Foundation Engineering

ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE TITLE: - CEN4201 – FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

COURSE OUTLINE
SOIL EXPLORATION

1.1 PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION

1.2 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM
1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION
1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS
1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
1.6 LABORATORY TESTS
1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT
1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS
1.9 DATA PRESENTATION
1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

TYES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS
2.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
2.3.1 Shallow Foundations
2.3.2 Deep Foundations
2.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN
2.4.1 General
2.4.2 Loads on Foundations
2.4.3 Pressure Distribution beneath Foundations
2.4.4 Settlement of Foundations
2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

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3. DESIGN OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

3.1 INTROUCTION
3.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil pressure
3.3 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength parameters  and C
3.4 Structural Considerations
3.5 ISOLATED OR SPREAD FOOTINGS
3.6 COMBINED FOOTING
3.7 STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTINGS
3.8 MAT/ RAFT FOUNDATION

Analysis and Design of Retaining Structures

4.1 CONVENTIONAL RETAINING WALLS

4.2 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUES
4.3 SHEET PILE WALLS

References

1. Principles of Foundation Engineering

By Alemayehu Teferra
2. Foundation Analysis and Design
By J. E. Bowles
3. Foundation Design , Principles and practices
By Donald P. Coduto
4. Foundation Design and Construction
By M.T. Tomlinson
5. Foundation Design
By W.C. Teng

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SOIL EXPLORATION
1.1. PURPOSE OF EXPLORATION

The purpose of soil exploration is to find out strength characteristics of the sub-soil over which the structure
has to be built. Soil characteristics vary both with respect to depth from the ground surface and stretch in the
horizontal direction. It is, therefore, the prime objective of soil exploration for a building, bridge or other civil
Engineering works, to analyze the nature of soil in all respects.

The main purposes of soil exploration are: -

a. Selection of alternative construction sites or the choice of the most economical sites
b. Selection of alternative types or depth of foundation
c. Selection of alternative methods of construction.
d. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
e. Location and selection of construction materials.

The soil exploration should provide the following data:

 Soil parameters and properties of different layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity or settlement
calculation)
 Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock (stratification of soil)
 Location of ground water level

1.2. Planning an Exploration Program

The planning of a program for soil exploration depends upon

i. The nature of sub-soil

ii. The type of structure
iii. The importance of structure

The soil engineer should constantly keep in mind, when planning the exploration program, the purpose of the
program and the relative costs involved. Normally, the cost involved in the soil exploration is a function of
the total cost of the project. It is always advisable to spend a little more on soil investigation to understand
clearly the nature of the soil so that suitable foundation can be recommended. Often an indication of the extent
of an exploration of program can be estimated from the history of foundations successes and failures in an
area are very helpful. Also, for planning the program, the engineer should be well acquainted with the current
methods of soil boring, sampling and testing and have some idea of the limitations on both the field and
laboratory equipments and methods.

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The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes some or all of the following steps: -

I. Assembly of all available information on type and use of the structure, and also of the general
topographic and geological character of the site.
II. Reconnaissance of the area: - This involves inspection of behavior of adjacent structures, rock
outcrops, cuts, etc.
III. A preliminary site investigation: - This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to
establish the types of materials, Stratification of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground
water level. For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish foundation criteria, in which
case the exploration program is finished.
IV. A detailed site investigation: - For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality and/or
erratic, a more detailed investigation may be undertaken this may involve sinking several boreholes,
taking soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting sounding and other field tests.

1.3 METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Methods of determining the stratification and engineering characteristics of sub-surface are

 Test pits
 Boring and sampling
 Field tests
 Geophysical methods
 Laboratory tests

1.3.1 Test Pits

The simplest and cheapest method of shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to depths of 3 to 4 m. The use
of Test pits enables the in-situ soil conditions to be examined visually, thus the boundaries between strata and
the nature of any macro-fabric can be accurately determined. It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or
undisturbed soil samples: in cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom of the pit and
tube samples can be obtained from the sides of the pit.

1.3.2 Soil Boring and Sampling

1.3.2.1 Soil Boring

This is the most widely used method. It provides samples from shallow to deeper depths for visual inspection
as well as laboratory tests. The most commonly used methods of boring are: -

 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Percussion drilling
 Rotary drilling

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a) Auger boring: - Operated by hand or by power. Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of two
types. Post-hole and helical augers. They are used for shallow borings depth 3 to 7.5m in soils, which
possess sufficient cohesion to sand unsupported. This boring method provides highly disturbed soil samples.
Power operated augers (helical) can be used to great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all types of soils
above water table.

Fig.1.1 Hand Augers a) helical and b) post hole

b) Wash boring: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a light chopping bit
and jetting action of drilling fluid, usually water, under pressure. Loosened soil particles raise as suspended
particles through the annular space between casing and drill rod. This method best suits in sandy and clayey
soils and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders) and rocks. Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.
Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in the rate of progress of boring, examination of out coming
slurry and cutting in the slurry. Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be obtained by use of proper
samplers.

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Fig.1.2 Wash boring

c) Percussion drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by repeated blows of a heavy chisel into the
bottom of the hole. The resulting slurry formed at bottom of borehole is removed by bailer or sand pump.
Because of the deep disturbance of the soil this method of boring is not favored. Casing is generally required.
Maximum depth of boring is 60m.

d) Rotary drilling: - Power operated. Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit which cuts the material
at the bottom of the hole into small particles which are removed by circulating fluids, which may be water,
bentonite slurry or mud slurry. This is the most rapid method for penetrating highly resistant materials (e.g.
bed rock). In this method undisturbed samples can be obtained at desired depths by using suitable samplers.
Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

1.3.2 Soil Sampling

There are two main types of soil samples which can be recovered from bore holes or trial pits. These are: -
Disturbed and Undisturbed samples.

a) Disturbed Samples: - are samples where the structure of the natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the boring tolls or excavation equipment. Disturbed samples, however,
need to be truly representative of the stratum. Disturbed samples are satisfactory for performing classification
tests such as, sieve analysis, Atterberg limits etc.

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b) Undisturbed Samples: - are samples, which represent as closely as is practicable, the true in-situ
structure and water content of the soil. Undisturbed samples are required for determining reliable information
on the shearing resistance and stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit. Undisturbed samples in
cohesionless deposits are extremely difficult to obtain. Because of this the above characteristics are provided
by field tests.

Types of Samplers

It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed samples, especially from moderate to deep holes. The
process of boring, driving the coring too, raising and withdrawing the coring tool and extruding the
sample from the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance. In addition, samples taken from holes
may tend to swell as a result of stress relief. Samples should be taken only from a newly- drilled or newly
extended hole, with care being taken to avoid contact with water. As soon as they are brought to the surface,
core tubes should be labeled inside and outside, the ends sealed with wax and capped, and then stored away
from extremes of heat or cold and vibration. Sample disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type
of sample tube. The types of tube samplers in common use are described below:

a) Split Spoon Sampler: - A standard split spoon sampler has a 2“ outside diameter, 1⅜″ inside diameter
tube, 18 to 24” long. The tube is split longitudinally in the middle. While the sample is being taken, the two
halves of the spoon are held together at the ends by short pieces of threaded pipe, one of which couples, it to
the drill rod and the other serves as the cutting edge. The sampler is forced or driven into the soil to obtain a
sample and is then removed from the hole. With these sampler-disturbed samples of soft rock, cohesive and
cohesionless soils are obtained. This sampler is used for making standard penetration test.

b) Thin-Walled Tube Sampler: - It is a thin walled seamless brass or steel tubing, with common out side
diameter of 2 to 3” and length of 30 to 36”. The lower end is beveled to form a cutting edge and it can be
slightly tapered to reduce the wall friction and the upper end fitted for attachment to the drill rod. In order to
take sample the sampler is pushed downward into the soil by static force instead of being driven by a hammer.
This sampler is used to take undisturbed samples from cohesive soils.

c) Piston Samplers: - They are very thin tube samplers with pistons fitted at their cutting ends. While
taking sample, the piston is held in positions and the tube pushed down. The piston aids the retention of the
soil in the tube during withdrawal. Piston samples provide best-undisturbed samples of cohesive soils.

1.4 FIELD [IN-SITU] TESTS

These tests are valuable means of determining the relative densities; shear strengths and bearing capacities of
soils directly without disturbing effects of boring and sampling.

The most commonly used field tests are; -

 Penetration or sounding tests

 Vane shear test
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 Plate loading test
 Pile loading test

1.4.1 Penetration Tests

Penetration tests are the most useful tests. They are conducted mainly to get information on the relative
density of soils with little or no cohesion. The tests are based on the fact that the relative density of a soil
stratum is directly proportional to the resistance of the soil against the penetration of the drive point. From
this, correlations between values of penetration resistance versus angle of internal friction (), bearing
pressure, density and modulus of compressibility have been developed. Penetration tests are classified as
static and dynamic penetration tests.

a) Static Penetration Tests.

1) Swedish Weight Sounding Test: -This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia and here in
Ethiopia. The test consists of weights: 5,10,10.25,25, and 25kgs(=100 kg), screw point, driving rod ( 20 to
22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a rotating handle. The depth of penetration is measured for each
loading after which the number of half-turns is counted by 100Kg.load; the penetration depth is then measured
after 25 half-turns. If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than 5cm the rod is unloaded and driven
down by a 5 to 6kg hammer.

Fig. 1.3 Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram

The correlation between density of frictional soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m (half-turns per
meter) are as given below.

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Cohesive Soils Half-turns per meter Density

(ht/m) (kN/m3)
Soft 0 16 –19
Firm 0 -100
Stiff 100 - 200 17.5 – 21
Very stiff 200 - 500 19 – 22.5
Hard > 500

Frictional Soils Half-turns per meter Density

(ht/m) (kN/m3)
Very loose <50 11-16
Loose 50 -150 14.5 - 18.5
Medium 150 - 300 17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500 17.5 - 22.5
Very dense > 500 21 – 24

2) Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone Penetrometer Test): -This method is widely used in
Europe. The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600, overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm , rods (⅝” ),
2

casing pipe ( ¾”). The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground at a rate of 10mm/sec. The pressure
exerted on the rod is measured with a proving ring, manometer or a strain gauge. Readings are usually taken
every 20cm. From this test point resistance and skin frictional resistance can be determined separately.

st
 The cone is 1 pushed into the ground. The force required to push the cone 20cm into the soil is
recorded.
 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The force required to push the pipe is also
recorded.
 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.

The correlation between the cone/point resistance and relative density of frictional soils are given in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Correlations between Cone (Point) Resistance and Relative Density of Frictional Soils

2
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m )
Very loose soil < 2500
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Loose soil 2500 – 5000
Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000

Cone resistance (point resistance) in kN/m2

Skin friction
Depth

Point resistance

2
Casing (skin) resistance in kN/m

Fig. 1.4 Static cone penetration testing equipment, penetration diagram

- According to Meyerhof:
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N = ¼ (Ckd) ……………… (1.1)

where N = Standard penetration number

2
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm )

For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be estimated from cone resistance from the following
relationship.

ES =3/2( Ckd) ……………………… (1.2)

b) Dynamic Penetration Tests

1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT): -This is the most common of the field tests and measures the
resistance of the soil to dynamic penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon sampler which is driven into the
soil at the bottom of a borehole (sometimes cased). The sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic
driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 76cm onto the top of the rods as shown in Fig.11.5.
The sampler is initially driven 15cm below the bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven 30cm. The
number of blows required to drive the last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration value denoted by N.
The standard penetration number has been correlated to soil characteristics such as: density, angle of shearing
resistance, , unconfined compressive strength, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

Table 1.2 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal Friction and Relative Density of
Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

 <28
0
28 -30
0
30-36
0
35 - 40
0
>42
0

Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Density

Table 1.3 Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined Compressive Strength and Consistency
of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30 >30

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2
qu(kN/m ) 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400 >400
Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard

RAM 63.5 kg

ANVIL

MOTOR

89mm
CASING

SAMPLER 2 “ (STANDARD)

Fig. 1.5 Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment.

The relationship between  and Dr may be expressed approximately by the following equation (Meyerhof).

0
 =30+0.15Dr …………………….. (1.3)

For granular soil, containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt.

0
 =30+0.15Dr …………………… (1.4)

For granular soil, containing less than 5 percent fine sand and silt. In the equations D r is expressed in
percent.

Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT

The N. values of SPT as measured in the field may need to be corrected.

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i. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands, saturated silty sands, or saturated silts, correction is usually
made for possible build up of pore water pressure. The SPT values, greater than 15 are modified as
follows

N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15) Suggested by Terzaghi and peck

where N= corrected value

N’= actual value

ii. The other type of correction is known as correction for overburden pressure. This correction is applied
only to cohesionless soils (dry, moist or wet). The correction suggested by Gibbs and Holtz and widely
used is as follows.

345' N 2
N =  2N’, for o’  276 kN/m
( o '69)

2 35 N ' 2
o’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m N=  2N’, for o’  28kN/m
( o '7)

2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test: - This is another useful test, which is normally used to determine
the relative resistance offered by the different soil layers. The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by pushed
fit. The cone is driven into the ground in the same way as a SPT is performed. The number of blows required
to penetrate 30 cms depth is called as Nc value. In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no borehole is
used. Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about 6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod
increases which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m.
If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth, one has to use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under pressure
forced through the pipe and the cone as shown in Fig 11.6. The mud solution coming out of the cone rises
above along the drill rod eliminating thereby the frictional resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The
former method is called as dry method and the latter wet method.

rod

Bore-hole
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0
60

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic cone penetration testing equipment.

To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the general practice is to convert Nc to N values of SPT

Nc = N/C …………………………… (1.5)

where

N = blow count for SPT

Nc = blow count for dynamic cone

C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when bentonite is used.

Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m

Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m

Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure in cohesionless soils like SPT

1.4.2 Vane Shear Test

This test is useful in determining the in-place shear strength of very soft and sensitive clays, which lose a
large part of their strength when even slightly disturbed by the sampling operation. The strength parameter
obtained is consolidated- undrained shear strength, Cu.

In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired depth, where the vane shear test is planned to be performed and
the vane is carefully pushed into the soil. A torque necessary to shear the cylinder of soil defined by the
blades of the vane is applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus with a constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec. The
maximum torque is then measured from which the shearing strength is determined.

From the measured maximum torque one may estimate the shearing resistance of the tested clay from the
following formula

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T
= …………………… (1.6)
 2 H D3 
 D  
 2 12 
where T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height

Since for quick condition  = Cu, one ultimately arrived the in-situ value of cohesion

Fig.1.7 Vane shear test

1.4.3 Plate Loading Test

In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to the soil through a steel plate, and readings of the
settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a relationship between bearing pressure and settlement
for the soil can be obtained.

Fig. 1.8 shows the arrangement and typical load settlement curve for a plate load test. The test procedure used
for performing the test is as follows:

Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the plate.

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1. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the case of cohesionless soil (to prevent early
displacement of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be positioned in cast in-situ
concrete.
2. Loading platform should be properly erected.
3. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading increment is kept constant).
4. Once completion of the test, the plate is unloaded in the same incremental steps (to draw the
expansion curve).

Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from settlement consideration. If the maximum
permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate of width Bp under the
same intensity of loading is given by

Sp (2 Bf ) 2
S …………………… (1.7)
(B f  B p ) 2

Using the value Sp, computed from the above equation, the loading intensity under the footing could be read
from the load settlement curve.

The settlement of footing in clay is normally determined from principles of consolidation. However from
plate load test, the approximate settlement of footing of width B can be determined using the following
expression

Bt
S = Sp …………………………… (1.8)
Bp

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Fig. 1.8 Plate loading test, test result

Limitation of Plate Loading Test

 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence consolidation settlement does not fully occur during
the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to sandy soils, and to partially saturated or rather
unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading information of the soil is not homogeneous within the
effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils which are not homogeneous at least to depth of
1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

Pressure
bulb Firm soil

Soft soil

Fig. 1.9 Pressure bulbs for the plate and the actual foundation.

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1.4.4 Pile Loading Test

This is the most reliable means for determining the load carrying capacity of a pile. The load arrangement and
testing procedure are more or less similar to the plate-loading test. From the results of this test the allowable
bearing capacity and load- settlement relationship of a group of friction piles can be estimated.

1.5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

These comprise the seismic and resistivity methods. These methods are usually limited to establishing
location of bedrock underlying softer material (by seismic method) or locating gravel or sand deposits (by
resistivity method). The seismic method is based on the fact that sound waves travel faster through rocks than
through soils. The resistivity method makes use of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low electrical
resistivity than others (e.g. sand or gravel). These methods are normally employed as preliminary or
supplementary to other methods of exploration.

1.6 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests are useful in providing reliable data for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of soils,
stability and settlement behavior of foundation, and for determining physical characteristics of soils. Results
of laboratory tests should be used in conjunction with borehole records and results of field test.

The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation engineers are

 Grain size analysis

 Atterberg limits
 Natural moisture content
 Unit weight
 Unconfined compression test
 Direct shear test
 Triaxial compression test
 Consolidation test
 Compaction test
 Chemical analysis

1.7 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT

Ground water affects many elements of foundation design and construction. Because of this its location
should be determined in each job with reasonable accuracy.

Water table level can be determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole. Water levels in
bore holes may take a considerable time to stabilize, this time, known as the response time, depending on the
permeability of the soil. Measurements, therefore, should be taken at regular intervals until the water level
becomes constant.

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The depth of water table is measured by lowering a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole. The depth can also
be measured by lowering the leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open ends of the leads touch the
water in the borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated by glow of the indicator lamp.

1.8 DEPTH AND NUMBER OF BORINGS.

1.8.1 Depth of Boring

The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is governed by the depth of soil affected by foundation bearing
pressures. According to Tomlinson the following depths of boreholes for various foundation conditions may
be used.

i. For widely spaced strip of pad foundations, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times the width of
the foundation.
ii. For raft foundations, boring depth deeper than 1.5 times width of raft should be used.
iii. For closely spaced strip or pad foundations where there is overlapping of the zones of pressure, boring
depth deeper than 1.5 times width of building should be used.
iv. For group of piled foundation on soil, boring depth should be deeper than 1.5 times width of pile
group, the depth being measured from a depth of two- thirds of the length of the piles.
v. For piled foundation on rock, boring depth should be deeper than 3.0m inside bedrock.

According to Teng, for high ways and airfields minimum depth of boring is 1.5m, but should be extended
below organic soil, fill or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts.

1.8.2 Number of Borings

Boring is an expensive undertaking. One should therefore minimize the number of borings for a construction
in a given site. From experience Teng has suggested the following guideline for preliminary exploration.

Distance between boring (m) Minimum number

Horizontal stratification of soil of boring for each
Project Uniform Average Erratic structure
Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge piers, abutments, - 30 75 1-2 for each
television towers, etc foundation unit
Highways 300 150 30

1.9 DATA PRESENTATION

The results of borings, samplings, penetration tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually plotted graphically
on a sheet of drawing paper. The graphical presentation should include.

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a. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes, test pits, etc and their identification number.
b. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as established from the drillings or test pits records.
c. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface, showing the boundaries between identifiable
soil layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay layers etc.
d. The penetration number, the unconfined compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural moisture
content, and other appropriate laboratory data may be shown on each boring on the soil profile.
e. The location of ground water table should also be shown on the soil profile.

1.10 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

A soil exploration report should contain all available data from bore holes, test pits, field and laboratory tests
and site observation. Most reports have the following contents.

1. Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation carried out.

2. General description of the site: - general configuration and surface features of the site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test pits)
5. Laboratory test results.
6. Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation design and constructions.
7. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type and depth of foundations, allowable bearing pressure
and methods of construction.

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CHAPTER TWO

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS AND THEIR SELECTIONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the
ground is called foundation.

The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increase the
lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below ground level and other
artificial arrangements in the form of concrete block, grillage, raft, piles etc. at its base so as to
provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of the soil
lying underneath.

2.2 PURPOSES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations are used for the following purposes.
i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

2.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS.

Foundations can be broadly classified into the following two categories
o Shallow foundations
o Deep foundations

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2.3.1 Shallow Foundations

The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the ground level are
known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations is to distribute the structural loads
over a considerable base area at the foundation bed. Since spread foundations (shallow foundations) are
constructed in open excavations, therefore, they are termed as open foundations

Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -

a. Spread or Isolated footings
b. Combined footing
c. Cantilever footing
d. Continuous or wall footing
e. Raft foundation

Spread or Isolated Footings:- They are used to support individual column. Isolated footings are
stepped type, simple type or slope type, having projections in the base concrete. To support heavy loads,
reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement provided is in the form of steel bars and is
placed in both directions.

Fig. 3. 1 Spread or isolated footings

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Combined Footing:- A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a row.
Combined footing is used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other
considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing can be
rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if there is a space
limitation and they carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.

Fig. 3. 2 Combined footing

Cantilever or Strap Footing: - Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings connected
by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as strap footing. Cantilever footing may be
used where the distance between the columns is so great that a trapezoidal combined footing
becomes quite narrow, with resulting high bending moments. The strap beam does not remain in
contact with soil so a strap doesn’t transfer any pressure to the soil.

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Continuous or Wall Footing:- In this type of footing a single continuous reinforced concrete
slab is provided as foundation of wall and three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is
suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the
structure.

Columns
A
C

Wall b b
Plan Plan
A C

Wall Column
Footing Footing

D D
b
b
Section A.A Section C-C
Wall on footing Columns on footing

Fig. 3. 4 Continuous or wall footing

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Raft Foundation:- A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure
loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area, and it may
prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where the soil mass contains
compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control the raft tends to
bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement.

Flat plate mat foundation Two-way beam and slab

(Ribbed mat)
Fig. 3. 5 Raft footing

2.3.2 Deep Foundations.

When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak and unable to carry the load even by a raft
foundation, then eventually shallow foundation has to be ruled out, and a deep foundation, taken to
an available firm stratum, is adopted. Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles or Well (i.e.,
Caissons).

A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft, which is used to transmit the loads to deeper soil layers
capable of supporting the loads. A well on the other hand is a large diameter circular body, usually,
sunk into the ground, by removing the ground soil and it is usually adopted for structures across
rivers streams, where heavy scouring is involved, such as for supporting the piers of a road or a
railway bridge, or some monumental building.

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2.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN

2.4.1 General

The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is

1. To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, load-bearing
walls with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming
into the foundation units.
2. To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below
the ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
3. To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on soil
strength or structural requirement considerations.
4. To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable
bearing pressure.
5. To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are excessive the
bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and less
compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded on piles or other special
measures taken

2.4.2 Loads on Foundation

An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can be
properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads.
a) Dead load: - - Weight of structure
- All material permanently attached to structure
- Static earth pressure acting permanently against the
structure below ground surface.
- Water pressures acting laterally against basement walls and vertically
against slab.

b) Live load: - temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful life.
c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes provide
magnitude of design wind pressure.

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d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earthquake motion. The total lateral force
(base shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with local building code.
e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case, separate
foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be considered in
design.

2.4.3 Selection of Foundation Type

In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered

a. Function of the structure

b. Loads it must carry
c. Subsurface conditions
d. Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.

Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a decision.

i. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the superstructure and
the loads to be transmitted to the foundation
ii. Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.
iii. Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not

a. They could be constructed under existing conditions.

b. They are capable of carrying the required load.
c. They experience serious differential settlements.

The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.

iv. Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and subsurface conditions.
Determine the approximate size of footing or the approximate length and number of piles
required
v. Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
vi. Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between performance and
cost.

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3. Design of shallow Foundations

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow
foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread footings,
combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the ground the
dead load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type and magnitude of
the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the superstructure. It is up to the
foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the purpose of the superstructure, the
material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity to settlements in general and to
differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent information that may influence the
successful selection and execution of the foundation design. The foundation engineer should also
select the soil stratum that most suitable for the support of the superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that the
variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure will be uniform
if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied loads. The requirements
in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further there
should be no differential settlement.

In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive allowable soil
pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength parameters of the soil, i.e.,
the angle of internal friction, , and cohesion, C.

3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive allowable soil

pressure.
Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the allowable soil pressure for
different types of soils for uncomplicated soil conditions. Accordingly different Building codes give
allowable average soil pressure. Here EBCS 7 is presented.
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Table 3,1 Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static loading( EBCS 7)

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Supporting Description Compactness** Presumed Design Remarks

Ground Bearing
or Consistency***
Type Resistance (kPa)

Massively crystalline igneous Hard and sound

and metamorphic rock ( granite, 5600
basalt, gneiss)

Medium hard and 2800

Foliated metamorphic rock sound
(slate, schist)

Medium hard and

Sedimentary rock (hard shale, sound
siltstone, sandstone, limestone) 2800 These values
are based on
Rocks
Soft the
Weathered or broken-rock (soft 1400 assumptions
limestone) that the
foundations are
Soft carried down
Soft shale
850 to unweathered
rock
Decomposed rock to be assessed
as soil below

Non- Gravel, sand and gravel Dense 560 Width of

cohesive foundation (B)
Medium dense 420
soils not less than
Loose 280 1m

Sand Dense 420 Ground water

Medium dense 280 level assumed
to be depth not
Loose 140
less than B
below the base
of the
foundation.

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Cohesive Silt Hard 280

soils Stiff 200
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70

Clay Hard 420

Stiff 280
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70
Very soft Not applicable

* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment of the
foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30
medium dense: N is 10 to 30
loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa
stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa
medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa
soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength

3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength

parameters  and C.
For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures can not be used, one should determine
the soil strength parameters  and C. These parameters may be approximated or determined from
laboratory tests. Using the value of  and C thus obtained, one can easily determine the area of the
foundation in question using bearing capacity equations.
In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate two states of loading,
namely, the initial or instantaneous loading condition and the final or long- term loading condition.

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In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act instantaneously. At this stage the pore
water pressure in the soil does not have time to dissipate. This situation corresponds to the quick or
undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters are designated by u and Cu - in
most cases u = 0.
In the final or long-term loading condition, the load is assumed to act gradually as construction
progresses thus giving the pore water pressure in the soil ample time to dissipate. Here the situation
corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters in this case
are designated by ’ and C’.
The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a and b may be determined
from the following equation

Vult = A*qult ----------------------------------------------------------- (3.1)

Where A = a b= effective area (Fig. 3.1)

a = a-2ea = effective length

b = b-2eb= effective width

qult = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing

ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions, respectively.
The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load

Vult =F.SP ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.2)

Where F.S = factor of safety

P = actual sustained load on the foundation

b
b’

a’ . ea

eb

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Fig 3.1 Effective width and length of a foundation

One may then express Eqn. (3.1) as

F.S *P = A qult --------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.3)

From which it follows

F.SP
A = q ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.4)
ult
From Eqn. (3.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the right
hand side of the equation are known.

The ultimate bearing capacity, qult , may be determined from the following equation

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qult = CNc Scdcic+ ½ b’  N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq ---------------------

(3.5)
Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
C = Cohesion,
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
 = effective unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors
Sc, Sq ,S = Shape factors
dc ,dq, d = Depth factors
ic, iq, i , = Inclination factors
For initial loading conditions, where u = 0, the failure surface of the
soil consist of straight lines and an arc of a circle. The bearing
capacity coefficient would have the values Nc =5.14, Nq= 1.0, N = 0.
Eqn. (3.5) may be written as
qult = 5.14CuSc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq ---------------------------------
(3.6)
3.1.3 Structural Considerations.
Before going into the structural design, one should check if the
settlement of the selected foundation is within the prescribed safe
limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one should increase
the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement is
eliminated.
The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design.
One should check the adequacy of the thickness of the footing and
provide the necessary reinforcement to withstand punching shear,
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diagonal tension (wide beam shear), bending moment and bond

stress.
Shea resistance according to EBCS-2
i. Punching Shear Resistance

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Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2 u d (MN)

where k1 = ( 1+50e) ≤ 2.0
K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)
For members where more than 50 % of the bottom
reinforcement is c urtailed , k2= 1
dx  dy
d
2

e =  ex  . ey  0.015

d is the average effective hight in the x and y directions

ii . Diagonal Tension (Wide beam ) shear resistance
Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)
where k1 = ( 1+50) ≤ 2.0
K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)
For members where more than 50 % of the bottom
reinforcement is c urtailed , k2= 1
As

bw d

iii. Development length

 f yd
ld  (cm)
4 f bd
f
f yd  yk
s ; fbd  f ctd
0.35 f ck
f ctd 
c

Where As= area of tension reinforcement (m2)

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bw= width of web or rib of a member(m)

d = the distance from extreme compression to centroid of
tension reinforcement (m)
fbd= design bond strength (MPa)
fck = characteristics compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
fyd = design yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
fyk = characteristics yield strength of concrete (MPa)
u = periphery of critical section (m)
c = partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5
s = partial safety factor for steel = 1.15
 = geometrical ratio of reinforcement
e =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ex = geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the x-direction
ey= geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the y-direction
=diameter of reinforcement bar (m)
3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings
I. Depth of footing
The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to
accommodate the required footing thickness. This depth is measured
from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the bottom of the footing.
Footings should be carried below
a) zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation
b) top (organic) soil
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c) peat and muck

d) unconsolidated (or fill) material
According to EBCS-7
- minimum depth of footing should be 50cm
- for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing
should be 60cm and 90cm below ground surface on rocky
and soil formations, respectively.

Footing at different elevations: - When adjacent footings are to be

placed at different levels, the distance between the edges of footings
shall be such as to prevent undesirable overlapping of stresses in
soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to
excavation for the lower footing. A minimum clear distance of half
the width of the footing is recommended.

II. Proportioning of footing

The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions
will be determined using presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or
the soil strength parameters  and C as discussed previously.

III. Structural Design

i) Punching shear:- This factor generally controls the depth of

footings. It is the normal practice to provide adequate depth
to sustain the shear stress developed without
reinforcement. The critical section that is to be considered
is indicated in Fig. 3.2

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A b’ +3d A

b’
a
a’ +3d a’

Critical
section

1.5d Critical
1.5d
section

D d

Average soil
pressure,

Section A-A

Fig. 3.2 Critical section for punching shear

From the figure it is apparent the concrete shear resistance along the perimeter according to
EBCS2 would be

2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup …………………………………………………… (3.7)

Where Vup = punching shear resistance
The net force on the perimeter due to the soil pressure would be
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a  b  a'3d b'3d  ult ……………………………………… (3.8)

From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (3.7) and Eqn. (3.8) should be equal

2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup = a  b  a'3d b'3d  ult


2a' dVup  6d 2Vup  2b' dVup  6d 2Vup  ab  a' b'3a' d  3b' d  9d 2  ult 
2a' dVup  6d 2Vup  2b' dVup  6d 2Vup  3a' d ult  3b' d ult  9d 2 ult  ab  a' b' ult

2a' dVup  2b' dVup  12d 2Vup  9d 2 ult  3a' d ult  3b' d ult  ab  a' b' ult

d (2a'Vup  2b'Vup  3a' ult  3b' ult )  d 2 (12Vup  9 ult )  ab  a' b' ult

d 2 (12Vup  9 ul t )  d (2Vup (a'b' )  3 ult (a'b' ))  ab  a' b' ult

d 2 (12Vup  9 ul t )  d (2Vup  3 ult )(a'b' ))  ab  a' b' ult

d 2 (12Vup  9 ult )  d (2Vup  3 ult )(a'b' )  Afooting  Acolumn  ult …… (3.9)

For square columns a’ = b’ and round colmns with diameter a’, Eqn. (3.9) would be

d 2 (12Vup  9 ult )  d (2Vup  3 ult )(2a' )  A footing  Acolumn  ult …… (3.10

In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are known. By soltving one of the
equations the effective depth necessary to sustain the punching shear may be determined.

ii) Diagonal Tension (wide beam shear)

The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to withstand the
diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against diagonal tension. The
critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 3.3 .

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b
C

D D

B d B
b’
a
a’

d
Critical
section

P Critical
section

d
d

D d

Average soil
pressure,

Section B-B

Fig. 3.3 Critical section for diagonal tension

The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

V C-C = (b/2 –d - b’/2) ault ………………………………………….. (3.11)

V D-D = (a/2 –d - a’/2) bult ………………………………………….. (3.12)

The actual shear stress is then calculated from

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VC  C
v C-C = ……………………………………………………… (3.13)
ad
VD D
v D-D = ……………………………………………………. (3.14)
bd
These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with diagonal shear resistance.

iii) Bending Moment

The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined

by passing a vertical plane through the footing, and computing the
moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on one
side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the bending
moment vary according to the type of columns.

According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be

taken as follows:

a) At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings

supporting a concrete pedestal or wall
b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings
supporting a masonry wall
c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base
for footings supporting a column with base plates.

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Critical sections
varies according
to the type of
column as given
in a,b and c
a

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Column

Concrete
Column Critical
section

D d

a) ld
b
Available
embedment length

Masonry
column Critical
section

b) D d

X x/2 ld

b
Available
embedment length

Base plate Steel

column
X
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x/2 Critical
section
c) D d

ld
b
Available
embedment length
Fig. 3.4 Critical sections for moments

Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings, reinforcement
shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of
footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by
Eqn.(3.15) shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line of
column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of the
reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly out side the center
band width of the footing.
Re inf orcement in band width 2 ……………
 (3.15)
Total re inf orcement in short direction   1
Where  is the ratio of long side to short side of footing (a/b).

IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the concrete to develop proper
anchorage. This distance is called the development length.
The necessary development length may be calculated using the following equation.

 f yd
ld 
4 f bd
Minimum Footing cover (According to EBCS2-1995)
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The thickness of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be less than 150mm for footing on
soil, nor 300mm for footing on piles.

Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995)

- Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than
75mm
- Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover should
be greater than 40mm.

Spacing of reinforcement
The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of
the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a) 20mm
b) the diameter of the largest bar
c) the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm

Examples

3.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain an axial column load
of 850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m 2 is used.
b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C’ = 7.5 kN/m2 ; ’ =22.50

P=850kN

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 = 19.1kN/m3

2m

GWL

Solution
a) Using presumptive value

P 850
A   5.67m 2  B 2
 as 150
The dimension of the footing would be 2.40m X 2.40m

b) Using the bearing capacity formula

i) Initial loading condition

f = 5.1Cu Sc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq
Shape factors
Sc = 1.2 , Sq = 1

Depth factors

dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1

Load inclination factors

ic = 1 , iq = 1

Hence
ult = 5.1*40 *1.2*(1+0.8/B)*1+ 19.1*2*1**1*1 = (244.8+195.84/B +38.2)
A ult = P F.S

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P * F .S 850 * 2
A   B2
 ult 253  195.84 / B

253 B2 +195.84B – 1700 = 0

The dimension of the footing would be 2.25m X 2.25m

ii) Final or long term loading condition

ult = CNc Scdcic+ ½ B’  N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq

Bearing capacity factors

Nc= 17.45, N = 6.82, Nq = 8.23

Shape factors
Sc = 1+(Nq/ Nc)=1.47, S = 0.6 , Sq = 1+ tan = 1.41

Depth factors

dc = 1+ 0.4 (2 / B)=1+0.8/B
d = 1
dq = 1+2 tan 22.5(1-sin22.5)2(Df / B) =1+0.63/B

Load inclination factors

ic = 1, i= 1 , iq = 1

Hence
ult = 7.5*17.45*1.47*(1+0.8/B’)*1+ ½ B’ *9.1* 6.82* 0.6*1*1 + 19.1*2*8.23*
1.41*(1+0.63/B)*1 = 192.39 +153.91/B +18.62B +443.28 + 279.27/B
A ltu = P F.S
PF .S 850 * 2

 
2
B =  ult 635.67  433.18  18.62 B
B
18.62*B3 + 635.67*B2 + 433.18*B = 1700

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From the above the dimension of the footing would be 1.35m X1.35m

3.2 Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with 422.

P = 1500kN
M = 375 kN-m
Ultimate soil bearing pressure = 400kPa
fyk = 300MPa fyd = 300/1.15 = 260.87 MPa
C25 fck= 20MPafctk = 1.5 MPa,
Required:- Design of rectangular R.C. footing

P
M

l2

30 l1
b
50

Solution

Size of footing

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Let l1 = l2
a  50 b  30
Then   a  b  50  30  20cm  0.2m
2 2
M 375
Eccentricity, ea =   0.25m
P 1500
Contact pressure

min
max

P  6e a  P  6e a 
 max  1   1  
A a  ab  a 
1500  6 * 0.25 
400  1  
0.2  b b  0.2  b  
2550
400(0.20b  b 2 )  1500 
0.2  b 
400b 3  160b 2  1484b  2550  0

by trial and error b= 2.345 m

Take b= 2.4m

Then a = b+0.20m = 2.60m

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Actual contact pressure

1500  6 * 0.25 
 max  1    379.07kN / m 2   all ok
2.62.4  2.6 
1500  6 * 0.25 
 min  1    101.70kN / m 2  0 ok
2.62.4  2.6 

Thickness of the footing

i, Punching shear
The Punching shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by

Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2ud (MN)

Take d= 0.40m and  = min = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017

k1 = ( 1+50) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085
k2 = 1.6 – d =1.6 -0.4 = 1.2

u = 2(3d +b’) +2(3d+a’) = 12d +2b’ + 2a’ = 12*0.4 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =6.4

Then
Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.2 *6.4*0.4=0.83328MN = 833.28kN

2.15
0.45m 1.5d 1.5d 0.45m

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101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2
1
2


0.45 * (379.07  101.70)

 1  101.7   149.71kN / m 2
2.60
2.15 * (379.07  101.7)
 2  101.7   331.06kN / m 2
2.60
 2 331.06  149.71
 1 *1.7  *1.7  408.65kN / m
2 2
V  408.65 *1.5  612.98kN

Net shear force developed = 1500 – 612.98 = 887.02 kN  Vup not ok 

Since the developed shear force is greater than the punching shear resistance, one may
increase the depth.

Take d= 0.45m and  = min = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017

k1 = ( 1+50) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085
k2 = 1.6 – d =1.6 -0.45 = 1.15

u = 2(3d +b’) +2(3d+a’) = 12d +2b’ + 2a’ = 12*0.45 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =7

Then

Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.15 *7*0.45=0.98260MN = 982.60kN

2.225
0.375m 1.5d
1.5d 0.375m

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101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2
1
2


0.375 * (379.07  101.70)

 1  101.7   141.71kN / m 2
2.60
2.225 * (379.07  101.7)
 2  101.7   339.07kN / m 2
2.60
 2 339.07  141.71
 1 *1.85  *1.85  444.72kN / m
2 2
V  444.72 *1.65  733.79kN
Net shear force developed = 1500 – 733.79 = 766.21 kN < Vup ok 

The depth satisfies the punching shear requirement for the assumed min.

ii, Wide beam shear

1.05m
1.55m
d

101.7kN/m2  379.07kN/m2

1

Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column, 

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  101.7 
379.07  101.7(1.55  0.45)
2.60

  315.06kN / m2

    379.07  315.06 
 1   max 1.05  d    0.6
 2   2 
 208.24kN / m
Developed wide beam shear

Vd = 208.24 *2.4 =499.78kN

The wide beam shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by

Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)

= 0.25*1*1.085*1.15*2.4*0.45 =0.33689MN =336.89kN < Vd not ok 

Since the developed shear force is greater than the wide beam shear resistance, one may
increase the depth

Take d = 0.60m

Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column, 

  101.7 
379.07  101.7(1.55  0.60
2.60

  331.06kN / m2

    379.07  331.06 
 1   max 1.05  d    0.45
 2   2 
 159.78kN / m
Developed wide beam shear

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Vd = 159.78 *2.4 =383.47kN

Wide beam shear resistance

Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)
= 0.25*1*1.085*1*2.4*0.60 =0.3906MN =390.60kN > Vd ok 

Bending Moment

1.35m

1.05m

101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2

 2 1

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1.55 * (379.07  101.7)
  101.70   267.06 N / m 2
2.60
1
 1  (1.05)(379.07  267.06)  58.81kN / m
2
 2  (1.05)(267.06)  280.41kN / m
 2 1.05 
M   1 (1.05)   2 ( ) b
 3 2 
 1.05 
M  58.81 (1.05)  280.41(
2
) 1  188.38kN  m / m
 3 2 

Moment capacity of concrete

M  0.32  f cd  bd 2
 0.32 11.33  10 3 1.0  0.6  1305.22kN  m / m
2

Calculation of reinforcement

Long direction


f cd 2M 
 1  1  

f yd f cd bd 2 

11.33  2  188.38 
 1  1  2 
 0.0021   min
260.87  11.33  10 3  1.0  0.6 
As  bd  0.0021  100  60  12.6cm 2 / m

use 16

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as 100 2.01100
spacing    16cm
As 12.6

Use 16c/c16cm

Short direction

1.15m
0.85m


1

Average contact pressure,

 max   min
 avg 
2
379.07  101.7
 avg   240.39kN / m 2
2

 1.05 
M   1 ( ) a
 2 
 1.05 
M  240.39( ) 1  126.21kN  m / m
 2 

f cd  2M 
 1  1  
f yd  f cd bd 2 

11.33  2  126.21 
 1  1  2 
 0.0014   min
260.87  11.33  10 3  1.0  0.584 
As   min bd  0.0017  100  58.4  9.928cm 2 / m

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as  100 2.01  100

spacing    20.2cm
As 9.98
Use 16c/c20cm

Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these reinforcement uniformly.

Development length
 f yd
ld 
4 f bd

f yd 
f yk
 260.87 MPa
; f bd  f ctd
s

0.35 f ck 0.35 20
f ctd    1MPa
c 1.5

 f yd 1.6  260.87
ld    104.35cm
4 f bd 4 1

ldavailable = 100cm < ld , bend the bars upward with a minimum length
of 10cm

3.3 Combined Footing

A) Rectangular Combined footing

a) Area of use :- Used to carry two or more columns in one row
-used to carry two columns when X’ = L’/2,
X’= distance to center of gravity of column load

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X’

c.g

L’

b) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing

c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam

In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing with effective widths
at exterior and interior columns being a’ +d/2 and a’ +d respectively

a’ a’

a’+d/2 a’+d

d) Design procedure
i) determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of footing
area coincides that of the c.g. of loads

i.e., L = 2x’

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ii) determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded

P
i.e., B
L all
iii) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing
iv) calculate depth of footing
v) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

B) Trapezoidal combined footing

Area of use:- used in case where exterior column carries largest load and X’ < L’/2 but X’ >
X’
L’/3

c.g
B1 B2

L’
L

a) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to that of
rectangular combined footing.
c) Design procedure

1) determine the sizes of footing (L,B1,B2) from conditions that

i) the minimum required are

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 Foundation Engineering

P
A
 all
 B  B2 
A 1 L
 2 

ii) the c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The distance to
the c.g. of trapezoidal footing x’ is calculated from

L  2 B2  B1 
X'  
3  B2  B1 

2) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footing. In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are 2 nd degree
and 3rd degree curves, respectively.

3) calculate depth of footing

4) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement

3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footings

Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the cost of combined footings
is relatively high.
Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two pads (footings) to transmit
unbalanced shear and moment from the statically unbalanced footing to the second fotting.

Design Assumptions
- strap is infinitely rigid
- strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this,
strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).

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a1 a2
Strap

b2
b1 b’ b’’
a’ a’’

WS XS
P1 XC P2

a1 a2

a2
a1
XR
a’/2 R2
e R1
a/2

1. a) Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.

a1  a '
e
2
e  XC  X R
b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R 2.

Xc X
R1  P1  Ws s
XR XR
In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the strap is relatively short.

c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration

R2  P1  P2  Ws  R1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and all.

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 Foundation Engineering

R1
b1 
 a1 * a1
R2
b2 
 a 2 * a2

R2
(For square footing b2  a2  . For rectangular footing assume some value of a2
 a2
and determine b2).

It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the footings should not very
different from each other in order to minimize differential settlement.

3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of the
footings.
4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil pressure.
7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.

3.5 Mat/Raft Foundation

Mat or raft foundation is a large concrete slab supporting several columns in two or more
rows. It is used where the supporting soil has low bearing capacity. The bearing capacity increased
by combining all individual footings in to one mat –since bearing capacity is proportional to width
and depth of foundations. In addition to increasing the bearing capacity, mat foundations tend to
bridge over irregularities of the soil and the average settlement does not approach the extreme
values of isolated footings. Thus mat foundations are often used for supporting structures that are
sensitive to differential settlement.

Design of uniform mat

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 Foundation Engineering
Design Assumptions
- mat is infinitely rigid
- planner soil pressure distribution under mat

Design Procedure
i) Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on the mat
ii) Determine the contact pressure distribution as under
a) If the resultant passes through the center of gravity of the mat, the contact pressure is
given by

Q

A
b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in the x and y direction

Q Qe x Qe y
   x y
A Iyy Ixx

The maximum contact pressure should be less than the allowable soil pressure
c) Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed to act as
independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the columns loads.
d) Determine the modified column loads
e) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for each strip.
f) Select depth of mat for shear requirement
g) Select steel reinforcement for moment requirement

X
ex
. ey
X

Y
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 Foundation Engineering

4. Analysis and Proportioning of Retaining walls

Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability of earth or other material where conditions
disallow the mass to assume its natural slope.
Common Types of retaining walls
1. Gravity walls:-
- made of plain concrete or stone masonry
- depends upon its weight for stability
- trapezoidal in section with the base projecting beyond the face and back of the wall.
- no tensile stress in any portion of the wall
- economically used for walls less than 6m high

2. Cantilever walls
- made of reinforced concrete material
- inverted T-shaped in section with each projecting acts as a cantilever
- economically used for walls greater than 6 to 7.5m high

Vertical stem

Toe

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 Foundation Engineering

3. Counterfort walls
- made of reinforced concrete materials
- consists of cantilever wall with vertical brackets known as counterfort placed behind face of wall
- ordinarily used for walls height greater than 6.0m

Counterfort

4. Buttress walls
- same as counterfort except that the vertical brackets are on the opposite side of the backfill

Vertical stem

Toe

Heal

Common Proportions of Retaining walls

The usual practice in the design of retaining walls is to assign tentative dimensions and then check
for the overall stability of the structure. In figures shown below the common proportions based on
experience are indicated for the three types of retaining walls.

i) Gravity Wall 30cm to H/2

1
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 Foundation Engineering

50

lt = Df/2 to Df lh = 10 to 15cm H

Df = H/8 to H/6

B = H/2 to ⅔ H

ii) Cantilever wall

Min. 30cm

50

lt = B/3 bs = H/12 to H/10 H

Df = H/12 to H/10
B = 0.4 to 0.7H

i) Counterfort wall

Min. 30cm

50
H

Min. 30cm
Df = H/14 to H/12
H/14 to H/12 H/14 to H/12
B = 0.4 to 0.7H
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 Foundation Engineering

Forces on Retaining Walls

The forces that should be considered in the design of retaining walls include
i) Active and passive earth pressures
ii) Dead weight including the weight of the wall and portion of soil mass that is
considered to act on the retaining structure
iii) Surcharge including live loads, if any
iv) Water pressure, if any
v) Contact pressure under the base of the structure

PA

WS
WC

Fr
qh
qt

Rs

Fr = Rstan + CB , Rs = W C +Ws +PA sin

= ⅔  to  (of foundation soil) , C= ½ C to ¾ C (of foundation soil)
Stability of Retaining Walls
Retaining walls should be designed to provide adequate stability against sliding, overturning,
foundation bearing failure and overall or deep foundation failure.
1. Sliding stability

Horizontal resisting force FR

Factor of safety = 
Horizontasliding force PAh
Factor of safety  1.5 for granular soils
Factor of safety  2.0 for cohesive soils
2. Overturning Stability

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 Foundation Engineering

Sum of moments to resist overturning M s

Factor of safety = 
Sum of overturning moments Mo

R
 PAv
PA
W

PAh

h1

b1
B

Ms = Wb1,
Mo = PAhh1-PAvB
Factor of safety  1.5 for granular backfill
Factor of safety  2.0 for cohesive backfill
If the line of action of the resultant force on wall acts within the middle third width of the base,
wall is safe against overturning
3. Foundation stability

R


W PA

Rv

Rh
qh
qt

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 Foundation Engineering

qt Rv  6e 
 1  
qh B  B
Where e= eccentricity of Rv
qt  qall , qall = qult/F.S
F. S = Factor of safety = 2 and 3 for granular and cohesive soils, respectively.
4. Deep foundation failure ( Overall stability)
If layer of weak soil is located within a depth of about 1 ½ times the height of the retaining wall
the overall stability of retaining wall should be investigated. E.g. using Swedish circle method

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