SQL

SQL Overview
• Structured Query Language

• The standard for relational database

management systems (RDBMS)

• RDBMS: A database management system

that manages data as a collection of tables in
which all relationships are represented by
common values in related tables
 History of SQL
• 1970–E. Codd develops relational database
concept
• 1974-1979–System R with Sequel (later SQL)
created at IBM Research Lab
• 1979–Oracle markets first relational DB with
SQL
• 1986–ANSI SQL standard released
• 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003–Major ANSI standard
updates
• Current–SQL is supported by most major
database vendors
 Purpose of SQL Standard
• Specify syntax/semantics for data definition
and manipulation
• Define data structures
• Enable portability
• Allow for later growth/enhancement to
standard
 Benefits of a Standardized
Relational Language
• Reduced training costs
• Productivity
• Application portability
• Application longevity
• Reduced dependence on a single vendor
• Cross-system communication
 SQL Environment
• Catalog
– A set of schemas that constitute the description of a
database
• Schema
– The structure that contains descriptions of objects created
by a user (base tables, views, constraints)
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
– Commands that define a database, including creating,
altering, and dropping tables and establishing constraints
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
– Commands that maintain and query a database
• Data Control Language (DCL)
– Commands that control a database, including administering
privileges and committing data
simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as
described by the SQL-2003 standard
Some SQL Data types
DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process
 SQL Database Definition
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Major CREATE statements:
– CREATE SCHEMA–defines a portion of the
database owned by a particular user
– CREATE TABLE–defines a table and its columns
– CREATE VIEW–defines a logical table from one or
more views
• Other CREATE statements: CHARACTER
SET, COLLATION, TRANSLATION,
ASSERTION, DOMAIN
 Table Creation Steps in table creation:
1. Identify data types for
General syntax for CREATE TABLE attributes
2. Identify columns that can
and cannot be null
3. Identify columns that
must be unique
(candidate keys)
4. Identify primary
key–foreign key mates
5. Determine default values
6. Identify constraints on
columns (domain
specifications)
7. Create the table and
associated indexes
The following slides create tables for
this enterprise data model
SQL database definition commands for Pine Valley Furniture

Overall table
definitions
Defining attributes and their data types
 Non-nullable specification

Primary keys
can never have
Identifying primary key NULL values
 Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite–

composed of multiple attributes
Controlling the values in attributes

Default value

Domain constraint
Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of
parent table

Foreign key of
dependent table
Changing and Removing Tables
• ALTER TABLE statement allows you to
change column specifications:
– ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER_T ADD (TYPE
VARCHAR(2))
• DROP TABLE statement allows you to
remove tables from your schema:
– DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T
 Insert Statement
• Adds data to a table
• Inserting into a table
– INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES (001,
‘Contemporary Casuals’, ‘1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’,
‘FL’, 32601);
• Inserting a record that has some null attributes
requires identifying the fields that actually get data
– INSERT INTO PRODUCT_T (PRODUCT_ID,
PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE,
PRODUCT_ON_HAND) VALUES (1, ‘End Table’, ‘Cherry’, 175, 8);
• Inserting from another table
– INSERT INTO CA_CUSTOMER_T SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T
WHERE STATE = ‘CA’;
 Delete Statement
• Removes rows from a table
• Delete certain rows
– DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE
STATE = ‘HI’;
• Delete all rows
– DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;
 Update Statement

• Modifies data in existing rows

• UPDATE PRODUCT_T SET UNIT_PRICE =

775 WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;
 SELECT Statement
• Used for queries on single or multiple tables
• Clauses of the SELECT statement:
– SELECT
• List the columns (and expressions) that should be returned from the query
– FROM
• Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
– WHERE
• Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
– GROUP BY
• Indicate categorization of results
– HAVING
• Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included
– ORDER BY
• Sorts the result according to specified criteria
 SELECT Example
• Find products with standard price less than
$275

SELECT PRODUCT_NAME, STANDARD_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

Comparison Operators in SQL

 SELECT Example Using Alias

• Alias is an alternative column or table name

SELECT CUST.CUSTOMER AS NAME,

CUST.CUSTOMER_ADDRESS
FROM CUSTOMER_V CUST
WHERE NAME = ‘Home Furnishings’;
 SELECT Example
Using a Function
• Using the COUNT aggregate function to find
totals

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ORDER_LINE_V

WHERE ORDER_ID = 1004;

Note: with aggregate functions you can’t have

single-valued columns included in the SELECT
clause
SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
• AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing
conditions in WHERE clause

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH,

STANDARD_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_V
WHERE (PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Desk’
OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Table’)
AND UNIT_PRICE > 300;
Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards.
For example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that all strings that
have any number of characters preceding the word “Desk” will be allowed
 SELECT Example –
Sorting Results with the ORDER BY Clause
• Sort the results first by STATE, and within a
state by CUSTOMER_NAME

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE

FROM CUSTOMER_V
WHERE STATE IN (‘FL’, ‘TX’, ‘CA’, ‘HI’)
ORDER BY STATE, CUSTOMER_NAME;
Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include rows whose
STATE value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It is more efficient than separate
OR conditions
Retrieval from Two Tables (Join)
• Most requirements will involve extracting data
from more than one relation.

• There are number of types of join (Inner Join,

Outer Join ..)

• General features are demonstrated by

equi-join, which combines tuples in two
relations when specified attributes have the
same value.
Retrieval from Two Tables (Join)
SELECT PRODUCT_T.*, ORDER_LINE_T.*

FROM PRODUCT_T, ORDER_LINE_T

WHERE

PRODUCT_T.PRODUCT_ID = ORDER_LINE_T.PRODUCT_ID
 Using and Defining Views
• Views provide users controlled access to tables
• Base Table–table containing the raw data
• Dynamic View
– A “virtual table” created dynamically upon request by a user
– No data actually stored; instead data from base table made
available to user
– Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other
views
• Materialized View
– Copy or replication of data
– Data actually stored
– Must be refreshed periodically to match the corresponding
base tables
 Sample CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V AS
SELECT PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_NAME, UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_T
WHERE UNIT_PRICE >300
WITH CHECK_OPTION;

▪View has a name

▪View is based on a SELECT statement
▪CHECK_OPTION works only for
updateable views and prevents updates that
would create rows not included in the view
 Advantages of Views
• Simplify query commands
• Assist with data security (but don't rely on views
for security, there are more important security
measures)
• Enhance programming productivity
• Contain most current base table data
• Use little storage space
• Provide customized view for user
• Establish physical data independence
 Disadvantages of Views
• Use processing time each time view is
referenced
• May or may not be directly updateable
 Routines and Triggers
• Routines
– Program modules that execute on demand
– Functions–routines that return values and
take input parameters
– Procedures–routines that do not return
values and can take input or output
parameters
• Triggers
– Routines that execute in response to a
database event (INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE)
Triggers contrasted with stored procedures
Procedures are called explicitly

Triggers are event-driven

Source: adapted from Mullins, 1995.
 Routines
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE PRODUCT_LINE_SALE AS
BEGIN
UPDATE PRODUCT_T
SET SALE_PRICE = .90 * STANDARD_PRICE
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE > = 400;

UPDATE PRODUCT_T
SET SALE_PRICE = .85 * STANDARD_PRICE
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 400;
END;

To run the procedure in Oracle, use this command:

SQL> EXEC PRODUCT_LINE_SALE

 Triggers
CREATE TRIGGER ORDER_ID_BIR
BEFORE INSERT ON ORDER_T
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SELECT ID_SEQUENCE.NEXTVAL
INTO :NEW.ORDER_ID
FROM DUAL;
END ORDER_ID_BIR;