Mathematics

Limits

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Table of Content

1. Limit of a Function.

2. Fundamental Theorems on Limits.

3. Some Important Expansions.

4. Methods of Evaluation of Limits.

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1. Limit of a Function.

Let y  f (x ) be a function of x. If at x  a, f (x ) takes indeterminate form, then we consider the values of

the function which are very near to ‘a’. If these values tend to a definite unique number as x tends to ‘a’,
then the unique number so obtained is called the limit of f (x ) at x  a and we write it as lim f (x ) .
x a

(1) Meaning of ‘x  a’: Let x be a variable and a be the constant. If x assumes values nearer and nearer
to ‘a’ then we say ’x tends to a’ and we write ' x  a' . It should be noted that as x  a , we have x  a . By
' x tends to a' we mean that
(i) x  a
(ii) x assumes values nearer and nearer to ‘a’ and
(iii) We are not specifying any manner in which x should approach to ‘a’. x may approach to a from left or
right as shown in figure.
x a a x

(2) Left hand and right hand limit : Consider the values of the functions at the points which are very
near to a on the left of a. If these values tend to a definite unique number as x tends to a, then the
unique number so obtained is called left-hand limit of f (x ) at x = a and symbolically we write it as
f (a  0)  lim f (x )  lim f (a  h)
x a h 0

Similarly we can define right-hand limit of f (x ) at x  a which is expressed as f (a  0)  lim f (x )

x a

 lim f (a  h) .
h0

(3) Method for finding L.H.L. and R.H.L.

(i) For finding right hand limit (R.H.L.) of the function, we write x + h in place of x, while for left hand
limit (L.H.L.) we write x – h in place of x.
(ii) Then we replace x by ‘a’ in the function so obtained.
(iii) Lastly we find limit h  0 .

(4) Existence of limit: lim f ( x ) exists when,

x a

(i) lim f (x ) and lim f (x ) exist i.e. L.H.L. and R.H.L. both exists.
x a x a

(ii) lim f ( x )  lim f ( x ) i.e. L.H.L. = R.H.L.

x a x a

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 0 
Note: If a function f (x ) takes the form or at x  a , then we say that f (x ) is indeterminate or meaningless
0 
at x  a . Other indeterminate forms are   ,   , 0  , 1 ,0 0 ,  0
In short, we write L.H.L. for left hand limit and R.H.L. for right hand limit.
It is not necessary that if the value of a function at some point exists then its limit at that point must exist.

(5) Sandwich theorem : If f (x ) , g(x ) and h(x ) are any three functions such that, f (x )  g(x )  h( x ) x 
neighborhood of x  a and lim f (x )  lim h(x )  l (say ) , then lim g(x )  l. This theorem is normally applied
x a x a x a

when the lim g( x ) can't be obtained by using conventional methods as function f (x ) and h(x ) can be
x a

easily found.

2. Fundamental Theorems on Limits.

The following theorems are very useful for evaluation of limits if lim f (x )  l and lim g( x )  m (l and m
x 0 x 0

are real numbers) then

(1) lim( f ( x )  g(x ))  l  m (Sum rule)
x a

(2) lim( f ( x )  g(x ))  l  m (Difference rule)

x a

(3) lim( f (x ). g(x ))  l.m (Product rule)

x a

(4) lim k f (x )  k .l (Constant multiple rule)

x a

f (x ) l
(5) lim  ,m  0 (Quotient rule)
x a g( x ) m

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(6) If lim f (x )   or   , then lim 0
x a x a f (x )

(7) lim log{ f ( x )}  log {lim f ( x )}

x a x a

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(8) If f ( x )  g(x ) for all x, then lim f ( x )  lim g(x )
x a x a

lim g ( x )
(9) lim[ f ( x )] g ( x )  { lim f ( x )} x  a
x a x a

(10) If p and q are integers, then lim ( f ( x )) p / q  l p / q , provided (l) p / q is a real number.
x a

(11) If lim f (g(x ))  f (lim g( x ))  f (m ) provided ‘f’ is continuous at g( x )  m . e . g. lim ln[ f ( x )]  ln(l), only if
x a x a x a

l  0.

3. Some Important Expansions.

In finding limits, use of expansions of following functions are useful:

n(n  1) 2
(1) (1  x )n  1  nx  x  .....
2!

(x log a) 2
(2) a x  1  x log a   .....
2!

x2 x3
(3) e x  1  x    .....
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
(4) log(1  x )  x     ....., | x |  1
2 3 4
x2 x3 x4
(5) log(1  x )   x     ....... , where | x |  1
2 3 4
1 1 x x2
log( 1  x ) 1   x 11 2 
(6) (1  x )x  ex  e 2 3 .......  e  1   x  ....... 
 2 24 
x3 x5
(7) sin x  x    .......
3! 5!

x2 x4 x6
(8) cos x  1     ......
2! 4 ! 6!
x 3 2x 5
(9) tan x  x    .....
3 15

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 x3 x5
(10) sinh x  x    .....
3! 5!
x2 x4 x6
(11) cosh x  1     .....
2 ! 4 ! 6!
x3
(12) tanh x  x   2 x 5  .....
3
x3 x5
(13) sin 1 x  x  1 2 .  3 2 .1 2 .  .....
3! 5!
 
(14) cos 1 x     sin 1 x
2
x3 x5 x7
(15) tan 1 x  x     .....
3 5 7

4. Methods of Evaluation of Limits.

We shall divide the problems of evaluation of limits in five categories.

(1) Algebraic limits: Let f (x ) be an algebraic function and ‘a’ be a real number. Then lim f ( x ) is known
x a

as an algebraic limit.
(i) Direct substitution method: If by direct substitution of the point in the given expression we get a
finite number, then the number obtained is the limit of the given expression.

(ii) Factorization method: In this method, numerator and denominator are factorized. The common
factors are cancelled and the rest outputs the results.

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(iii) Rationalization method: Rationalization is followed when we have fractional powers (like , etc.)
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on expressions in numerator or denominator or in both. After rationalization the terms are factorized
which on cancellation gives the result.

(iv) Based on the form when x   : In this case expression should be expressed as a function 1/x and
1
then after removing indeterminate form, (if it is there) replace by 0.
x
f (x )
Step I : Write down the expression in the form of rational function, i.e., , if it is not so.
g (x )

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Step II : If k is the highest power of x in numerator and denominator both, then divide each term of
numerator and denominator by x k .
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Step III : Use the result lim  0 , where n > 0.
x  xn
Note: An important result: If m, n are positive integers and a 0 , b 0  0 are non-zero real numbers, then
 a0
 b , if m  n
a 0 x m  a1 x m 1  ....  a m 1 x  am  0
lim   0, if m  n
x  b 0 x n  b 1 x n 1  .....  b n 1 x  b n  , if m  n

