UNIT-IV WIND ENERGY

 WIND PATTERNS.
 TYPES OF TURBINES.
 KINETIC ENERGY OF WIND.
 BETZ COEFFICIENT.
 TIP-SPEED RATIO.
 EFFICIENCY.
 POWER OUTPUT OF WIND TURBINE.
 SELECTION OF GENERATOR.
 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING.
Wind energy:
Can be economically used for the generation of electrical energy. Winds are caused due to
Heating and cooling of the main atmosphere which generates convection currents. The
rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere, and its motion around the sun. The potential
of wind energy is abundant. 1.6*107 MW. (Same order of present energy consumption) Wind
mill is drives generator to produce electricity. Water pumping for irrigation and drinking
water Required Wind speed range is 8 to 36Km per hour In India, coastal areas of Saurashtra,
western Rajasthan and some parts of central India.
Benefits
 Large-scale wind energy is becoming cost competitive with traditional power
generation.
 Wind is abundunt all over the world.
 Wind patterns tend to flow consumption patterns.
 Turbines co-exist nicely with farms supplying additional income with minimal impact
on the usable land.
POTENTIAL:
Global wind power has doubled over the last 3 years, which now accounts for 2% of the
world‘s electricity production, and as much as 20% in some countries. It is estimated that13%
of the worlds land area has wind speeds greater than 6.9 m/s at commercial wind turbine
heights; this could theoretically produce 40 times the world's current electricity production.
Although the total quantity of wind energy potentially available is considerable, there remain
obstacles to the substantial expansion of this industry. Critics claim that wind power cannot
replace conventional power sources since these still need to be available for when the wind
isn‘t blowing, and these are expensive to keep in reserve and waiting on part load, reducing

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overall energy efficiency. For low contributions, wind power can be considered largely
additional, since reserves are always needed to cater for unexpected unava ilability of the
largest single power source and
Having a large number of smaller generating units can sometimes be beneficial. In addition to
providing replacement power, wind plants reduce emissions by forcing the most polluting
and inflexible power plants offline with more efficient and flexible types of generation.
However, with increasing use of wind energy in the system the proportion of conventional
plant wind replaces reduces, and consistent wind power generation requires high voltage
connections to wind farms over a wide area. Further expansion of the industry may also
require energy storage technologies to balance fluctuations of supply and demand; these
include hydroelectricity, compressed air storage and electro-chemical batteries. The latter
option is particularly interesting in view of the potential use of battery-electric vehicles in the
future since their batteries
could be charged overnight when power demand is low and used to supply power during
peak demand periods. Peak electricity demand could also be reduced through pricing
structures and switching off non-essential appliances.
In addition to to replacing carbon intensive electricity production, wind power can drive heat
pumps for space heating or charge vehicle batteries for transport, reducing natural gas and
petroleum use. These are more efficient methods of producing heat and work than the
traditional methods they replace, so direct comparisons of energy cannot usually be made .
For example, one popular book grossly underestimated the potential contribution of wind
power, partly because it compared the electricity generated from wind turbines with the
primary chemical energy in fossil fuel directly.
Sources/origins of wind
Following are the two sources / origins of wind
1. local winds
2. planetary winds
Local winds: these winds are caused by unequal heating and cooling of ground surfaces and
ocean/lake surfaces during day and night. During the day warmer air over land rises upwards
and colder air from lakes, ocean, forest areas, and shadow areas flows towards warmer zones.
Planetary winds: these winds are caused by daily rotation of earth around its polar axis and
unequal temperature polar regions and equatorial regions. The strength and direction of these
planetary winds change with the seasons as the solar input varies.

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Why wind circulates?

Wind circulates due to uneven heating of earth surface. At the poles of the earth, cold air
circulates where as at the equator due to heating by sun radiation hot air circulates, Due to
this pressure difference exits between air at the poles(high pressure) and air at the
equator(low pressure) Hence the air at the equator is buoyed up by the cold air of the poles.
In the upper atmosphere, the air at the equator flow backwards towards the poles which
results in global convective circulation with surface winds from north to south direction. in
the northern hemisphere.

 The wind flow is also effected by earths rotation.

 During day time the land gets quickly heated than the sea/ water. Hence the wind flow
is from land to sea.
 During night time ,The land again quickly cools than the sea. Hence the wind flow is
from sea to land.
Local winds are caused by two mechanisms:
Sea breeze
During day, the air above the land gets heated up quickly than the air above
the sea surface. Hence the air above land rises up and the cooler air form sea will replaced.
This is the mechanism of sea breeze.
Hills & mountain sides:
During day time the mountain slopes gets heated up fast as compared to low lands.
Hence the air at the slopes gets heated raises and the low land air replaces.
During night time the mountain slopes gets cooled fast as compared to low land. Hence this
cold air gets replaced to by the hot air.
Characteristics of wind:
The main characteristics of wind are
1. Wind speed increases roughly as 1/7 th power of height. Typical tower heights are about
20-30m

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2. Energy-pattern Factor :
It is ratio of the actual energy in varying wind to energy calculated from the cube mean wind
speed. This factor is always grater than unity which means the energy estimates based on
mean speed are pessimistic.
Considerations for selection of site for wind energy conversion systems (WECS):
1. Availability of anemometry data.
2. High annual average wind speed.
3. Availability of wind curve at the proposed site.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site.
5. Altitude of the proposed site.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic.
7. Local ecology.
8. Distance to roads or railways.
9. Nearness of site to local centre / users.
10. Favorable land cost.
11. Nature of ground.
Advantages and Disadvantages of wind energy:
Advantages:
 It is a renewable energy source.
 Wind power systems being non polluting have no adverse effect on the environment.
 Fuel provision and transport are not required in wind energy conversion systems.
 Economically competitive.
 Ideal choice for rural and remote areas which lack other energy sources.
Disadvantages:
 Owing to its irregularity the wind energy needs storage.
 Availability of energy is fluctuating in nature.
 The overall weight of a wind power system is relatively high.
 Wind energy conversion systems are noisy in operation
 Large areas are required for installation / operation of wind energy systems.
 Low energy density
 Wind turbine design, manufacture and installation have proved to be most complex
due to several variables and extreme stresses.

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 Requires energy storage batteries and or stand by diesel generators for supply of
continuous power to load.
 Wind farms require flat, vacant land free from forests.
 Only in KW and few MW range it does not meet the energy needs to large cities and
industry.
Basic components of Wind Ene rgy Conversion System.(WECS)
The block diagram of wind system is shown in figure

Wind energy pattern factor: (EPF)

The energy pattern factor is the ratio of power from speed distribution to the power from
coverage speed of the turbine blades.
EPF = Power from Speed Distribution / Power from Average Speed.
 The aero turbine converts the kinetic energy of moving air to rotary mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is transmitted to the generator shaft via belts and gear
box.

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 Generally for the operation it requires pitch control & yaw control.
Yaw control:
1) Yaw fixed
2) Yaw active
 The direction of the wind gets changed continuously. And always the blades of the
turbine should be perpendicular to the wind direction. of course then we use a small
motor which changes the direction of the turbine blades about the vertical axis in
order to face the blades perpendicularly to the wind direction. Therefore area of the
blades sweeping the air will be maximum.
In small aero turbines, Yaw is controlled through a tail vane. And In large aero turbines. Yaw
is controlled using servo mechanism.

The purpose of the controller is to sense the wind speed, torque, temperature of the generator
at specific times and issues a control signal in order to get desired output power for input
wind.
Also controller helps to protect during extreme situations suc h as cyclones, strong winds and
electrical faults.
The sub components of the windmill consists of:
1) Rotor
2) Windmill head
3) Transmission & control
4) Supporting structure.

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1. Rotor: based on orientation of axis of rotation of rotors Rotor can be classified as:

a) Horizontal axis rotors b) Vertical axis rotors

An advantage of vertical axis is that they can be operated in all wind directions. Hence no
need of YAW adjustment
2. Windmill head:
Supports the rotor and rotor bearings. Also its houses control mechanisms like pitch & yaw
adjustment and other safety devices. The tail vane is mounted on the top of the supporting
mechanism on suitable bearings.

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3. Transmission & control:

 The speed of the blades can be increased by adjusting pitch angle. However still it is
at low speed
 In order to bring to a rated speed ,it is necessary to bring the low rotor speed to high
by using transmission .This transmission involves gears, belts ,chains and hydra ulic
systems.
 Fixed ratio gears are recommended for top mountings as they are highly efficient and
minimal system risk.
 Bottom mounted gears requires right angle drive, but they were at low cost. This
combination offers high degree of design, flexibility, and savings.

4. Generators:
 Either fixed speed or variable speed generators can be used.
 However, Variable speed generators are expensive and under developed
 Fixed speed generators are better suited.
 Induction motor’s or permanent magnet synchronous generators .
5. Control’s:
We should need a versatile control to monitor and perform different tasks in the wind
turbine.
 It should orient the rotor automatically towards the direction of wind
 Should control the power of the rotor by varying the pitch of the blades
 Generator output monitoring
 Should isolate the generator and grid if there is any malfunction.

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 Auxiliary and emergency power

 Maintenance mode.
For performing the above said tasks, we need different kinds of sensors and actuators.
Sensors: mechanical, electrical, or pneumatic
Decision elements: relays, gates, microprocessor, logic modules
Actuators : hydraulic ,electric, pneumatic.
Tower:
Its a supporting structure.We have
1) Reinforced concrete structure
2) Pole tower
3) Shell tube tower
4) Truss tower

 Truss tube tower is preferred as it is stiff, low cost and easily transported. Moreover
shell tube is also competent With truss tube tower.
 The height of the tower is related to transmission system employed.
 Horizontal wind turbines are mounted on the top of the tower which is above the level
of the turbulence and ground related effects.
 Winds after encountering the blades of the turbine, will change in the force,.As a
result, it causes vibrations in the tower.
Classification of wind turbines based on wind flow:
Based on geometry of wind flow the wind turbines are classified into
a) Lift type

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b) Drag type.
Lift type :
 In this wind flow lifts the blades up which causes rotation of the blades.
Generally high speed turbines utilizes lift forces for their rotation.
 A faster turbine utilizes aerofoil type design for reducing the effects of drag forces.
 Lift type turbines are used for power generation.

Drag type:
 In this wind flow against the blades which cause the rotation of the blades.
 A slow speed turbine utilizes drag forces. However for drag force turbines the shaft
torque is high. Hence they can be used for mechanical applications such as pumping
water etc,

Classification of wind energy systems:

1) Horizontal axis machines
2) Vertical axis machines
1)Horizontal axis machines:
 This is a simple turbine installed with horizontally axis

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This horizontal machines can be further classified as

a) Horizontal axis with two aero-dynamic blades:
In this rotor drives the generator through step- up gear box.
 The components of this machines are fixed on a bed plate and is attached to the pintel
at top of the tower.
 This rotor blades are continuously encountered by unsteady aerodynamic,
gravitational and inertial loads.
 If the blades were made up of metal, reduces fatigue life and tower will also be
subjected to same forces.

 If this vibration matches to the natural vibration of the tower, Tower may be
collapsed
 Because of the high cost of the blades, More than two blades are not recommended.

b) Horizontal axis propeller type using single blade:

In this a long single blade is mounted on the rigid hub.
If long blade (>60M) is used ,it may causes root bending movements ma y occur due to
gravitational and sudden shifts in the wind direction.
To reduce cost, a small counter weight has to be attached to the blade which balances the
long blade centrifugally.

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Advantage of single blade rotor:

1) Simple blade control
2) Counter weight cost less than the second blade
3) Counter weight can be inclined to reduce blade coning
4) Pitch bearings do not carry centrifugal force.
Disadvantages:
1) Vibrations are produced due to aerodynamic torque
2) Unconventional appearance
3) Starting torque is low due to ground boundary condition.
C) Horizontal axis multi blade type:
 This design uses no of blades made up of sheet metal and aluminum.
 This rotor have high strength to weight ratio and can sustain to work even under 60
km/h wind speeds
 This are tend to have good power coefficient, high starting torque, and simplicity and
low cost.

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D) Horizontal axis Dutch type:

 This is the oldest design available.
 The blade surfaces are made up of wooden slats which feather at high speeds.

E) Sail type:
 It is a recent technology
 The blades are made up of cloth ,nylon or plastic arranged as mast
 There are different kinds of sails used.

Horizontal type wind turbines are having better performance.

The main areas of application of horizontal winds turbines
i) Electrical power generation

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ii) Water pumping

However the second application is tend to be complex and harder task as the power of the
wind mill has to be transmitted to the reciprocating pump.

Vertical axis wind turbines:

This machines uses drag forces to turn the rotor blades
The blades of the machines are in different shapes such as plates, cups, and s-shaped
structures,

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Vertical axis wind mills has high starting torque but have relatively low power output of
given rotor size.
principles of vertical axis rotors can be classified as
a) drag cup principle
b) lift rotors principle.
a) Drag cup rotor:
Whenever the concave side encounters wind speed, the rotor rotates. This type of rotors can
rotate even for small wind pressure. However this type of rotors cannot drive the load
attached to it.Hence this type of rotors cannot be used for large scale generation of electricity.
b) Lift type rotors
• In this type the rotor rotates when the convex side faces wind pressure. This rotor
rotates due to pressure reduction at their convex surfaces.
• Vertical axis rotors can be operated without yaw control. Because they tend to rotate
for all directions of wind. This vertical axis machines are also called as “panemones”
• Another important consideration is that the generator, bearings and other parts can be
fixed on ground rather than the top of the tower.

Advantages of vertical axis wind mills:

1. The rotor is not subjected to continuous cyclic gravity loads since the blades do not
turn end over end.
2. Since these machines would react to wind from any direction, therefore they do not
need yawing equipment to turn the rotor into wind.

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3. As heavy components can be located at ground level these machines may need less
structural support.
4. The installation and maintenance are easy in this type of configuration.
Vertical axis wind rotors can be classified as two types:
i) Savonius rotor
ii) Darrieus rotor
Savonius rotor:
 This are similar in construction to the drag cup rotor principle and perhaps most
simplest of the modern types
 The main advantage of this rotor is that it can rotate even under low velocity winds
 It consists of two half semi circular cylinder blades facing opposite direction. They
are almost in s-shaped cross-section.
 This two blades are mounted on a vertical axis perpendicular to the wind direction
with a gap between the blades.
 This rotor rotates such that it faces convex side surface to wind .If wind speed is
greater than in the convex side than the round surface, the blades tends to rotate.
 Air whips around inside surface and forward moving cup face making the rotor to
rotate in one direction.

 The ratio of height to the diameter can be varied. Generally it is in the ratio of 3:1
 The power coeffiecnt of the rotor is low. But It can be increased by increasing more
no of vanes.
Characteristics of Savonius rotor:
i) Self starting torque
ii) Low speeds

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iii) Low efficiency.

Advantages:
i) Eliminates the extensive slower transmission equipment from rotor to the ground.
ii) Has low cut in speed. Can run even under 8km/h wind speeds
iii) Weight of the electric generator may be carried on the ground, without use of level
gears.
iv) Cost is low as compared to other wind systems
v) Requires small structure and reduced tower costs.
vi) No yaw and pitch controls
vii) Ground level monitoring is easy, as generator and gear can be monitored and
maintained easily on ground level.
Disadvantages:
i) This type of rotor is too solid and may be impossible to control during cyclones times
as there is no pitch control.
ii) May be difficult in tall installation as the shaft required to drive the generator will be
lengthier. Where as in horizontal axis machines, the generator lies beside the rotor
requiring small shat lengths.
Applications od Savonius rotor:
1) Used for pumping, wind blowers, grinding, and bird scrarers.
2) Can be used with Darrieus rotors for starting purpose.
Darrieus rotor:
 This type of rotors comes under air lift principle discussed earlier.
 This consists of a rapid rotating propeller having thin air foils which can effectively
intercept large area of wind with thin blades.
It consists of two or three thin curved shaped with air foil cross section and constant
chord

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 Both the ends of the blades are attached to the central vertical shaft.
 Force in the blades due to rotation is pure tension. This provides stiffness to winds it
encounters.
 At the base of the central shaft, we have a generator for power generation.
 This type of rotors are less solidity, and low starting torque and high tip to wind
speeds. Hence produces large output power for the given rotor weight and cost.
Various types of Darrieus rotors are
1) ᴓ-Darrieus
2) Δ-Darrieus
3) Y-Darrieus
4) -Darrieus.
This rotors consists of 1,2,3 or more blades
Performance characteristics of wind machines:
The below graph shows torque vs. tip speed ratio for different no of blades.

For electric power generation, the speed of the turbine should be high while the torque of the
turbine should be low. As seen from the graph, two or three blade machines are best suitable
for electric power generation.
 For multi blade machines, from graph the torque is high and the tip speed is low.
Hence this type of wind systems are used for water pumping.
 It is impossible to attain same efficiency for all wind speeds.
 There is a minimum wind speed below which no power can be generated because of
frictional losses
 Also there is a maximum wind speed , after which the rotor power is stabilized by
stabilizing rotor speed.

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 If wind speed is higher, the rotor blades get automatically reduced to decrease the
effective area of the blades. As a result the power extracted from the wind decreases.
 Only at the intermediate wind speeds, there will be optimum system efficiency. And
the power generated will follow U3 rule.
MPPT FOR WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS
 MPPT is needed in WECS to obtain maximum power from the wind system at
different prevailing wind speeds this can be obtained by adjusting the turbine speed in
such a way that optimal tip speed ratio is obtained.
The characteristics show wind turbine operating at different speeds
PM – Mechanical power of the turbine
WM – Mechanical speed of the turbine.
From the characterstics, for a given wind speed, the maximum power point
corresponds to optimal tip speed ratio TSROPT .

Parking mode:
 When the wind speed is below cutin speed, power generated insufficient to meet
internal losses. In this condition, the turbine blades are pitch out and mechanical brake
is on.
Generator mode:
 In this condition, the wind speed is between cutin and rated speed. During this, the
turbine blades are pitch in to maximize the exposure to wind and turbine operates at
variable speeds to track MPPT at different wind speeds.
Pitch control:

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When the wind speeds are greater than rated speeds, the turbine blades are pitch out so the
speed reduces in order to maintain constant generator power to grid. And ensuring no damage
to the turbine in case of strong winds.
MPPT WITH TURBINE POWER PROFILE:

This method uses PM Vs WM Curve provided by the manufacture.

 The wind speed is measured by a wind sensor and according to MPPT provided by
the manufacture , the reference mechanical power P M* is generated and sent to the
generator control system.
 The generator control system compares the reference power P M* and actual measured
power PM to produce control signals to the converter.
 Hence with the converter operation accordingly to the control signals we can achieve
the generated power PM will be equal to reference power P M* .
TIP-SPEED RATIO:
 The tip-speed ratio λ or TSR for wind turbines is the ratio between the tangential
speed of the tip of a blade and the actual speed of the wind, U .The tip-speed ratio is
related to efficiency, with the optimum varying with blade design. Higher tip speeds
result in higher noise levels and require stronger blades due to large centrifugal forces.

 The tip speed of the blade can be calculated as ω times R, where ω is the rotor
rotational speed in radians/second, and R is the rotor radius in meters. Therefore, we
can also write:

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 when wind speed is specified in meters/second.

CP – λ CURVES
The power coefficient, CP is a quantity that expresses what fraction of the power in the wind
is being extracted by the wind turbine. It is generally assumed to be a function of both tip-
speed ratio and pitch angle. Below is a plot of the variation of the power coefficient with
variations in the tip-speed ratio when the pitch is held constant.

The case for variable speed wind turbines

Originally, wind turbines were fixed speed. This has the benefit that the rotor speed in the
generator is constant, thus the frequency of the AC Voltage is fixed. This allows the wind
turbine to be directly connected to a transmission system. Howe ver, from the figure above,
we can see that the power coefficient is a function of the tip-speed ratio. By extension, the
efficiency of the wind turbine is a function of the tip-speed ratio.
Ideally, one would like to have a turbine operating at the maximum value of CP at all wind
speeds. This means that as the wind speed changes, the rotor speed must change to such
that Cp = Cpmax A wind turbine with a variable rotor speed is called a Variable speed wind
turbine. Whilst this does mean that the wind turbine operates at or close to Cpmax for a
range of wind speeds, the frequency of the AC voltage generator will not be constant. This
can be seen in the following equation:

where N is the rotor angular speed, F is the frequency of the AC voltage generated in the
stator windings, P is the number of poles in the generator inside the nacelle. That is, direct

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connection to a transmission system for a variable speed is not permissible. What is required
is a power converter which converts the signal generated by the turbine generator into DC
and then converts that signal to an AC signal with the grid/transmission system frequency.
The case against variable speed wind turbines
As already mentioned, variable speed wind turbines cannot be directly connected to a
transmission system. One of the drawbacks of this is that the inertia of the transmission
system is reduced as more variable speed wind turbines are put online. This can result in
more significant drops in the transmission system's voltage frequency in the event of the loss
of a generating unit. Furthermore, variable speed wind turbines require power electronics,
which increases the complexity of the turbine and introduces new sources of failures. It has
also been suggested that additional energy capture achieved by comparing a variable speed
wind turbine to a fixed speed wind turbine is approximately 2%.
GENERATING SYSTEMS:
The wind turbine-generator unit comprising wind turbine, gears and generator, converts wind
power into electrical power. Several identical units are installed in a wind farm the total
electrical power produced by the wind farm is fed into the distribution network for stand-
alone electrical load.
CONSTANT SPEED – CONSTANT FREQUENCY (CSCF) SYSTEM:
Large scale electrical energy generated from wind is expected to be fed to the power grid to
displace fuel generated KWh. For this application present economics and technological
developments are heavily weighted in favor of CSCF system with alternator as the generating
unit. It must be reminded here that to obtain high efficiencies the blade pitch varying
mechanism and controls have to be installed.
Wind turbines of electrical rating of 100kw and above are of constant speed type and are
coupled to synchronous generators. The turbine rated at less than 100kw is coupled to fairly
constant speed induction generators connected to grid and so operating at constant frequency
having their excitation VARs from the grid or capacitor compensators.
VARIABLE SPEED – CONSTANT FREQUENCY (VSCF) SYSTEM:
Variable speed drive is typical for small wind generators used in autonomous applications,
generally producing variable frequency and variable output.
The variable speed operation of wind electric system yields higher outputs for both low and
high wind speeds. This results in higher annual energy yields per rated installed KW capacity.

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Both horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines will exhibit this gain under variable speed
operation.
The following schemes are used to obtain constant frequency output.
1. AC-DC-AC link
2. Double output induction generator.
3. AC commutation generator.
With the advent of power switching technology and chip based associated control circuitry, it
has now become possible to use VSCF and wind electrical systems and is associated power
conditioning system operate as shown in fig.

VARIABLE SPEED – VARIABLE FREQUENCY (VSVF) SYSTEM:

The generator output is affected by the variable speed. The frequency of the induced voltage
depends on the impedance of the load and speed of the prime mover. The variable voltage
can be converted to constant DC using choppers or rectifiers and then to constant AC by the
inverters.

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