of the Leopard, but even of the Hyæna, when they
are hard pressed for food.
 CHAPTER IV.
THE CAT FAMILY—
THE JAGUAR, THE SMALLER WILD CATS, THE DOMESTIC CAT.

THE JAGUAR—Its Character, Distribution, and Habits—Fondness for Negroes

—THE PUMA—Its Character, Geographical Range, and Habits—Mode of
Hunting the Puma—THE OUNCE—THE CLOUDED TIGER—The Character of
its Fur, &c.—Its Habits—THE OCELOT—THE MARBLED TIGER-CAT—THE
VIVERRINE CAT—THE PAMPAS CAT—THE LONG-TAILED TIGER-CAT—THE MARGAY
—THE COLOCOLO—THE JAGUARONDI—THE EYRA—THE SERVAL—THE RUSTY-
SPOTTED CAT—THE LEOPARD CAT—THE BAY CAT—THE SPOTTED WILD CAT—THE
MANUL—THE EGYPTIAN CAT—THE COMMON WILD CAT—THE DOMESTIC CAT—
Historical Sketch—Characters of Skin, &c.—Connection between
Whiteness and Blindness—Habits—Use of Whiskers—Diet—Poaching
Propensities—Fondness for Offspring—For Foster-children—Madness
in Cats—Varieties—The Angora Cat, Manx Cat, Persian Cat, and
Chinese Cat.

[19]
THE JAGUAR.

THE Jaguar takes the place of the Leopard in America, where it is

the most formidable of beasts of prey. It extends across the whole of
the central part of the continent; its northern limit being the south-
west boundary of the United States.
It is a slightly larger animal than the Leopard, fierce and sulky in
expression, but more elegant in form, and far handsomer as to its
skin. The spots are arranged in larger and more definite groups,
each group consisting of a ring of well-defined black spots enclosing
a space of a somewhat darker tawny than the ground-colour, in
which lesser spots often occur.
 The Jaguar is perhaps the fiercest-looking of all the great Cats,
having an extremely ferocious expression and a horrid habit of
showing its great fangs. Some time ago we were taken over the fine
Lion-house in the Zoological Gardens by the Superintendent, Mr.
Bartlett, to whose practical genius for everything that relates to the
comfort of the animals under his charge most of the perfections of
that structure are due. The little sleeping apartments at the back of
the den open by iron doors into a long corridor, and in each of the
doors is a small hole about the size of a penny, through which the
keeper can look. Mr. Bartlett blew sharply through the hole in the
den of the Jaguar’s cage, and then allowed us to look through, and
there was something terrible in the way the savage beast rushed at
the door, growling and “swearing” like a very large and fierce Tom
Cat. Even the knowledge of the strong iron door between us and the
Jaguar could not prevent us from starting back, there was something
so suggestive, in the beast’s looks, of being torn to pieces and
devoured.
 JAGUAR.

The Jaguar is found in North and South America, extending from

the Southern regions of the United States, through Mexico, Central
America, and Brazil, as far south as Paraguay. Of its habits,
occurrence, &c., the following interesting account is given by Mr.
Darwin:[20]—
“The wooded banks of the great rivers appear to be the favourite
haunts of the Jaguar; but south of the Plata, I was told that they
frequented the reeds bordering lakes. Wherever they are, they seem
to require water. Their common prey is the Capybara, so that it is
generally said, where Capybaras are numerous there is little danger
from the Jaguar. Falconer states that near the southern side of the
mouth of the Plata there are many Jaguars, and that they chiefly live
on fish. This account I have heard repeated. On the Paranà they
have killed many wood-cutters, and have even entered vessels at
night. There is a man now living in Bajada, who, coming up from
below when it was dark, was seized on the deck; he escaped,
however, with the loss of the use of one arm. When the floods drive
these animals from the islands, they are most dangerous. I was told
that, a few years since, a very large one found its way into a church
at Santa Fé: two padres entering one after the other were killed, and
a third, who came to see what was the matter, escaped with
difficulty. The beast was destroyed by being shot from a corner of
the building, which was unroofed. They commit also at these times
great ravages among Horses and cattle. It is said that they kill their
prey by breaking their necks. If driven from the carcass, they seldom
return to it. The Gauchos say that the Jaguar, when wandering about
at night, is much tormented by the Foxes yelping as they follow him.
This is a curious coincidence with the fact which is generally affirmed
of the Jackals accompanying, in a similarly officious manner, the East
Indian Tiger. The Jaguar is a noisy animal, roaring much by night,
and especially before bad weather. One day, when hunting on the
banks of the Uruguay, I was shown certain trees to which these
animals constantly recur for the purpose, as it is said, of sharpening
their claws. I saw three well-known trees; in front, the bark was
worn smooth as if by the breast of the animal, and on each side
there were deep scratches, or rather grooves, extending in an
oblique line, nearly a yard in length. The scars were of different
ages. A common method of ascertaining if a Jaguar is in the
neighbourhood is to examine these trees. I imagine this habit of the
Jaguar is exactly similar to one which may any day be seen in the
common Cat, as with outstretched legs and exserted claws it scrapes
the leg of a chair; and I have heard of young fruit-trees in an
orchard in England having been thus much injured. Some such habit
must also be common to the Puma, for on the bare hard soil of
Patagonia I have frequently seen scores so deep that no other
animal could have made them. The object of this practice is, I
believe, to tear off the ragged points of their claws, and not, as the
Gauchos think, to sharpen them. The Jaguar is killed, without much
difficulty, by the aid of Dogs baying and driving him up a tree, where
he is despatched with bullets.”
It has been stated that great contests take place between the
Jaguars and the Alligators which frequent the rivers of the regions in
which the great Cat lives. It is said that the Jaguar is fully a match
for the Alligator on land, while in the water the reptile has usually
the best of it. The tale must, however, be taken cum grano salis. A
very curious fact is mentioned by Brehm, namely, that the Jaguar
always attacks Negroes and Indians in preference to whites, and
that a white man, obliged to sleep in the open air in a dangerous
locality, always feels perfectly safe if accompanied by natives. It is
thought that this is probably due to the strong odour which
characterises the skin of the Negro and other dark races. As tending
to confirm this extraordinary statement, we may mention an
anecdote told us by the late Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., of the
behaviour of the great Felidæ at the Zoological Gardens towards
coloured people. Every one must have noticed the calm,
supercilious, way in which those grand creatures regard the visitors
to their abode, seeming to look on them as beings of an inferior race
come to pay rightful homage to strength and beauty; except at
feeding-time, they seem hardly to give a thought to the admiring
crowds in their house of reception, but pace regularly up and down
their dens, or sit with paws thrust out between the bars, stolidly
gazing. Several years ago, however, when the Prince of Wales’s
Indian animals were exhibited at the Gardens, a little black boy, one
of the attendants attached to the collection, often passed through
the Lion-house; and when he did so, every Cat in the place started
to its feet, and rushed to the bars of its cage with great
demonstrations of anger and ferocity. They evidently felt that here,
at least, was one of the black, two-legged animals on which their
fathers and grandfathers had fed from time immemorial, and that
now was their time to strike for a pleasant change of diet, after the
monotony of beef bones, ignominiously cut up and parcelled out to
them.
 [21]
THE PUMA.

The Puma, or “South American Lion,” is the second great

American Carnivore. It occurs far more widely spread in the
continent than the Jaguar, ranging from the cold regions of the Strait
of Magellan up to 50° or 60° north latitude. In appearance it is not
unlike a small Lioness, having a tint somewhat similar to the
characteristic tawny colour of the monarch of Africa, but darker,
greyer, and less rich; the mane, too, is absent. Its head is
proportionally, as well as absolutely, much smaller than that of the
Lion; its face is rounder, and it is altogether a much smaller beast:
its average size being about thirty-nine or forty inches from the
snout to the root of the thick, strong tail, the latter again being some
twenty-five or twenty-six inches long, and the height about the
same. Indistinct spots occur, as in the Lion, on the belly and the
inside of the legs. The hind-quarters are very large, and are kept
higher than the shoulders in walking. The skin beneath the belly is
remarkably loose and pendulous.
Unlike the Jaguar, the Puma avoids water, although well able to
swim when necessary. It is as much at home in trees as on solid
ground, and is a terror to the Capuchin and other Monkeys which
abound in the forests of South America. It is, however, a far more
cowardly animal than the Jaguar, and is not feared by the natives to
anything like the same degree. Mr. Darwin, who had ample
opportunity of observing its habits, writes thus of it in his
“Naturalist’s Voyage”:—
“This animal has a wide geographical range, being found from
the equatorial forests, throughout the deserts of Patagonia, as far
south as the damp and cold latitudes (53° to 54°) of Tierra del
Fuego. I have seen its footsteps in the Cordillera of Central Chili, at
an elevation of at least 10,000 feet. In La Plata the Puma preys
chiefly on Deer, Ostriches, Bizcacha, and other quadrupeds. It there
rarely attacks cattle or Horses, and most rarely man. In Chili,
however, it destroys other quadrupeds. I heard, likewise, of two men
and a woman who had been thus killed. It is asserted that the Puma
always kills its prey by springing on the shoulders, and then drawing
back the head with one of its paws until the vertebræ break. I have
seen, in Patagonia, the skeletons of Guanacos, with their necks thus
dislocated.
“The Puma, after eating its fill, covers the carcass with many
large bushes, and lies down to watch it. This habit is often the cause
of its being discovered; for the Condors, wheeling in the air, every
now and then descend to partake of the feast; and being angrily
driven away, rise all together on the wing. The Chileno Guaso then
knows there is a Lion [Puma] watching his prey; the word is given,
and men and Dogs hurry to the chase. Sir F. Head says that a
Gaucho in the Pampas, upon merely seeing some Condors wheeling
in the air, cried, ‘A Lion!’ I could never myself meet with any one
who pretended to such powers of discrimination. It is asserted that if
a Puma has once been betrayed by thus watching a carcass, and has
then been hunted, it never resumes this habit, but that having
gorged itself, it wanders far away. The Puma is easily killed. In an
open country it is first entangled with the bolas,[22] then lazoed, and
dragged along the ground till rendered insensible. At Tandil (south of
the Plata), I was told that within three months one hundred were
thus destroyed. In Chili they are generally driven up bushes or trees,
and are then either shot or baited to death by Dogs. The Dogs
employed in this chase belong to a particular breed, called
‘Leoneros.’ They are weak, slight animals, like long-legged Terriers,
but are born with a peculiar instinct for this sport. The Puma is
described as being very crafty. When pursued it often returns on its
former track, and then suddenly making a spring on one side, waits
there till the Dogs have passed by. It is a very silent animal, uttering
no cry even when wounded, and only rarely during the breeding
season.”
 The comparative silence of the Puma is very noticeable in the
specimens at the Zoological Gardens. They never roar like other
large Cats, never, in fact, getting beyond a sort of hoarse grunt; but
when angry, they spit and “swear” in precisely the same manner as
furious Tom Cats. In this respect they differ very markedly from the
Lion and Tiger, and agree with the lesser Cats, such as the Ocelot,
Serval, Lynx, &c.
The flesh of the Puma is often eaten by the Gauchos. Mr. Darwin,
who tried it, pronounced it to be very white, and to taste remarkably
like veal. This is a curious circumstance, as the flesh of most
Carnivora is anything but palatable. While speaking of the Leopard,
we mentioned its curious habit of squatting instead of lying down to
eat, and of only occasionally touching its food with its paws. With
the Puma this is still more remarkable; it squats in the same manner
as the Leopard, but, although we have watched it many times, we
never once saw it use its paws to assist in holding its food. However
difficult of manipulation the bone may be, however it may slip about
and object to be crunched, it never seems to occur to the animal
that he might use his paws to steady it.
In captivity, the Puma, at any rate when caught young, is a
tolerably docile animal, and, like the Domestic Cat, is fond of playing
with inanimate objects; the Pumas at the Zoological Gardens, for
instance, have a large wooden ball as a toy. They do not, however,
appear to be always perfectly amiable; the female may often be
seen swearing at her lord in a most reprehensible manner.
 SNOW LEOPARD, OR OUNCE.
(From the Living Specimen in the Zoological Gardens, London.)
❏
LARGER IMAGE
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com