SSEKWE

𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

ROBERT

MACHINES
A machine is a device used to simplify work.
When using a machine, a force is applied at one point to overcome another force at another point.
A machine is used to;
• Convert energy from one form to another.
• Amplify the force used.

PRINCIPLE OF MACHINES:
It states that a small force applied (effort) moves a large distance to produce a bigger force that moves a
load through a small distance.

TERMS USED IN MACHINES

Effort (E):
This is the force applied at one point of a machine to overcome the load.
The SI unit is the Newton (N).

Load (L):
This is the force which is overcome by the effort.
The SI unit is the Newton (N).

Mechanical Advantage (M.A):

This is the ratio of load to effort.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬
Mechanical Advantage doesn’t have units.

Velocity Ratio (V.R):

This is the ratio of distance moved by the effort to distance moved by the load in the same time.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑫𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑫𝑳
Velocity Ratio doesn’t have units.

Work input (W.I):

This is the work done by the effort to overcome the load.
OR
This is the product of effort and the distance moved by the effort.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬
The SI unit of work input is a joule (J).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Work output (W.O):

This is the work done by the machine to overcome the load.
OR
This is the product of load and the distance moved by the load.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
The SI unit of work output is a joule (J).
Work output is also referred to as work done on the load.

Energy wasted:
This is the difference between Work input and Work output.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Efficiency (𝜼):
This is the ratio of work output to work input of a machine expressed as a percentage.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × 100%
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐿 × 𝐷𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × 100%
𝐸 × 𝐷𝐸
𝐿 𝐷𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = × × 100%
𝐸 𝐷𝐸
𝐿 1 𝐷𝐿
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝐸 𝑉. 𝑅 𝐷𝐸
1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝜂) = 𝑀. 𝐴 × × 100%
𝑉. 𝑅
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝜼) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹

NOTE:
In practice, the efficiency of a machine is always less than 100%.

Reasons why efficiency of a machine is always less than 𝟏𝟎𝟎%:

➢ Some energy is wasted or lost in overcoming friction between the movable parts of a machine.
➢ Some energy is wasted or lost in lifting useless loads e.g. strings in pulleys.

How to increase the efficiency of a machine:

➢ By lubricating the movable parts of the machine i.e. oiling and greasing.
➢ By using light materials for useless loads.

Examples:
1. An effort of 200𝑁 moves a distance of 1.5𝑚 to lift a load of 480𝑁 through 1m. Calculate;
(i) Mechanical Advantage.
(ii) Velocity ratio.
(iii) Work output.
(iv) Work input.
(v) Efficiency.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝒎

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Work output
𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏
𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑱
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟓
(iv) Work input (v) Efficiency
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝟐. 𝟒
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏. 𝟓
𝜼 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎%
2. If a lever is used to overcome a load of 50N by applying an effort of 10N. Find;
(i) Mechanical advantage of the lever system.
(ii) Efficiency of the system if the velocity ratio is 6.
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵, 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔
(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Efficiency
𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟓𝟎 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎 𝟔
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%

3. In a machine, 50N are used to overcome a load of 20kg. If the 20kg load moves a distance of 5cm
whenever the 50N moves a distance of 25cm.
Calculate;
(i) Mechanical advantage. (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Efficiency.
𝟐𝟓
𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎,
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓
𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Efficiency

𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟒
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. An effort of 100N is used to raise a load of 200N. If the effort moves through a distance of 4m,
calculate;
(i) Distance moved by the load if the velocity ratio is 5.
(ii) Energy wasted by the machine.
(iii) Efficiency of the machine.

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟒𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 =?, 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓

(i) Distance moved by load (ii) Energy wasted. (iii) Efficiency
𝑫𝑬 Work input: 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑰
𝟒 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝟓= 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟒 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑳 = Work output:
𝜼 = 𝟒𝟎%
𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑱

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝑾. 𝑶 − 𝑾. 𝑰
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑱

5. In a machine which is 75% efficient, an effort of 300N is used to lift a load of 900N. If the load is
moved through a distance of 2m, find the;
(i) Mechanical advantage.
(ii) Velocity ratio.
(iii)Distance moved by the effort.

𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟐𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑬 =?, 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%

(i) Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity ratio (iii) Distance moved by effort
𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑫𝑳
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟑 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟒=
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹 𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟒 × 𝟐
𝟕𝟓%𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟖𝒎
𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟕𝟓%
𝟑𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. An effort of 100N moves through 12cm while moving a Load of 400N through 2cm. Find;
i) the mechanical advantage.
ii) the velocity ratio
iii) the efficiency of the machine.
2. A water pump raises 2000kg of water through a vertical height of 22m. If the efficiency of the water
pump is 80%, calculate the work input.
3. A simple machine raises a load of 60N through a distance of 2m by an effort of 20N which moves
through a distance of 8m. Calculate the machine’s efficiency.
4. A load of 100N is raised through 6m when an effort of 40N moves through a distance of 24m.
Calculate the;
i) mechanical advantage.
ii) velocity ratio.
iii) energy wasted by the machine.
iv) efficiency of the machine.
5. A simple machine raises a load of 300kg through 0.5m when an effort of 150N is applied through a
distance of 12.5m. Calculate the;
i) work input into machine.
ii) work output by the machine.
iii) efficiency of the machine.

Examples of simple machines include;

▪ Levers ▪ Wheel and axle
▪ Pulleys ▪ Gears
▪ Inclined planes ▪ Screws
▪ Hydraulic machines ▪ wedges

LEVERS
A lever is a rigid body is free to turn about a fixed point.
The fixed point at which the lever turns is called the pivot or fulcrum.

Classes of levers:
There are three classes of levers namely;
➢ First class lever.
➢ Second class lever.
➢ Third class lever.

FIRST CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the pivot is between the load and the effort (LPE).

Examples include;
▪ Crow bar ▪ See saw
▪ Beam balance ▪ Claw hammer
▪ Pair of scissors ▪ Shears
▪ Pair of pliers ▪ Secateurs

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

See saw Pair of scissors Claw hammer

Pair of pliers Crow bar

SECOND CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the load is between the pivot and the effort (PLE).

Examples include;
▪ Wheel barrow ▪ Bottle opener
▪ Nut cracker ▪ Office punching machine

Wheel barrow Nut cracker Bottle opener

THIRD CLASS LEVERS

This is the type of lever where the effort is between the load and the pivot (LEP).

Examples include;
▪ Spade ▪ Broom
▪ Pair of tongs ▪ Fishing rod
▪ Tweezers ▪ Stapling machine

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Spade Broom Fishing rod

Stapling machine Forceps Tweezers

NOTE:
Consider the diagram below.

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

▪ The operation of a lever depends on the principle of moments.

▪ The efficiency of a lever can be increased by the effort distance (distance of the effort from the
turning point).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PULLEYS
A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim on which a rope passes.

𝑹𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒗𝒆
Types of pulley systems:
There are three types of pulleys namely;
• Single fixed pulley.
• Single movable pulley.
• Block and tackle pulley.

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY:

This is a type of pulley system in which the pulley is fixed on the rigid support.
In a single fixed pulley, the load is tied to one end and the effort applied to another end of the rope.
As the rope is pulled downwards, the load is raised upwards.
Therefore, a single fixed pulley eases work by changing the direction of the application of the effort.

𝑬
𝑳
Assuming, there is no friction in the groove and the rope is weightless;
At equilibrium;
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑳=𝑬
𝑳 𝑬
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴. 𝑨 = = =𝟏
𝑬 𝑬
In real practice, the effort is always greater than the load because it is used overcome friction in the
groove and also used to lift the weight of the groove. Therefore, mechanical advantage is always less
than 1.
However, the distance moved by the effort is always equal to the distance moved by the load i.e.
𝑫𝑬 = 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝑫𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑽. 𝑹 = = =𝟏
𝑫𝑳 𝑫𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY:

This is the type of pulley system in which the pulley moves along with the rope.
One end of the rope is fixed to a rigid support and the effort is applied on the other end.
The advantage of this pulley system is that less effort is required to lift the load thus raising it easily.

𝑬 𝑬

𝑳
Assuming, there is no friction in the groove and the rope is weightless;
At equilibrium;
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝑳=𝑬+𝑬
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑬
𝑳 𝟐𝑬
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴. 𝑨 = = =𝟐
𝑬 𝑬
In real practice, the effort is always greater than the load because it is used overcome friction in the
groove and also used to lift the weight of the groove. Therefore, mechanical advantage is always less
than 2.
However, the distance moved by the effort is always twice the distance moved by the load i.e.
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟐𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝟐𝑫𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑽. 𝑹 = = =𝟐
𝑫𝑳 𝑫𝑳

BLOCK AND TACKLE PULLEY SYSTEM:

This is the type of pulley system where two or more pulleys are combined to form a machine with high
velocity ratio and high mechanical advantage.
It consists of two blocks namely;
• Fixed block.
• Movable block.
These blocks are joined by a single rope called the “tackle”.

NOTE:
➢ Velocity ratio is equal to the number of strings supporting the movable block.
➢ Velocity ratio is also equal to the number of pulleys on the system.
➢ The effort applied is equal to the tension in each string supporting the movable block.
➢ For an odd number of pulleys in the system, the fixed block should have one more pulley than the
movable block.
➢ For an even number of pulleys in the system, the fixed and the movable blocks should have the same
number of pulleys.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PASSING THE STRINGS (ROPES):

❖ If the number of pulleys is odd (velocity ratio is odd), the string must be tied and start from the
movable block.
❖ If the number of pulleys is even (velocity ratio is even), the string must be tied and start from the
fixed block.

Examples of block and tackle pulley systems include;

𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬 𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬
𝑬 𝑬
𝑬
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝑳
𝑳

𝑳
𝑳
𝑳

𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕

𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

𝑳
𝑳
𝑳

Examples:
1. A block and tackle pulley system shown in the figure below is used to lift a load of 220N when an
effort of 110N is applied.
(i) State the velocity ratio of the system.
(ii) Calculate the mechanical advantage of the system.
(iii) Calculate the efficiency of the pulley system.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) (iii) Efficiency

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝟑 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
(ii) Mechanical advantage 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝑵 𝑳 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑
𝑬 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕%
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐

𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑵

2. A pulley system of velocity ratio 5 is used to lift a load of 500N. The effort needed is found to be
200N.
a) Draw the arrangement of the above system.
b) Calculate the efficiency of the system.
(a) (b)
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
Mechanical advantage
𝑳
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓
Efficiency
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐. 𝟓
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟓𝟎%

3. A man uses a block and tackle pulley system to raise a load of 720N through a distance of 10m using
an effort of 200N. If the pulley system has a velocity ratio of 5, find the;
a) Mechanical advantage. b) Efficiency. c) Distance moved by effort.
𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 =?
𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑫𝑬
𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑫𝑳
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟑. 𝟔 𝑫𝑬
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟓=
𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟐% 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) Work input. e) Work output. f) Energy wasted

𝑫𝑬 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑳 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝑵
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑾. 𝑰 − 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐸. 𝑊 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟕, 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝐸. 𝑊 = 𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑱

4. A block and tackle pulley system with a velocity ratio of 5 and 60% efficient is used to lift a load of
60kg through a vertical height of 2m. Calculate the effort that must be applied on the system.
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓, 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟎%, 𝑳 = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟐𝒎
𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑳
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑴. 𝑨 𝑬
𝟔𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟓 𝟑=
𝑬
𝟔𝟎% × 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝟎% 𝑬=
𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑

5. Below is a frictionless pulley system of velocity ratio 4.

If the weight of the pulley system is 4N, calculate;

(i) Effort required to raise the load.
(ii) Mechanical advantage of the system.
𝑬 =? (iii)Efficiency of the system.

𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒔) 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚𝒔 + 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑬 + 𝑬 + 𝑬 + 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒 + 𝟎
𝟒𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝑬=
𝟒
𝑬 = 𝟓𝟏𝑵
Mechanical advantage Efficiency
𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑬 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟓𝟏 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟒
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟗𝟖%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

6. The pulley system below has a mass of 0.6kg

Calculate;
(i) Effort required to raise the load.
(ii) Mechanical advantage.
(iii) Efficiency of the pulley system.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑵

(i) Effort (ii) Mechanical (iii) Efficiency

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 = 𝒎𝒈 advantage 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝑵 𝑳
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑬 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟔
𝑬+𝑬+𝑬 =𝑳+𝑾 𝟒𝟐 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟔 𝟑
𝟑𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟔 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟑%
𝟏𝟐𝟔
𝑬=
𝟑
𝑬 = 𝟒𝟐𝑵

7.
The figure besides shows a load of 10N being raised
slowly by the aid of a simple frictionless pulley system.
(i) State the velocity ratio of the system.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (ii) Calculate the effort required to raise the load if the
mass of each pulley is 0.2kg.
(iii)If the load is raised through a distance of 5m,
calculate the efficiency of the pulley system.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
(i) 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝟐

(ii) Effort Mechanical advantage (iii) Efficiency

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑳 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝑵 𝑬 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝟏𝟎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐
𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 = 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟔 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬+𝑬= 𝑳+𝑾 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟓%
2𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐
𝟏𝟐
𝑬=
𝟐
𝑬 = 𝟔𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The effort required to raise a load of 100N is 40N as shown below.
Calculate;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Efficiency.
c) Work done on the load if it is raised through a distance
𝟒𝟎𝑵 of 6m.

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵

2. A block and tackle pulley system is used to lift a mass of 2000kg. If this machine has a velocity ratio
of 5 and an efficiency of 80%,
(i) Sketch a possible arrangement of the pulleys.
(ii) Calculate the mechanical advantage of the system.
(iii) Determine the effort applied.

3. An effort of 125N is used to lift a load of 500N through a height of 2.5m using a pulley system. If
the distance moved by the effort is 15m, calculate;
a) the work done on the load.
b) the work done by the effort.
c) Efficiency of the pulley system.

4. An effort of 50N is required to raise a load of 200N using a pulley system of velocity ratio 5.
a) Draw a diagram to show the pulley system.
b) Find the efficiency of the system.
c) Calculate the work wasted when the load is raised through 120cm.
d) Give two reasons why the efficiency of the above pulley is less than 100%.

5. A pulley system of velocity ratio 3 supports a load of 20N. given that the tension in each string is
8N, calculate;
(i) The effort required to raise the load.
(ii) The mechanical advantage.
(iii) The efficiency of the pulley system.
(iv) The distance moved by the effort if the load moves through a distance of 2m.
(v) The weight of the lower pulley.

6. Draw a diagram showing a single string pulley system of velocity ratio 6. Given that the weight of
the lower block and the pulleys is 10N, calculate the efficiency of the pulley system if an effort of
1500N is required to raise a load of 4990N.

7. A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If its efficiency is 75%, find;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Load that can be lifted with an effort of 500N.
c) Work done if the load is raised through a vertical distance of 4.0m.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THE VARIATION OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OR

EFFICIENCY OF PULLEY SYSTEM WITH THE LOAD
(Experiment to determine efficiency of a pulley system)

𝑬 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒏

𝑳 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒏
▪ A known load (L) is placed on the load pan.
▪ Known weights are added on the effort pan until the load just begins to rise upwards.
▪ The total weight (E) on the effort pan is noted and recorded.
▪ The experiment is repeated with different loads.
▪ The results are put in a suitable table including values of mechanical advantage and efficiency.
▪ A graph of efficiency against load is plotted.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝟏𝟎𝟎%

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Explanation of the graph:
As the load increases, the efficiency of the pulley system also increases. This is because;
• When the load is small, a large effort is used to overcome friction force between moving parts and
lift the weight of the movable block. This leads to a small mechanical advantage and small efficiency
for a small load.
• When the load is increased, the friction force and the weight of the movable become very small.
Therefore, a large portion of the effort is used to lift the load while a small portion of the effort
overcomes friction and lifts the weight of the movable block. This leads to a large mechanical
advantage and large efficiency for a small load.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
❖ The velocity ratio of the above pulley system is 4 but not 5 since we consider the arrangement of
pulleys where the load is attached.
❖ The of table of results is as shown below.
𝐿(𝑁) E(N) 𝐿 𝑀. 𝐴
(𝑀. 𝐴) × 100% (𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
𝐸 𝑉. 𝑅

❖ If the variation of mechanical advantage with load is required, then a graph of mechanical
advantage is plotted as shown below.
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑽. 𝑹

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
APPLICATIONS (USES) OF PULLEYS
• They are used at construction sites to lift heavy building materials from the ground.
• They are used in raising (hoisting) flags.
• They are used in lifts and elevators.
• They are used in cranes for loading and offloading ships at ports.
• They are used in fetching water from underground wells.
• They are used in drawing stage curtains in theatres.

INCLINED PLANES
An inclined plane is a sloping surface or plane inclined at angle to the ground.
An inclined plane allows a load to be raised using a small effort than it were to be lifted vertically
upwards.

Examples of inclined planes;

• Stair cases.
• Raising cows up to the truck using a slopping piece of wood.
• Sloping roads in mountains.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Structure of an inclined plane

𝒍 𝑬

𝑳 𝒉

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 ) = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒(𝑙)

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 ) = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒(ℎ)

Velocity ratio of an inclined plane:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑉. 𝑅 =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝒍
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒉

NOTE; Considering the angle of inclination, 𝜃;

ℎ 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑙 𝑉. 𝑅
𝟏
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Examples:
1. A brick of weight 20N is lifted through a height of 3m along a smooth inclined plane of length 15m
by applying an effort of 5N as shown below.

𝟑𝒎
𝟐𝟎𝑵

Calculate;
i) Mechanical advantage ii) Velocity ratio iii) Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟓𝑵 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑫𝑬 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑬 𝑫𝑳 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓 𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A load of 400N is pulled along an inclined plane as shown below.

Calculate;
i) Work input.
ii) Work output.
𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 iii) Efficiency of the plane.
𝟓𝒄𝒎

i) Work input. ii) Work output. iii) Efficiency

𝟏𝟓 𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎, 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎, 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾. 𝑰
𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵 𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟐𝟎
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟗%
𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑱 𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑱

3. An inclined plane shown below was used to lift a load of 50kg using an effort of 200N.
Calculate;
(i) Mechanical advantage.
𝟑𝟎𝒎 (ii) Velocity ratio.
𝟏𝟎𝒎 (iii) Efficiency.
(iv) Angle of inclination.
𝜽

i) Mechanical advantage ii) Velocity ratio iii) Efficiency

𝑳 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑫𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎, 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝒍 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝒉
𝑳 𝟑𝟎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%
𝑬 𝟏𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑴. 𝑨 = iv) Angle of inclination
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒉 𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = = =
𝒍 𝟑𝟎 𝟑
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟓°
4. A woman uses an inclined plane to lift a load of 500N through a vertical distance of 4m. the inclined
plane makes an angle of 30° to the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72%,
calculate the effort need to raise the load.
𝒍 =?, 𝒉 = 𝟒𝒎 4 𝑀. 𝐴 𝐿
ℎ 𝒍 = = 𝟖𝒎 𝜂 = × 100% 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° 𝑉. 𝑅 𝐸
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = Then; 𝑀. 𝐴 500
𝑙 72% = × 100%
4 𝑙 8 2 1.44 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = 𝑉. 𝑅 = = 𝐸
𝑙 ℎ 4 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 𝑬 = 𝟑𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝑵
𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = 4 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. An effort of 50N is used to move a 300N box along an inclined which rises vertically 1m for every
8m distance along the plane. Find
i) the velocity ratio.
ii) the mechanical advantage.
iii) the efficiency of the inclined plane.

2. A body of 100N is moved along a sloped wooden plank PQ by an effort of 90N as shown below.
𝑸

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝜽
𝑷 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑹

Calculate;
a) the length of the plane.
b) angle of inclination.
c) velocity ratio.
d) Mechanical advantage.
e) Efficiency of the plane.

3. A trolley of weight 10N is pulled from the bottom to the top of the inclined plane by a steady force
of 2N. If the height and the distance moved by the force are 2m and 20m respectively, calculate;
a) Mechanical advantage.
b) Work done by the effort.
c) Work done on the load.
d) Efficiency of the inclined plane.

4. A load of 40N is pulled steadily along an 80% efficient inclined plane by a force, F as shown
below. Find the
i) Velocity ratio of the system
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Force, F.

𝟒𝟎𝑵
𝟑𝟎°

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

WHEEL AND AXLE

It consists of a wheel of large radius attached to an axle of small radius. The wheel and axle have a
common axis of rotation.
𝑨𝒙𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹

𝒓 𝒓
𝑹

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝑬) 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑳) 𝑬 𝑳

The effort (𝑬) is applied to one end of the rope passing over the wheel of radius, 𝑹 while the load is
applied at the other end of the rope passing over the axle of radius, 𝒓.
The wheel and the axle are circular therefore, for one complete turn;
❖ The effort moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the wheel (𝟐𝝅𝑹).
❖ The load moves through a distance equal to the circumference of the axle (𝟐𝝅𝒓).

Velocity ratio of a wheel and axle:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
2𝜋𝑅
𝑉. 𝑅 =
2𝜋𝑟
𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒓
Therefore, velocity ratio of a wheel and axle is given by;
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 (𝑹)
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆 (𝒓)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A machine consisting of a wheel of radius 50cm and axle of radius 10cm is used to lift a load of
400N with an effort of 100N. Calculate the efficiency of the machine.
Mechanical advantage Velocity ratio Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑬 𝒓 𝟒
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟎%

2. The efficiency of the machine below is 75%.

Calculate;
𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 i) its velocity ratio.
ii) its mechanical advantage.
𝟐𝒄𝒎
iii) the effort applied.

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵

i) Velocity ratio ii) Mechanical advantage iii) Effort

𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟕. 𝟓 =
𝟐𝟎 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝟓% × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟕. 𝟓
𝟕𝟓𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟕. 𝟓

3.
The figure besides shows a wheel and axle. When an
𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 effort of 300N is applied, a load of 900N is raised.
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
Calculate;
a) Work output.
b) Work input.
c) Efficiency.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝟒𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝐷𝐸 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 2 × 𝜋 × 0.4 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝝅 𝒎

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝐷𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2 × 𝜋 × 0.1 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝝅 𝒎
i) Work output ii) Work input iii) Efficiency
𝐿 = 900𝑁 𝐸 = 900𝑁
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝝅 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝝅 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑾. 𝑶 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝝅 𝑱 𝑾. 𝑰 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅 𝑱 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝝅
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅
𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%

4. In a wheel and axle machine, an effort of 10N raises a load of 30N. The radius of the wheel is
150mm and the radius of the axle is 30mm. Find the efficiency of the machine.
Mechanical advantage Velocity ratio Efficiency
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑳 𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑
𝑬 𝒓
𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟎%

5. The diagram below shows a 75% simple machine used to raise a load of 72N.
𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟕𝟐𝑵

𝑬
a) Name the type of machine above.
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆
b) Determine the effort required to raise the load.
Velocity ratio Mechanical advantage Effort
𝑹 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑹 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕𝟐
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟒. 𝟓 =
𝟔𝟎 𝟕𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝟕𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔 𝟕𝟓% × 𝟔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟒. 𝟓
𝟒𝟓𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟒. 𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Applications of wheel and axle in daily life

• It is applied in screw drivers.
• It is applied in steering wheels in cars.
• It is applied in a wind las to draw water from wells.

EXERCISE
1. A machine consists of a wheel of 40cm and an axle of radius 10cm. If an effort of 20N raises a load
of 60N, find the efficiency of the machine.
2. The system below is a wheel and axle of radii 40cm and 4cm respectively.
Assuming that the efficiency of the system is 50%,
𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 calculate;
𝟒𝒄𝒎
a) Effort required.
b) Work output.
c) Work input.
d) Energy wasted.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

3. A wheel and axle machine is constructed from a wheel of diameter 20cm and mounted on an axle of
diameter 4cm.
a) Calculate;
i) Velocity ratio of the machine.
ii) Mechanical advantage of the machine if its 100%.
b) Explain why the actual mechanical advantage of this machine is likely to be less than the value
obtained above.
4. A common windlass is used to raise a load of 480N by an application of an effort 200N at right
angles to the handle. If the handle has a radius of 33cm from the axis and the radius of the axle is
11cm, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Efficiency of the windlass.

GEARS
A gear is a device consisting of a set of toothed wheels that control the movement (speed) of a machine.

Applications of gears in daily life

They are applied in;
• Clocks • Bicycles • Motor vehicles
• Motors • Watches

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

In gears;
❖
❖ The effort is applied to the shaft of the small gear (wheel) called a driving wheel.
❖ The load is applied to the shaft of the large gear (wheel) called a driven wheel.

𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

NOTE:
➢ The more the number of teeth on the gear, the less the speed of rotation of the gear and the less
the number of teeth on the gear, the higher the speed of rotation of the gear.
➢ Therefore, the fastest gear is the driving wheel with the smallest number of teeth.

Velocity ratio of a gear system:

Velocity ratio of a gear system may be given by the following formulae;
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Examples:
1. A driving wheel of 25 teeth interlocks with another wheel of 100 teeth. The gear system has an
efficiency of 85%.
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Mechanical advantage of the system.
a) b)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 25 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 100 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟓% × 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎%
𝟐𝟓 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A bicycle has 120 teeth in the driven gears and 40 teeth in the driving gears. Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Mechanical advantage if the bicycle is 80% efficient.
a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 40 𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 120 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎%
𝟒𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟒

3. In a gear system, the driven wheel has 40 teeth and the driving wheel has 10 teeth. The system is
used to carry a load of 300N when an effort of 100N is applied. Determine;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.

i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 10 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 40 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟒𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟏𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

4. A certain gear has 60 teeth and drives another gear with 150 teeth. How many revolutions will the
driven gear make when the driving gear makes 200 revolutions.

Velocity ratio 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 60 𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 150
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟐. 𝟓 =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝟔𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The figure below shows two gear wheels.

𝑨
𝑩

𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵
a) How should gears A and B engage each other so that a low mechanical advantage is obtained.
𝑨 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉.
b) Calculate the efficiency of the gear system.
Velocity ratio M.A Efficiency
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 8 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 12 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑%
𝟏𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟓

6. Two gear wheels A and B with 80 and 20 teeth respectively lock into each other. They are fastened
to axles such that a weight of 150N attached to one axle of the gear wheel B raises a load of 450N
attached to another axle of the gear wheel A as shown below.

𝟒𝟓𝟎𝑵

𝑨 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑩

Calculate;
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐵 = 20 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐴 = 80 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟑
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟖𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟕𝟓%
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. A bicycle has a chain wheel with 32 teeth, and the driven wheel has 80 teeth. If the efficiency is
88%, find the;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
2. A gear with 30 teeth drives another gear with 75 teeth. How many revolutions will the driven gear
make when the driving gear makes 100 revolutions.
3. Two gear wheels A and B with 20 teeth and 10 teeth respectively are fastened together such that the
weight of 160N is attached to one wheel and rises a load of 400N applied on the other wheel.
If wheel B drives A, Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio of the system.
b) Efficiency.
4. A gear has a driven wheel moving at 20𝑚𝑠 −1 and a driving wheel moving at 4𝑚𝑠 −1 . The gear
carries a load of 300N and is overcome by an effort of 150N. Calculate the efficiency of the gear
system.
5. In the gear system below, 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the number of teeth on the system. The gear system has an
efficiency of 60%.
𝑵𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎

𝑳 𝑬
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio.
b) Load that can be raised by an effort of 200N.

SCREWS
This is a device with thread-like windings on it.
It is used to fix or hold materials together.

𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 (𝑷)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Pitch of a screw:
This is the distance between any two successive threads of a screw.

NOTE:
❖ In order to use a screw, a screw driver or brace or screw jack is used to drive screws in and out of the
material.
❖ An effort is applied on the handles of those devices above to drive the screw (load) in and out of the
material.

Diagram of a brace
𝑯𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

𝑹
𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒓𝒎

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

❖ When the handle moves through one complete turn (complete circular path), the screw enters or
leaves the wood through a distance equal to the pitch of the screw.
❖ Distance moved by the effort in one complete turn is equal to the circumference of a circle described
by the handle.
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆
𝑫𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹
(Where radius, 𝑅 of the circle is equal to the length of the lever arm)

❖ Distance moved by the load (screw) in one complete turn is equal to the pitch of the screw.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
𝑫𝑳 = 𝑷

Velocity ratio of a screw:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐷𝐸 )
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐷𝐿 )
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

Examples:
1. In a screw jack, the length of the lever arm is 56cm and a pitch of 4cm. It is used to lift a load.
Calculate its velocity ratio.
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝟐
𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟓𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟒 𝟒
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟖

2. A screw of pitch 5cm is used to lift a load of 890.8N in a car jack. The lever makes a circle of
circumference 10cm and has an efficiency of 85%.
Calculate;
a) Velocity ratio of screw.
b) Mechanical advantage of screw.
c) Effort applied on the handle.
a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort
𝑪 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑷 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟖𝟗𝟎. 𝟖
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟕 =
𝟏𝟎 𝟖𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟗𝟎. 𝟖
𝟓 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟓% × 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟏. 𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟓𝟐𝟒𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟕

3. A screw has a pitch of 5mm. If an effort of 30N is rotated through one turn of radius 50cm to lift a
load of 750N, find;
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟓 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟓𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝟐𝟓
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟑𝟎 𝟔𝟐𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟓
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐 × 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟓𝟎 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝜼 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖%
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟔𝟐𝟖

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A screw with a lever arm of 56cm has two successive threads which are 2.5mm apart. It is used to
lift a load of 800N. If its 25% efficient, calculate the mechanical advantage of the screw.
d) Velocity ratio e) Mechanical advantage
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐. 𝟓 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟓% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝟐𝟓% × 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐𝟐
𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = = 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟖 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑𝟓𝟐

5. The handle of a screw jack is 14cm long. The screw jack is used to drive a screw of pitch 20cm. if an
effort of 5N is applied on the jack to move a screw of 15N, calculate
i) Velocity ratio.
ii) Mechanical advantage.
iii) Efficiency.
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝑹 = 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝑳 𝑴. 𝑨
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟏𝟓 𝟑
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝟓 𝟒. 𝟒
𝟐𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝜼 = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟐%
𝟐× × 𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟕 =
𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟒

6. A screw has 6 successive threads and describes a circular path of diameter 0.28mm when a screw
driver is attached to it. Determine the velocity ratio of the machine if the distance between the 6
threads is 0.12mm.
𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝝅𝑹
𝑹= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝒎𝒎 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝟐
There are 5 pitches between the 6 threads. 𝟐 × 𝟕 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝟓𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝒎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟔𝟕
𝑷= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝒎𝒎
𝟓

NOTE:
➢ The velocity ratio of the screw is always very large because the length of the handle is very big
compared to the pitch of the screw.
➢ The efficiency is always very low because screws have a very high friction since the threads
are very rough. This helps screws to firmly hold materials together.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The pitch of a screw jack is 2.5mm. With a lever arm of 56cm long, the jack is used to lift a car of
mass 790kg. if the screw jack is 75% efficient, determine;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.
2. The pitch of a bolt is 1mm. to tighten the bolt, Ssekwe uses a spanner of a long arm of length 80cm.
Calculate the velocity ratio of the spanner.
3. A screw jack is found to be 70% efficient. If an effort of 20N is used to lift a vehicle of 5000N and
the pitch of the screw is 2mm. What is the length of the lever arm.
4. A screw of pitch 2.5cm is used to raise a load of 200kg when an effort of 50N is applied to the screw
arm of length 20cm. Calculate;
i) Mechanical advantage.
ii) Velocity ratio.
iii) Efficiency.
5. A Screw jack of pitch 2.5mm is operated by a force of 100N acting at a distance of 7cm from the
axis about which the handle rotates and lifts a car weighing 792kg. calculate its efficiency.

HYDRAULIC PRESS OR LIFT

It’s a device used to lift a large load using a small effort. Its operation is based on the knowledge of
Pascal’s principle. (See topic: Pressure)
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

(𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓) (𝑹𝒂𝒎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓)

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Velocity ratio of a hydraulic press:

Let 𝑫𝑬 be the distance moved by the small piston and 𝑨𝟏 be the area of the small piston.
Let 𝑫𝑳 be the distance moved by the small piston and 𝑨𝟐 be the area of the large piston.

When an effort is applied on the small piston:

▪ The volume of the liquid pushed down by the small piston is equal to the volume of the liquid lifts
up the large piston with the load.
RECALL: 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑨𝟏 × 𝑫𝑬 = 𝑨𝟐 × 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝑨𝟐
=
𝑫𝑳 𝑨𝟏
▪ Since the pistons are circular, their areas equal to the area of a circle.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑫𝑬 𝑨𝟐 𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, = =
𝑫𝑳 𝑨𝟏 𝝅𝒓𝟐

Therefore;
𝑫𝑬 𝑹𝟐
𝑽. 𝑹 = =
𝑫𝑳 𝒓𝟐

Where 𝑹 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛.

𝒓 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛.
𝑫𝑬 − 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡.
𝑫𝑳 − 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑.

Examples:
1. The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 1.4cm while that of the load piston is 7.0cm. This
machine is used to raise a load of 1200N. Given that the machine is 80% efficient, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.

a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort

𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝑹 = 𝟕𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝑹𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝒓 𝑴. 𝑨 𝟐𝟎 =
𝟕𝟐 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝑬=
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎% 𝑬 = 𝟔𝟎𝑵
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎

2. A hydraulic press is used to lift 400N using an effort of 20N. The diameter of the large cylinder is
100cm and the diameter of the small cylinder is 10cm. Find;
i) Velocity ratio ii) M.A iii) Efficiency
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑳
𝒓= = 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑹= = 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑴. 𝑨
𝟐 𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐 𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑹 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒓 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐
𝟓 𝜼 = 𝟐𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A hydraulic machine has a ram cylinder (large cylinder) of diameter 30cm and a pump cylinder
(small cylinder) of diameter 2cm. If the effort applied to the small piston is 70N and the efficiency of
the machine is 80%, calculate the;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Load lifted.

a) Velocity ratio b) Mechanical advantage c) Effort

𝟐 𝟑𝟎 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝒓 = = 𝟏𝒄𝒎, 𝑹= = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝑽. 𝑹 𝑬
𝑹𝟐 𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟏𝟖𝟎 =
𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟕𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 × 𝟕𝟎
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟎% × 𝟐𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎%𝑴. 𝑨 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝟏
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴. 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎

EXERCISE:
1. A hydraulic machine has a large cylinder of 30cm and a small cylinder of 1cm. Given that the
machine is 80% efficient and that the effort applied on the small piston is 50N, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Maximum load that can be raised.

2. The area of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 56𝑐𝑚2 while that of the load piston is 224𝑐𝑚2 .
This machine is used to raise a load of 300kg through a height of 2.5mm. given that the machine is
75% efficient, calculate;
a) Velocity ratio
b) Mechanical advantage.
c) Effort applied.
d) Distance moved by the effort.

NOTE:
➢ If two simple machines are combined together, the overall velocity ratio is equal to the product of
the individual velocity ratios of the two machines.
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

HEAT
When you put a cup of very hot porridge on a table, the porridge cools down after sometime. This
means that some energy has been transferred from the porridge to the surrounding. This form of
energy that is transferred is called heat.

Definition:
Heat is the form of energy which flows from one point to another due to temperature difference
between the two points.
Heat energy flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature.
The SI unit of heat energy is a joule (J).
Effects of heat on a body:
When a body absorbs heat energy,
• Its temperature increases thus becoming hot.
• Its state changes e.g. solid changes to liquid.
• It makes the body to expand.

When a body loses heat energy,

• Its temperature decreases thus becoming cold.
• It makes the body to contract.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a number which expresses the degree of hotness or coldness of a body on a chosen
scale.
Temperature of a body depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules in that body.
Therefore, temperature can also be defined as measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in the body.

Measurement of temperature:
Temperature of a body is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K).
Other units include;
• Degrees Celsius (°𝑪)
• Degrees Fahrenheit (°𝑭)

Thermometers measure temperatures of a body basing on certain physical properties which change
continuously with temperature. These physical properties are called thermometric properties.

Definition:
A thermometric property is a physical property which changes continuously with temperature.

Examples of thermometric properties:

They include;
→ Length of a liquid column (e.g. liquid-in-glass thermometer).
→ Electrical resistance of a wire (e.g. platinum resistance wire).
→ Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at constant volume (e.g. constant-volume gas thermometer).
→ Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure (e.g. constant-pressure gas thermometer).
→ Electromotive force of a thermocouple (e.g. thermocouple thermometer).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Qualities of a good thermometric property:

➢ It should vary continuously and linearly with change in temperature.
➢ It should vary considerably for a small change in temperature.
➢ It should vary over a wide range of temperatures i.e. both high and low temperatures.
➢ It should be accurately measurable over a wide range of temperature with a simple apparatus.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
A temperature scale is a scale in which the degree of hotness or coldness can be expressed.
These scales include:
❖ Fahrenheit scale.
❖ Celsius scale (centigrade scale).
❖ Kelvin scale (thermodynamic scale).

Fahrenheit scale:
Temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is measured in degrees Fahrenheit (℉).
To convert from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit, the formula below is used.
𝟗
℉ = 𝑪 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓

Celsius scale:
Temperature on the Celsius scale is measured in degrees Celsius (℃).
The lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is 0℃ and the upper fixed (boiling point of water) is
100℃.
To convert from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, the formula below is used.
𝟓
℃ = (𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗

Kelvin scale:
Temperature on the Kelvin or thermodynamic scale is measured in Kelvins (𝑲).
The lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is 273𝐾 and the upper fixed (boiling point of water) is
373𝐾.

Relationship between the Celsius scale and Kelvin scale

If temperature, 𝜽 (℃) on the Celsius scale is related to temperature, 𝑻 (𝐾) on the Kelvin scale, then;
𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Examples:
1. Convert the following temperature readings to Kelvins.
i) 127℃ ii) 30℃ iii) −27℃
𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = −𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝑲

iv) 0℃ v) −240℃ vi) 26.5℃

𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝜽 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = −𝟐𝟒𝟎 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟗𝟗. 𝟓𝑲

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

2. Convert the following temperature readings to degrees Celsius.

i) 23𝐾 ii) 233𝐾 iii) 54𝐾
𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟑𝟑 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟒 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = −𝟐𝟓𝟎℃ 𝜽 = −𝟒𝟎℃ 𝜽 = −𝟐𝟏𝟗℃

iv) 0℃ v) 600𝐾 vi) 574𝐾

𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝑻 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟕𝟒 − 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝜽 = −𝟐𝟕𝟑℃ 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕℃ 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟏℃

FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER

A fixed point is a constant temperature at which a physical change takes place at standard
atmospheric pressure.
There are basically two types of fixed points namely;
• Lower fixed point.
• Upper fixed point.

LOWER FIXED POINT (ICE POINT):

This is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure.
The lower fixed point is 0℃ on the Celsius scale and 273𝐾 on the Kelvin scale.

An experiment to determine the lower fixed point of an uncalibrated thermometer

𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The thermometer to be marked is placed in pure melting ice inside a funnel with ice cubes
packed around its bulb.
▪ The thermometer is left in ice for some time until the level of mercury remains stationary.
▪ This level is then marked and it is the lower fixed point of the thermometer.

NOTE:
➢ The ice must be pure because impurities in ice lower the melting point of ice.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

UPPER FIXED POINT (STEAM POINT):

This is the temperature of pure boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure.
The lower fixed point is 100℃ on the Celsius scale and 373𝐾 on the Kelvin scale.

An experiment to determine the upper fixed point of an uncalibrated thermometer

𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎

𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
▪ Some water is poured into a hypsometer
▪ The thermometer to be marked is placed in the hypsometer through a hole in the cork.
▪ Water is boiled to generate steam that surrounds the bulb of the thermometer.
▪ The thermometer is left in steam for some time until the level of mercury remains stationary.
▪ This level is then marked and it is the upper fixed point of the thermometer.

NOTE:
➢ The double walls of the hypsometer ensure that the temperature of steam is always constant (i.e.
it’s always 100℃). Thus, they reduce heat loss to the surrounding.
➢ The manometer ensures that the standard pressure is always constant (i.e. it’s always 76𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔).
➢ When performing the above experiment, the bulb should not touch the surface of boiling water.

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS
These are the most commonly used thermometers in the world.
They use liquids in their capillary tubes to measure temperatures.

Structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer:

𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

It consists of a thin walled bulb at the end of a capillary tube.

The bulb and some part of the capillary tube is filled with a thermometric liquid which expands so as
to measure temperature.
The common thermometric liquids used are mercury and alcohol.

How to use a liquid in thermometer:

▪ The bulb is kept in direct contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured.
▪ The thermometric liquid expands through the capillary tube.
▪ The thermometer is left in contact with the body for sometime until the level of thermometric
liquid (mercury) remains stationary or steady.
▪ The thermometer reading becomes the temperature of the body

Precautions taken when designing (constructing) a liquid-in-glass thermometer:

❖ The walls of the glass bulb should be thin. This ensures that the thermometric liquid e.g. mercury
is heated easily.
❖ The amount of thermometric liquid in the bulb should be small. This is because a small amount
of the liquid takes less time to warm up therefore, it gives a quick response.
❖ The capillary tube should be uniform. This ensures that the expansion of the thermometric liquid
is also uniform.
❖ The bore of the capillary tube should be made narrow. This makes the thermometer to be more
sensitive in detecting small changes in temperature.
❖ The glass wall of the stem is made thick. This ensures that the inner parts of the thermometer are
well protected.

NOTE:
The space above the thermometric liquid is usually evacuated to avoid excess pressure from being
developed when mercury expands.

THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS:
There are two liquids that are mainly used in a liquid-in-glass thermometer namely;
• Mercury.
• Alcohol.
Choice of a thermometric liquid:
The choice of the thermometric liquid depends on the range of temperature to be measured.
Mercury freezes at −39℃ (freezing point) and boils at 357℃ (boiling point).
Alcohol freezes at −115℃ (freezing point) and boils at 78℃ (boiling point).
Therefore, alcohol is suitable to measure very low temperatures and mercury is suitable to measure
very high temperatures.

Qualities of a good thermometric liquid:

➢ It should be opaque so that it can easily be seen.
➢ It should not wet glass i.e. it should not stick on the walls of the thermometer.
➢ It should be a good conductor of heat. This ensures that it responds to any change in temperature.
➢ It should have a regular or uniform expansion. i.e. its expansion should be the same at different
points of the scale.
➢ It should have a high boiling point so as to measure very high temperatures.
➢ It should have a low freezing point so as to measure very low temperatures.
➢ It should have a high expansivity i.e. it should expand so much for a small temperature change.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Reasons why water is not used as a thermometric liquid:

→ It is transparent (not opaque) so it cannot be easily seen.
→ It wets glass i.e. it sticks on the walls the thermometer.
→ It doesn’t expand regularly.
→ It has a high freezing point (0℃) so it cannot be used to measure very low temperatures that are
less than 0℃.
→ It has a low boiling point (100℃) so it cannot be used to measure very high temperatures that are
beyond 100℃.
→ It is a poor conductor of heat.
→ Its meniscus is difficult to read.

Advantages of mercury over alcohol when used as a thermometric liquid:

▪ Mercury is opaque so it can easily be seen.
▪ Mercury does not wet the glass of the thermometer.
▪ Mercury has a high boiling point (357℃) so, it can be used to measure very high temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a regular or uniform expansion.
▪ Mercury is a good conductor of heat.
Disadvantages of mercury over alcohol when used as a thermometric liquid:
▪ Mercury has a high freezing point (−39℃) so it cannot be used to measure very low
temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a low expansivity i.e. it expands less for a small change in temperature.

Advantages of alcohol over mercury when used as a thermometric liquid:

▪ Alcohol has a low freezing point (−115℃) so, it can be used to measure very low temperatures.
▪ Mercury has a high expansivity i.e. it expands so much for a small change in temperature.
Disadvantages of alcohol over mercury when used as a thermometric liquid:
▪ Alcohol is not opaque (transparent) so it cannot easily be seen.
▪ Alcohol tends to wet the glass of the thermometer.
▪ Alcohol has a low boiling point (78℃) so, it cannot be used to measure very high temperatures.
▪ Alcohol has an irregular or non-uniform expansion compared to mercury.
▪ Alcohol is relatively a poor conductor of heat when compared to mercury.

DETERMINING TEMPERATURE ON AN UNCALIBRATED THERMOMETER:

The length between the lower fixed point and the upper fixed is called the fundamental interval.
Method 1:
𝒀
𝑿

𝟎℃ 𝜽 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

If 𝑿 is the length of the mercury thread above the lower fixed point (ice point) and 𝒀 is the length
between the lower and upper fixed points (fundamental interval), then the unknown temperature, 𝜽
can be obtained from the expression below.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜃= × 100℃
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Method 2:

𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝑼𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

(𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕)

𝜽
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑳𝜽
𝟎℃ 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑳𝟎
(𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕)

If 𝑳𝟎 is the length of mercury thread at lower fixed point (0℃), 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 is the length of mercury thread
at the upper fixed point (100℃) and 𝑳𝜽 is the length of mercury thread at unknown temperature, 𝜃,
then the unknown temperature can be obtained from the expression below;
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜃= × 100℃
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎

Examples:
1. When a thermometer is placed in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the lower fixed
point by 18.5𝑐𝑚. Find the temperature of the liquid if the fundamental interval is 20𝑐𝑚.
𝑿 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝒀 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀
𝟏𝟖. 𝟓
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟐𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓℃
2. The length on the stem of a mercury-in-glass thermometer between the lower and upper fixed
points is 18cm. when the bulb is dipped in a hot liquid, the mercury level is found to be 10𝑐𝑚
above the ice point. Calculate the temperature of the liquid.
𝑿 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝒀 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑿
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝒀
𝟏𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟖
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔℃
3. The fundamental interval of the thermometer is 18𝑐𝑚. How far above the ice point will the
mercury level be when the bulb is in a region at a temperature of 60℃?
𝒀 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎, 𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎℃
𝑿 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎
𝜽 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝑿=
𝒀 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑿 𝑿 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝟔𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟐𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. The length of the mercury thread of a thermometer at ice point is 22𝑐𝑚 and that at steam point is
62𝑐𝑚. Calculate the reading of the thermometer when the mercury thread is 42𝑐𝑚 long.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟒𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟒𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟔𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟒𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟎℃

5. In an uncalibrated thermometer, the length of the mercury above the bulb is 38𝑚𝑚 at lower fixed
point and 138𝑚𝑚 at upper fixed point. When the thermometer is placed in a hot liquid, the
length of the mercury thread above the bulb is 78𝑚𝑚. Calculate the temperature of the hot
liquid.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟑𝟖𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟕𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟑𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖
𝟒𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟎℃

6. A mercury thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in melting pure ice and then in boiling pure
water. If the mercury columns are 6𝑐𝑚 and 16𝑐𝑚 respectively, find the temperature when the
mercury column is 8𝑐𝑚 long.
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝜽 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑳𝜽 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑳𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑳𝟎
𝟖−𝟔
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟔 − 𝟔
𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟎℃

7. The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 5.7Ω at ice point, 5.2Ω at steam point and
5.5Ω at unknown temperature. Determine the unknown temperature.
𝑹𝟎 = 5.2Ω, 𝑹𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 5.7Ω, 𝑹𝜽 = 5.5Ω
𝑹𝜽 − 𝑹𝟎
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝑹𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑹𝟎
𝟓. 𝟓 − 𝟓. 𝟐
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟓. 𝟕 − 𝟓. 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟑
𝜽= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟎. 𝟓
𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎℃

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

CLINICAL THERMOMETER
This is an example of liquid-in-glass thermometer since it uses mercury as its thermometric liquid.
It is designed to be used in clinics and hospitals to measure the temperature of human beings.
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝑩𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒌/𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

The clinical thermometer measures a small range of temperatures i.e. 35℃ 𝑡𝑜 42℃ since the
temperature of the human body cannot go outside that.

How to use a clinical thermometer:

▪ The thermometer is placed in the person’s arm pit (or other parts of the body) for about 2
minutes.
▪ The mercury from the bulb expands until it reaches a level when it is no longer changing
(stationary).
▪ The thermometer is withdrawn from the human body and the level of mercury thread is read off.
▪ This mercury level gives the temperature of the human body.

NOTE:
❖ The use of the kink or constriction is to prevent the back flow of mercury when temperature is
being read.
❖ It is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water, since this makes mercury to
expand far beyond the space provided in the bore. Hence, this may lead to bursting of the
thermometer.
❖ The thermometer should be shaken before it is used on another patient so as to allow mercury go
back to bulb.

SENSITIVITY OF A THERMOMETER
A thermometer is said to be sensitive if it can detect or measure very small changes in temperature.

Conditions for a thermometer to be sensitive.

➢ The thermometer should have a large bulb.
If the bulb is large, it will contain a greater volume of mercury thus leading to greater expansion
of mercury per degree.
➢ The thermometer should have a very narrow bore.
If the bore of the capillary tube is made narrow, a small change in volume of mercury will fill a
greater length of the capillary tube.

Other types of thermometers:

Apart from liquid-in-thermometers, other thermometers include;
→ Thermocouple thermometers.
→ Platinum resistance thermometers.
→ Constant-volume gas thermometers.
→ Constant-pressure gas thermometers.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. a) “A thermometer is sensitive”. Explain what is meant by the statement.
b) State two ways of increasing the sensitivity of a thermometer.
2. a) What is meant by the term thermometric property?
b) State any three thermometric properties that you know.
c) List two properties of a good thermometric liquid.
3. a) Define the following terms.
i) Lower fixed point.
ii) Fundamental interval.
b) With the aid of a diagram, describe how the upper fixed point of an uncalibrated can be
determined.
4. The interval between the ice and steam points on a thermometer is 192mm. Find the temperature
when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2mm from the ice point.
5. The distance between the lower and upper fixed points on the Celsius scale on an unmarked
mercury glass thermometer is 25cm. If the mercury level is 5cm below the upper fixed point,
calculate the temperature value at that level.
6. Convert the following temperature readings to the Celsius scale.
a) 283K b) 167K c) 973K d) 3960K
7. Convert the following temperature readings to the Kelvin scale.
i) −25℃ ii) 353℃ iii) 237℃
8. a) For a liquid in glass thermometer, what are the governing factors for choosing the liquid to be
used?
b) Give three reasons why water is not used as a thermometric liquid.
c) When a Celsius thermometer is inserted in a boiling liquid, the mercury thread rises above the
lower fixed point by 19.5cm. Find the temperature of the boiling liquid if the fundamental
interval is 25cm.
9. a) Define a fixed point as used in thermometry.
b) Under what circumstances could alcohol be preferred to mercury as a thermometric liquid?
c) When determining the lower fixed point of a mercury-in-glass thermometer, why should the
ice be pure?
10. In an uncalibrated thermometer, the length of the mercury above the bulb is 22𝑚𝑚 at lower fixed
point and 134𝑚𝑚 at upper fixed point. When the thermometer is placed in a hot liquid, the
length of the mercury thread above the bulb is 68𝑚𝑚. Calculate the temperature of the hot
liquid.
11. When marking the fixed points of a thermometer, it is observed that at 0℃, the mercury level is
1cm and 6cm when at 100℃. Calculate the temperature that would correspond to a length of
4cm.
12. a) In determining the upper fixed point of an unmarked thermometer, why is the hypsometer
made with double walls.
b) Why is it that boiling water is not used for sterilization of a clinical thermometer?
c) Why is the range of a clinical thermometer usually 35℃ to 42℃?
13. A mercury thermometer reads 10℃ when dipped into melting ice and 90℃ when in steam at
normal pressure. Calculate the thermometer reading when it is dipped in a liquid at 20℃.
14. The length of mercury column at the lower and the upper fixed points are 2cm and 5cm
respectively. Given that the length of mercury at unknown temperature, 𝜃. Determine the value
of 𝜃.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer refers to the flow of heat through matter from a region of high temperature (hot body)
to a region of low temperature (cold body).

Modes of heat transfer:

There are three ways by which heat is transferred and these are;
• Conduction.
• Convection.
• Radiation.

CONDUCTION:
This is the transfer of heat through matter from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature without movement of matter as a whole.
NOTE:
In conduction, heat flows as a result of direct contact of molecules of a substance i.e. heat is
transferred when one molecule contacts another molecule.
Therefore, conduction is best in solids (closely packed particles) and worst in liquids and gases
(widely spaced particles).

CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS:
Heat transfer in solids occurs a result of;
➢ Excess energy of vibrations being passed from one atom to another.
➢ The excess kinetic energy given to the free electrons near the source of heat being carried by
these electrons as they move to the colder region.

Explanation of conduction in a metal (solid) using kinetic theory of matter:

When one end of a metal is heated, the temperature of the molecules of the metal near the heat
source increases.
The increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules of the solid thus they begin
to vibrate violently. These molecules start to collide with the nearby molecules transferring heat to
them. The process continues until heat is transferred to molecules at the other end of the metal.
NOTE:
❖ Heat transfer in conduction takes place by vibration of molecules but not actual movement of the
heated molecules.
❖ Conduction is faster in good conductors than in bad conductors.

Factors that affect the rate of heat in metals:

➢ Temperature difference between the ends of a metal:
Heat is transferred quickly when the temperature difference between the ends of the metal is
high.
➢ Length of the metal:
Much heat is transferred in a short time when the metal bar is short. Therefore, the rate of heat
transfer increases when the metal is of smaller length than when the metal is of longer length.
➢ Cross-sectional area of the metal:
When the metal is thicker, much heat is transferred in a shortest time than a thin metal at the
same time. The rate of heat transfer in metals with large cross-sectional area and vice versa.
➢ Nature of material of the metal:
Different materials used to make the metal have different thermal conductivities thus different
rates of heat transfer.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Good conductors of heat:

These are materials that allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they conduct heat easily.
Examples include;
• All metals e.g. Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Steel etc.

Bad conductors of heat:

These are materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily. i.e. they don’t conduct heat
easily.
Examples include;
• All non-metals e.g. Wood, Rubber, Plastics, Glass etc.

Applications (uses) of good and bad conductors of heat:

➢ Good conductors of heat are used in making of cooking utensils e.g. saucepans, kettles, frying
pans, etc.
➢ Bad conductors of heat are used in making handles of cooking utensils, insulators since they
don’t allow heat to pass through them.

Question 1:
Explain why a metal feels cold when touched on a cold day.
Since a metal is a good conductor of heat, it conducts all the heat away from the hands. Thus, our
hands lose heat and this gives a sensation of coldness.

Question 2:
Explain why a cemented floor feels colder than a carpeted floor.
When we put our feet on a cemented floor, it conducts all the heat away from our feet since it is a
good conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet lose heat and become cold.
When we put our feet on a carpeted floor, it doesn’t conduct any heat from our feet since it’s a bad
conductor of heat. Therefore, our feet do not lose heat thus they remain warm.

An experiment to compare conductivities of different solids

QN: Describe an experiment to compare the rate of heat transfer in different conductors.

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂𝒙

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏
▪ Identical rods of different materials coated with wax are dipped in hot water.
▪ After sometime, the wax starts to melt along the rods.
▪ Wax melts fastest along the copper rod and slowest along the wood rod.
▪ This shows that copper is the best conductor of heat and wood is the worst conductor of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Experiment to show that wood is a poor conductor of heat:

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑼𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓
▪ A composite rod is made by joining a wooden rod with a copper rod.
▪ A piece of paper is wrapped round the composite rod around the joint so that the wooden and
copper rod share the paper equally as shown below.
▪ The composite rod is passed through a Bunsen burner flame several times.

Observation:
▪ The part of the paper on the wood gets charred (burnt) while the part of paper on copper remains
uncharred (not burnt).

Explanation:
▪ Copper is a good conductor of heat. Therefore, copper conducts away heat quickly from the
paper thus the temperature of part of the paper on it remains low. Hence, the part of the paper on
copper does not char.
▪ Wood is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore, wood does not conduct away heat from the paper
thus the temperature of part of the paper on it remains high. Hence, the part of the paper on wood
chars.

CONDUCTION IN LIQUIDS AND GASES:

Liquids and gases transfer heat at a very slow rate i.e. they are relatively poor conductors of heat.
This is because their molecules are apart.

An experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat:

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑰𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅
𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒛𝒆

▪ Ice is wrapped in a wire gauze and then placed in the test tube. The wire gauze is used to keep ice
at the bottom of the test tube.
▪ The test tube is then filled with water.
▪ The water near the mouth of the test tube is heated.
▪ It is observed that water at the top starts to boil before the ice at the bottom starts to melt.
▪ This shows that there is little conduction of heat from the top to the bottom by water hence water
is a poor conductor of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show that mercury is a better conductor of heat than water:

𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑾𝒂𝒙 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌
▪ Two test tubes are filled with equal volumes of water and mercury respectively.
▪ A cork is attached to the bottom of each test tube.
▪ A piece of thick copper rod is bent twice at right angles and its ends are put in the test tubes
respectively as shown above.
▪ The centre of the copper rod is heated such that heat is conducted equally into water and mercury
test tubes.
▪ After a short period of time, wax on the mercury-filled test tube melts and the cork falls while
that on the water-filled test tube remains attached for a long period of time.
▪ This shows that heat reaches the wax faster through mercury than in water hence mercury is a
better conductor of heat than water.

CONVECTION:
This is the transfer of heat through a fluid from a region of high temperature to a region of low
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
NOTE:
➢ Convection occurs in only fluids (i.e. liquids and gases) because they can flow easily and
cannot occur in solids since they can’t flow.
➢ Convection cannot occur in a vacuum because it requires a material medium.
Explanation of convection in fluids:
When a fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding cold fluid.
The heated fluid rises upwards and the space left is filled with the surrounding cold fluid.
As the warm fluid rises, it gives heat to the surrounding cold fluid thus forming a cyclic movement
called convectional currents.

Definition:
Convectional currents are rising and falling fluid caused by a change in temperature and density of
a fluid.

𝑯𝒐𝒕, 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅, 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show convectional currents in liquids:

𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
(𝑷𝒖𝒓𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓)
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒓𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

Procedures:
▪ A round bottomed flask is filled with clean water.
▪ A few crystals of potassium permanganate are placed at the bottom of the flask using a glass
tube.
▪ The bottom of the flask is gently heated.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate is seen moving upwards and on
reaching the top, it spreads and then moves downwards forming convectional currents.
Explanation:
▪ When the solution at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands and become less dense than the
surrounding water thus moving upwards. The surrounding cold and dense water flows to the
bottom to replace the risen water.
▪ So, the water circulates in the flask hence forming convectional currents.

An experiment to show convectional currents in gases:

𝑪𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒚𝒔 𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑨 𝑩
𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒌𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆

Procedures:
▪ Fit two glass chimneys to the top of a box with a glass window.
▪ Light a candle and place it below chimney A.
▪ Introduce smoke into the box by placing a piece of smouldering paper in the other chimney B.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that all the smoke from chimney B moves out of the box through chimney A above
the candle.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Explanation:
▪ When the air above the candle is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding
air thus rises and moves out through chimney A.
▪ Since the surrounding air (smoke) is cooler and denser, therefore, it sinks into the box through
chimney B to replace the risen hot air.
▪ The difference in densities of the air at the different chimneys sets up a convectional current.

NOTE:
Convection occurs much more readily in gases than in liquids because they expand much more than
liquids when heated.

APPLICATIONS OF CONVECTIONAL CURRENTS IN DAILY LIFE

a) Sea breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from sea to land during day time.

𝑾𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒂

𝑺𝑬𝑨 𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑫

▪ During day, the land is heated more than the sea by the sun because land is a good absorber
of heat and has a lower specific heat capacity than the sea.
▪ The increase in temperature of land causes the air above the land to expand and become less
dense thus rising up.
▪ The space left by the warm air above the land is filled up by the cold air that blows from sea.
▪ This results into a sea breeze during day time.

b) Land breeze:
This is the cool air that blows from land to sea at night.

𝑾𝒂𝒓𝒎 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑫
𝑺𝑬𝑨

▪ At night, the land is no longer heated by the sun so it cools very rapidly than the sea since
land is a good emitter of heat than the sea. Therefore, the sea is warmer than the land at night.
▪ The warm air above the sea rises up since it is less dense.
▪ The space left by the warm air above the sea is filled up by the cold air that blows from land.
▪ This results into a land breeze at night.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

c) Ventilation:
▪ Air inside a room is heated up on a hot day. This heated air (warm air) expands and becomes less
dense thus rising up and flow out through the ventilators.
▪ The space left by the risen warm air is filled up with fresh cool air which passes through the
windows and the doors.
▪ This results into circulation of air in the room thus forming convectional currents.

Question1:
Explain why ventilators are constructed above the windows and doors.
The ventilators help to move out hot air from the room. Since hot air is less dense than cold air, it
rises up and moves out of the room through these ventilators. The cool air which is denser sinks
into the room through the windows and doors. This circulation of air helps to cool the room.
If the ventilators were put near the floor, the hot air would not leave the room but just stays at the
upper part of the room thus keeping the room hot.

Question 2:
Explain how a chimney makes life comfortable in a kitchen.
A chimney helps to drive out smoke and oily-filled air during cooking thus reducing indoor
pollution in the kitchen.
During cooking, smoke and some oily-filled air which are denser are produced thus rising up and
moves out of the kitchen through the chimneys thus making the kitchen more conducive.

d) Hot water domestic supply system:

𝑴𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒄𝒌
𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑫
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚

𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨
𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪
𝑩
𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓

▪ Cold water is supplied to the boiler through the cold-water supply pipes A and B.
▪ In the boiler, cold water is heated, expands and becomes less dense thus raising up to the hot
water storage tank through pipe C. At the same time an equal volume of cold water flows to
the boiler through the supply.
▪ As more cold water is supplied to the boiler, hot water is displaced upwards and supplied to
the hot water supply taps.

NOTE:
❖ The expansion pipe D allows escape of dissolved air which comes out of the water when it is
heated. Therefore, if the expansion pipe is not there, the dissolved air which comes out when
water is heated may cause air locks in the pipes thus causing explosion.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

❖ Pipes A and B are connected to bottom part of hot water storage tank and boiler respectively
because they carry cold water which is denser.
❖ Pipe C leaves the boiler at the top and enters the hot water storage tank at the top part because
it carries hot water which is less dense.

e) Electric kettles have their heating coil at the bottom:

The heating coil (element) of an electric kettle is placed at the bottom. Therefore, one can boil
any amount of water that can cover the element effectively. Hot water which is less dense than
cold water rises above the hot element to the top of the water and the denser cold water sinks
down to the hot element. This sets up convection currents which make the water to boil
uniformly.

Question: State one difference between convection and conduction.

Conduction: Convection:
Heat is transferred from a region of Heat is transferred from a region of
high temperature to region of low high temperature to region of low
temperature without the movement temperature by the movement of
of matter as a whole. fluid itself.

RADIATION:
This is the transfer of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
Since electromagnetic waves do not require a material medium to transfer their energy, therefore
radiation does not need a material medium for heat energy to be transmitted.
Examples of heat transfer by radiation include;
→ Heat from the sun reaching the earth.
→ A hot body or fire losing heat to the surrounding.
NOTE:
➢ Heat transferred by means of radiation can travel through a vacuum.
➢ Radiation is the fastest means of heat transfer since it travels at the speed of light.
➢ The energy from a hot body is called radiant energy.

Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by radiation:

• Temperature of the body: A hotter body radiates heat faster compared to a cold body.
• Surface area of the body: Bodies with large surface areas (bigger areas) radiate much heat
energy per second.
• Nature of the surface of the body: Dull surfaces radiate heat energy faster than highly polished
surfaces.

GOOD AND BAD ABSORBERS OF HEAT

Good absorbers: These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less heat energy.
Dull and black surfaces absorb most of the heat and reflect a few so they are
good absorbers of heat.

Bad absorbers: These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but reflect most of heat
radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations so they are bad
absorbers of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show the absorption of radiation in a surface:

𝑫𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 (𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅)

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑾𝒂𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆

Procedures:
▪ A dull and shiny (polished) surface are placed vertically at a short distance from each other.
▪ A cork is fixed on the back side of each surface by using wax.
▪ A heat source is placed mid-way between the two surfaces so that each surface receives the same
amount of radiation.
Observation:
▪ It is observed that the wax on the dull surface melts first and the cork falls off before the wax on
the shiny surface melts.
Explanation:
▪ A dull surface absorbed much heat faster than the shiny surface thus a dull surface is a good
absorber of heat radiation than the shiny one. The shiny surface just reflects the heat away from it.

Applications of good and bad absorbers

❖ Buildings in hot countries are painted white and roof surfaces are made shiny because white and
shiny surfaces are bad absorbers of heat radiation thus keeping the rooms cool.
❖ Petrol tanks on vehicles are polished to reflect away radiant heat.
❖ White coloured clothes are worn in dry season so that they reflect away heat thus keep us cool
❖ Sweaters and blankets are made with dull colours to absorb heat.
❖ The bottoms of cooking utensils are made black to absorb heat from the fire.

GOOD AND BAD EMITTERS OF HEAT

Basically, we say that the body emits heat if it can cause the temperature of a nearby body to
increase. A body relatively can’t emit heat if it can’t absorb it.
Good emitters: These absorb most of the heat radiations and reflects less heat energy.
Dull and black surfaces emit most of the heat so they are good emitters of
heat.

Bad emitters: These don’t absorb most of the heat radiations but reflect most of heat
radiations.
Shiny or polished surfaces reflect most of the heat radiations so they are bad
emitters of heat.

NOTE:
 Good absorbers of heat are also good emitters of heat.
 Bad absorbers of heat are also bad emitters of heat.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

An experiment to show good and bad emitters of heat (radiators of heat)

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑮 𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒆′𝒔
𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒆
Procedures:
▪ A hollow copper cube (Leslie’s cube) with each side having a different surface (i.e. black, white
and shiny surface) is used.
▪ The cube is filled with hot water.
▪ The radiation from each surface is detected by a thermopile and the deflection of the
galvanometer observed.
Observation:
▪ The deflection of the galvanometer is greatest when the thermopile is facing the black surface
and least when facing the shiny surface.
Explanation:
▪ The dull black surface emits a lot of heat radiation than the shiny surface thus a great deflection
of the thermopile. Therefore, the dull and black surface is a good radiator or emitter of heat while
a shiny or polished surface is a poor emitter of heat radiations.

NOTE:
 A thermopile is a device which converts heat energy to electrical energy.
 A galvanometer is a device which measures small currents and small voltages.

Applications of good and bad emitters

❖ Tea pots and kettles are polished so that they don’t emit heat to the surrounding thus keeping
liquids inside hot.
❖ Cooling fins on refrigerators are painted black so that they can emit heat quickly to the
surrounding.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION
a) VACUUM FLASK (THERMOS FLASK):
This is a flask with two silvered walls enclosing a vacuum which keeps its contents at a fairly
constant temperature.
The vacuum is designed to either keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑨𝒔𝒃𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒔 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒍

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

How heat losses are minimised in a vacuum flask:

❖ Cork: A cork is a poor conductor of heats so it doesn’t allow heat to pass through it.
Therefore, it minimizes heat loss by conduction.
❖ Vacuum: A vacuum is a space without air. It minimizes heat loss by convection and
conduction.
❖ Silvered surfaces: These are highly polished surfaces which minimize heat loss by
radiation.
Silvered surfaces are poor radiators (emitters) of heat, therefore no
heat is allowed to go in and out of the flask.
NOTE:
 The vacuum seal seals the vacuum. Therefore, if its broken, the vacuum will no longer exist
thus causing heat losses through convection and conduction.
 When the hot liquid is kept in a vacuum flask for a long period of time, it eventually gets
cold. This is because little heat is lost at a smaller rate since all flasks are not too perfect
whereby some corks may conduct some heat, frequent opening of the flask etc.

b) CHOICE OF DRESSES AND CLOTHES:

On a hot day, a white dress is preferred to a dull dress because it reflects most of the heat
radiations that fall on it hence keeping the body cool.
On cold days, a dull or black woollen dress is preferred because it absorbs most of the heat
radiations thus retaining it for a longer period of time.

c) GREEN HOUSE EFFECT:

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the radiations
from the sun reaches the earth’s atmosphere, some it is reflected back and the rest is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon
dioxide, ozone and other gases.
After absorbing the radiations from the sun, these greenhouse gases re-radiate these heat
radiations to the earth thus warming the atmosphere of the earth’s surface.

NOTE:
 When human activities like land clearing, deforestation, and burning fossil fuels increase,
they increase the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere thus causing
them to absorb more heat from the sun. This increased absorption of heat radiations from
the sun leads to excessive warming of the earth. This is called global warming.

GREEN HOUSE:

A green house is a house that supports plant growth

by allowing in radiations from sun and preventing
𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 radiations emitted by the green plants from escaping.
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒔

𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

How a green house works:

▪ The sun emits radiations of short wavelength to the earth. These radiations enter the green house
through the glass walls.
▪ The plants and soil in the green house absorb these radiations hence their temperature is raised
thus becoming warmer.
▪ The warm plants and soil in the green house re-radiate (re-emit) radiations of long wavelength.
▪ Since long wavelength radiations are less penetrative, they are unable to pass through the glass
walls of the green house thus causing the temperature inside to continue rising.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Explain why the sea remains cooler than land during daytime and warmer than land at night.
b) State two factors that affects the rate of heat transfer along a metallic rod.
c) Describe an experiment to show that water is a poor conductor of heat.

2. a) Draw a well labelled diagram of a thermos flask.

b) Explain how the features on the thermos flask above enables to keep a liquid warm.
c) State two circumstances where the warm liquid in the flask above can get ultimately cold.

3. Explain the following observations;

i) A person should crawl on the floor in a smoke-filled room.
ii) Ventilators are put near the ceilings of houses.
iii) Houses in North-African countries like Egypt are painted white.
iv) Flames of fire move upwards.

4. a) Distinguish between Conduction and radiation.

b) Explain why the metallic blade of the knife feels cold on a cold day.
c) Describe an experiment to show that wood is poor conductor of heat than copper.

5. a) Explain why a black coat is usually worn on a cold otherwise not on a hot day.
b) In an experiment to demonstrate the poor conductivity of water, ice is wrapped in a wire
gauze. Explain why this is so.

6. a) Define the term radiation.

b) Explain how a vacuum flask is able to keep a cold liquid cool for a long period of time.
c) Explain how global warming occurs in the earth’s atmosphere.

7. Explain the following observations;

i) Blankets are made of dull colours.
ii) Car radiators are coiled and painted black.
iii) A swimmer prefers to put on a wet cloth when diving in cold water.

8. a) Define the term good emitter of radiation.

b) Describe how a green house is able to support plant growth.

9. a) Explain the greenhouse effect and how it affects the earth’s atmosphere.
b) Explain why solar panels are painted black.

10. a) Describe an experiment to show convection in liquids.

b) Explain why electric kettles have their heating element at the bottom.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

All the three states of matter (solids, liquids and gases) change in volume when heated
Definition:
Expansion is the increase in size of matter whenever matter is heated.
This increase in size of an object occurs in all directions.
Definition:
Contraction is the decrease in size of matter whenever matter is cooled.

EXPANSION IN SOLIDS
All solids expand when heated. Some solids expand greatly and others very little.

An experiment to demonstrate thermal expansion in solids:

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

▪ A metal ball which just passes through the metal ring is used.
▪ The metal ball is heated for some time.
▪ It is observed that after heating the ball, it could not pass through the metal ring. This is because
the ball has expanded when heated.
▪ When the metal ball is cooled, it passes through the metal ring again. This indicated that on
cooling, the metal ball had contracted.

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION

Thermal expansion in solids is applied in the following;
a) Bimetallic strip:
This is a strip made when two metals of different expansion rates are joined together e.g. Brass
and Iron.
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔
(𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏
(𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)
When a bimetallic strip is heated, it forms a curve with a metal that expands more on the outside
and the metal that expands less on the inside.
Uses of bimetallic strips:
→ They are used in ringing bells of fire alarms.
→ They are used in thermostats in electrical appliances.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

Fire alarms:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑩𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒆

▪ When there is a fire outbreak in a room, the bimetallic strip is heated by fire. This causes it to
bend outwards thus completing the electrical circuit.
▪ When the circuit is complete, current flows to the electric bell thus causing it to ring.

Thermostats:
A thermostat is a device that keeps the temperature of a room or an electrical appliance to remain
constant.
Thermostats are used in the heating circuits of electric flat irons.

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒃

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒔
𝑩𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑
𝑻𝒐 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
▪ The control knob is set to the required temperature.
▪ On reaching the required temperature, the bimetallic strip bends away thus breaking the circuit at
the contacts. This switches off the heater.
▪ On cooling, the bimetallic strip makes returns back to its original shape and makes contact again
thus completing the circuit. This switches on the heater.

Other applications of thermal expansion (Disadvantages of expansion):

b) Bridges:
Girders in bridges are made of mainly steel. During cold days bridges contract and during hot
days, the bridges expand. In order to allow room for expansion and contraction in bridges, the
bridge is constructed with one end fixed and the other end placed on rollers. This helps it contract
and expand freely without damaging the bridge.
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅
𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒔
𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

c) Railways:
On a hot day, the rails are heated and they and they are bent due to expansion. This causes them
to get seriously damaged.

𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍
𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
In order to give room for expansion during hot days, railway lines are constructed with gaps
between the rails.
𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒔

𝑶𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑶𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

d) Transmission wires:
The wires used in transmission of electricity and telephone cables are loosely fixed (sag) in order
to allow them expand freely during hot days and contract freely during cold days.

e) Rivets:
Rivets are tight joints obtained by riveting two metals together.
A hot rivet is pushed through a hole between two metals to be joined together and its end is
hammered flat. On cooling, it contracts and pulls the two metals together.

𝑹𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒕

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

LINEAR EXPANSIVITY OF A METAL:

When a metal is heated, its length increases after expansion and this increase in length is called linear
expansion. We distinguish between the rates of expansion of different metals by finding their linear
expansivities (coefficient of linear expansion).
Definition:
Linear expansivity of a material is the fraction of its original length which increases when its
temperature rises by 1K.
Therefore, linear expansivity depends on;
• Length of a material.
• Rise or change in temperature.
• Natural of material

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
Where;
∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 − 𝑳𝑶 (𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
∆𝜽 = 𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝑶 (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
The SI unit of linear expansivity is 𝑲−𝟏 or ℃−𝟏 .
Examples:
1. The length of a metal rod is 800mm. It is found to increase to 801.36mm when heated from 15℃
to 100℃. Calculate the linear expansivity of the metal rod.
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎, 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟖𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒎, ∆𝑳 = (𝟖𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 − 𝟖𝟎𝟎) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒎
𝜽𝑶 = 𝟏𝟓℃, 𝜽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃, ∆𝜽 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟖𝟓℃

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
𝟏. 𝟑𝟔
𝜶=
𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟖𝟓
𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 /℃

2. Calculate the linear expansion (change in length) of aluminium cable 50m between two electric
poles when its temperature rises by 40℃. The linear expansivity of aluminium is 2.6 × 10−5 ℃−1 .
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟓𝟎𝒎, ∆𝑳 =?
∆𝜽 = 𝟒𝟎℃, 𝜶 = 𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ℃−𝟏

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
∆𝑳
𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 =
𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎
∆𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝒎

3. A metal rod has length of 100cm at 200℃. At what temperature will its length be 99.4𝑐𝑚 if the
linear expansivity is 0.00002 𝐾 −1?
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝒄𝒎, ∆𝑳 = (𝟗𝟗. 𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎) = −𝟎. 𝟔𝒄𝒎
𝜽𝑶 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎℃, 𝜽𝟏 =?, 𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝑲−𝟏

∆𝑳 ∆𝜽 = 𝜽𝟎 − 𝜽𝟏
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽𝟏
−𝟎. 𝟔 𝜽𝟏 = (𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎)
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝜽𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × ∆𝜽
−𝟎. 𝟔
∆𝜽 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
∆𝜽 = −𝟑𝟎𝟎℃

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

4. A steel bridge is 2.5m long. If the linear expansivity of steel is 1.1 × 10−5 𝐾 −1, how much will it
expand when temperature rises by 5℃?
𝑳𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎, ∆𝑳 =?
∆𝜽 = 𝟓℃, 𝜶 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑲−𝟏

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝑶 × ∆𝜽
∆𝑳
𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 =
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎

EXERCISE:
1. Calculate the new length of the metal given that its new length is 50cm when heated from 0℃ to
25℃. (𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 1.8 × 10−5 /℃).
2. A metal rod is 64.5cm long at 12℃ and 64.6cm at 90℃. Find the coefficient of linear expansion,
(𝛼) of its material.
3. A rod is found to be 0.04cm longer at 30℃ than it was at 10℃. Calculate its length at 10℃ if the
linear expansivity is 2.0 × 10−5 ℃−1 .
4. The length of iron rod is 100℃ is 300.36cm and at 150℃ is 300.54cm. Calculate its length at
0℃.

An experiment to measure the linear expansivity of a metal:

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝑱𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕

𝑴𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The original length, 𝐿0 of the brass rod is measured using a metre rule.
▪ The brass rod with a thermometer is placed in a steam jacket.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is screwed up so that there is no gap at either ends of the brass rod.
The reading, 𝑙1 of the micrometer screw gauge is recorded.
▪ The initial temperature of the brass rod, 𝜃1 is recorded.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is unscrewed to leave room for expansion of the brass rod.
▪ The steam is passed through the jacket for a few minutes.
▪ The micrometer screw gauge is screwed up again so that there is no gap at either ends of the
brass rod. The reading, 𝑙2 of the micrometer screw gauge is recorded.
▪ The final temperature of the brass rod, 𝜃2 is recorded.
▪ Then linear expansivity of the metal is got from;
(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑳𝟎 ∆𝜽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXPANSION IN LIQUIDS:
Liquids expand when heated. Different liquids have different expansion rates when equally heated.
Liquids expand more than solids since their molecule are far apart compared to those of solids thus
their intermolecular forces are weak.

An experiment to demonstrate expansion of a liquid e.g. water:

𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

Procedure:
▪ The flask is completely filled with coloured water.
▪ A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is fixed tightly into the
flask.
▪ The initial level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
▪ The bottom of the flask is then heated.
▪ The new level of water in the narrow glass tube is observed.
Observation:
It is observed that the level of water in the narrow glass tube first falls and then starts to rise again.
Explanation:
▪ When the flask is heated, the flask gets heated first before the heat is passed to the water inside it.
Therefore, the flask expands first and increase in volume before the water causing a fall in the
water level.
▪ However, when the heat reaches the water, it expands and increase in volume thus its level starts
to rise in the narrow tube.

An experiment to compare the expansions of different liquids:

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒉

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

▪ Three identical glass flasks are filled with water, ethanol and ether respectively to the same level.
▪ The glass flasks are heated by placing them in hot water which is maintained at the same
temperature.
▪ It is observed that after some time, the liquid levels rise to different levels. This shows that
different liquids expand differently for the same temperature change.
▪ It is also observed that ether expands more than ethanol and water.

ANOMALOUS (ABNORMAL) EXPANSION OF WATER

Liquids expand steadily when heated i.e. when their temperature increases.
Water has an abnormal behaviour whereby when its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃, it contracts
instead of expanding. This situation is referred to as the anomalous expansion of water.

Definition:
Anomalous expansion of water is the abnormal behaviour of water whereby it contracts instead of
expanding when its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃.

Volume against temperature graph showing expansion of water

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑩
𝑬
𝑨
𝑪 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑫

−𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃)

AB: As ice is heated, it expands until when its temperature reaches 0℃ where it melts to form water.
BC: Ice melts to form water at 0℃.
CD: As the temperature rises, the water 0℃ contracts until 4℃.
DE: As the temperature exceeds 4℃, water starts to expand steadily.
From the graph, water has its minimum volume at 4℃. Thus, the density of water is maximum when
the temperature is 4℃.

Density against temperature graph showing expansion of water

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

−𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 (℃)

From the graph, the density of water is maximum at 4℃.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

NOTE:
 At 0℃, the volume of ice is greater than the volume of water. Therefore, the density of
ice is less than the density of water. This explains why ice floats when mixed with water.
Question: Explain why ice floats on water.
This is because for a given mass of ice at 𝟎℃, its volume is always greater than the
volume of water. Therefore, the density of ice is always less than the density of water
thus causing it to float on water.

Biological importance of anomalous expansion of water

QN: Explain how anomalous expansion of water helps to preserve the lives of aquatic animals.
Preserving aquatic life in ponds and lakes:
The effect of anomalous expansion of water is that the coldest water always floats on top of the
surface of the other water since it is less dense.
Since water at 4℃ is the heaviest (denser), this water settles at the bottom of the lake and the lightest
(less dense) water settles at the top layer of the lake.
During winter, the water at the top is the first to freeze to ice. Since ice is a poor conductor of heat, it
insulates the rest of the water below it from the coldness of the winter.
This helps to preserve the lives of aquatic animals in water.

𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒄𝒆

𝟎℃ 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑
𝟏℃
𝟐℃
𝟑℃
𝟒℃ 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
NOTE: Anomalous expansion also helps in weathering of rocks.

Disadvantages of the abnormal expansion of water:

▪ It prevents water from being used as a thermometric liquid.
▪ It causes the bursting of water pipes when water flowing through them freezes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXPANSION IN GASES
When a gas is heated, the gas molecules gain more energy and move further apart thus occupying
more space. Therefore, gases expand more than the liquids and solids since their molecules are
widely spaced and their intermolecular forces are very weak.

An experiment to show expansion in gases:

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌

𝑨𝒊𝒓
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑵𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒃𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔

▪ Water is poured in a beaker.

▪ A narrow glass tube is passed through the hole of the cork and the cork is fixed tightly into the
flask.
▪ The flask is then inverted and dipped in the beaker filled in water.
▪ The flask is then gently heated.
▪ It is observed that level of water in the narrow glass tube falls and air bubbles are seen coming
out from the other end of the tube. This shows that air expands when heated and pushes the water
in the tube downwards.
▪ On cooling the flask, air in the flask contracts and water rises up in the narrow glass tube since
more space has been created in the flask.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION IN GASES:

It is applied in;
Hot air balloons:
When air in the balloon is heated, it expands and becomes less dense thus rising.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
ROBERT 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

EXERCISE:
1. a) Explain why gases expand much more than solids for the same temperature change.
b) State and explain the advantages and disadvantages of anomalous expansion of water.
2. The figure below shows a strip of copper and iron bonded together.
𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏

a) Redraw the diagram to show what happens when the strip is heated.
b) Why does the change you have shown in (a) above takes place?
3. a) Define the following terms;
i) Contraction of a material.
ii) Expansion of a material.
b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate expansion and contraction in solids.
c) State any one application of expansion in solids.
4. a) Describe an experiment to show expansion in liquids.
c) Explain anomalous expansion of water and give its importance to aquatic life.
5. Air was trapped in a round bottomed flask as shown below. The flask is inverted in a beaker of
water and then gently heated.

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑘

𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟

a) State what was observed when the flask is heated.

b) Explain your observation in (a) above.
6. Two flasks with a mercury manometer are arranged as shown in the figure below. Flask A is
painted black while flask B is polished white. A flame is then placed midway between them.

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌 𝑨 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒌 𝑩

𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

a) State what is observed.

b) Explain your observation.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

Lesson 1
LIGHT
İs a form of energy that enables us to see.

Sources of light
Natural sources include sun, star, glowing insects

Artificialluminous bodiesinclude bulb, candle, kerosene lamp e.t.c.

An object is seen only when light from the object enters the eyes.

Most of the things like moon seen do not make their own light but reflect light from other
sources to our eyes, such things are called nonluminous.

Some objects like sun, star, lamp e.t.c make their own light, these are calledluminous.

Transmission of light
Light travels from its source to another place through vacuum or amedium.

The media of light include:

(i) Transparent Medium is a substance that allows almost all the light to pass through it
and objects are clearly seen through it. E.g. colourless water, paraffin,colourless
glass.
(ii) Translucent medium is one which allows some light to pass through it but objects
are not clearly seen through it. E.g. cloudy liquid,frosted glass and oily paper.

(iii) Opaque mediumis one which does not allow light to pass through it at all.

Rays and beams

A ray is the direction of the path in which light travels. It is represented by a straight line with
an arrow on it.

A beam is a collection of rays.

There are three kinds of beams:

(i) Parallel beam. is a collection of rays which do not meet at all.

(ii) Convergent beam.

Convergent beamis a collection of rays originating from different directions and ending up at
the same point.
(iii)Divergent beam isa collection of rays which originate from one point and are spread out in
different directions.
Rectilinear propagation of light

This is the property of light travelling in a straight-line when produced from a source. It is
propagated (sent outward) and it travels in straight lines

Experiment to show that light travels in a straight line

Experiement I

(i) Equal square cards A,B and D are cut from piece of thick paper board each with a
hole in the middle.
(ii) When the card are arranged as shown above with their holes in a straight line light
passes through and seen on the other end.
(iii) İf the middle card is displaced such that its hole is removed from the line, light is cut
of from the other end

Conclusion: This shows that light travels in a straight line.

Experiment II

A candle light can be observed through a straight pipe but when the pipe is bent no light is seen

Experiment II
Formation of shadows and eclipses indicates that light travels in straight line.

Shadow
A shadow is formed when an object obstructs light. Shadows are formed because light travels in
a straight line.

(i) A Shadow is formed by a point source is equally sharp as shown below

A point source is a very small source of light. İt can obtained by placing a cardboard with a
small hole in front of a lamp as shown.
Note: For a point source
When the opaque object is moved near the source, the size of the shadow increases. But when
the object is moved near the screen, the size of the shadow decreases.

(ii) A shadow produced by extended source of light has a dark patch (umbra) and a
lighter outer patch (penumbra) as shown below

Umbra is a region of the shadow where no light reaches at all.

Penumbra is a region of the shadow where some light reaches.
Note that for an extended source
When the opaque object is moved near the source, then the size of the umbra decreases but the
size of the penumbra increases. When the object is moved near the screen, the size of the umbra
increases but the size of the penumbra decreases.

Eclipse
An eclipse occurs when the sun, moon and earth are in a straight line. There are three types of
eclipses namely: solar, annular and lunar.

Solar eclipse
Solar eclipse also called eclipse of the sun occurs when the moon is between the sun and earth
such that both umbra and penumbra reaches the earth.

The area on earth covered by the umbra has total eclipse and the sun cannot be seen at all.
The area covered by penumbra has partial eclipse and only part of the sun is seen.

Lunar eclipse
Lunar eclipse is also called eclipse of the moon. Lunar occurs when the earth is between the sun
and the moon.

During the eclipse of the moon the earth's shadow is cast on the moon such that when the moon
is at position "T," total eclipse occurs, in position "T1" partial eclipse occurs and when the moon
is in position "T2' no eclipse occurs but the moon is less brighter than usual.

Annular eclipse
Annular eclipse of the sun occurs when the sun is very far from earth and the moon is between
the earth and the sun such that umbra does not reach the earth but only penumbra reaches earth.
Note: Total eclipse of the moon lasts longer than total eclipse of the sun because for total eclipse
of moon, the earth which is in the middle is larger than moon in the eclipse of the sun.

FLOURESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE

Fluorescence is a substance, which absorbs energy and immediately releases the energy in the
form of light.

Example of such a substance is Zinc sulphide. The screen of a T.V and C.R.O are made of a
fluorescent substance.

Phosphorescence is a substance which absorbs the energy falling on it, stores it, and when
energy stops falling on it, it releases it in the form of light.

An example of such a substance is calcium sulphide.

Pinhole camera
A pinhole camera works on the property of light travelling in a straight line.

A pinhole camera consists of a closed blackened box with a small hole on one face and a screen
of tracing paper on the opposite face.The box of pinhole camera is blackened inside to prevent
reflections inside the box.
Properties of images formed by pinhole camers
(i) İt is real i.e. it can be produced on the screen. İt is formed by real rays of light
reaching the screen.
(ii) İt is inverted

Factors affecting the proprties of image formed by pinhole camera

(i) When the distance between the object and the pin hole is reduced the image becomes
bigger but less bright because the image is spread over a larger area and vice versa
(ii) When the distance between the pin hole and screen is increase the image becomes
bigger but becomes less bright because an image is spread over a bigger area. And
vice versa
(iii) When the pin hole is enlarged, the image becomes blurred but brighter because of too
much light entering

Linear magnification
Linear magnification is the ratio of image size to object size.
Or: Linear magnification is the ratio of image distance to object distance.

𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂𝐃
Magnification = 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬 =𝐀𝐁

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐞

Magnification =
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐞

So larger magnification is obtained when the object is nearer the pin-hole and smaller
magnification is produced when the object is farther away.

Example 1.
Calculate the height of a building 150m away from a pinhole camera which produces an image
5cm high if the distance between pin hole and screen is 10cm.
Object distance = 150m
Image height = 5cm = 0.05m
Image distance = 10cm = 0.1m
𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Linear magnification=𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
0.05 0.1
= = 150
h
h=75m

Example 2.
The length of a pin-hole camera is 25cm. An object 2m high is placed 10m from the pin-hole.
Calculate the height of the image produced and its magnification.
Solution
Image distance = 25cm = 0.25m
Object height = 2m
Object distance = 10m
𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Linear magnification =𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
 image height 0.25
= =
2 10
0.25
Image height = 10 x 2
= 0.05m = 5cm
image distance 0.25
Linear magnification= object distance = 10
= 0.025

Lens camera

- The lens focused light from the object on to film

- The diapragm controls the amount of light reaching the film
- The shutter controls the exposure time of ligh reaching the film

Differences between a pinhole camera and a lens commera

- in a pinhole camera the image is always focused while in a lens camera the image is brought
to focus by adjusting the position of the lens.
- İn pinhole camera the intensity of light entring is fixed while in a lens camera the intensity
of light entering is controlled by a shutter or diaphram.
- İn a pinhole camera the image distance is fixed while in a lens camera the image distanc is
not fixed.

Differences between the lens of a camera and eye

- The between the lens and retina is fixed while that between the lens and film in camera is
variable
- The focal length of the eyes lens is variable while thatof a comera is fixed
- Eye lens is living while the camera lens is artificial
Lesson 2

Reflection of light
Reflection is the process by which light energy falling on a body or surface bounces off. The
surface from which reflection occurs is called the reflecting surface.

Types of rays

Incident ray (AO) is a ray of light from source of light falling on to the reflecting surface.
Reflected ray (OB) is a ray of light which has been bounced off from the reflecting surface.
Normal (ON) is one which at 900 with the reflecting surface. So this is incident and reflected
along the same path

Angle of reflection (r) is the angle made by the reflected ray with the normal at the point of
incidenceon the reflecting surface.
Angle of Incidence (i) is the angle made by the incident ray with the normal at of incidence on
the reflecting surface.

The laws of reflection

First of lawof reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point
of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Second law of reflection state that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

Types of reflection
There are two types of reflection namely:
-Regular reflection.
-Irregular reflection.

Regular reflection
Regular reflection occurs when a parallel incident beam strikes a smooth reflecting surface and a
parallel reflected beam is obtained. Example of smooth plane surface is a plane mirror.
Irregular or diffused reflection
Diffuse reflection occurs when a parallel incident beam strikes a rough surface and a scattered
reflected beam is obtained.

The images formed by a plane mirror

An image in a plane mirror is formed by reflection of light as shown below

Properties of image formed by a plane mirror

(i) İt is virtual, i.e. it cannot be produced on the screen and is formed by imaginary rays.
(ii) İt is Lateral inverted, i.e., the right of the object is the left of the image and the left
of the object is the right of the image
(iii) Same size as the object
(iv) Same distance from the mirror as the object
(v) İt is erect
 Note: The linear magnification produced by a plane mirror is 1 sinceImage distance from the
mirror is equal to object distancefrom the mirror. Andthe image size is equal to the objectsize.

Formation of image by no parallax in plane mirror

1. Obtain a sheet of paper and draw a mirror line.
2. Place the mirror on the line as shown.
3. Place the pin at least 5 cm from the mirror and obtain another pin (search pin)
4. Move the serch pin behind the mirror to locate the position of the image where there is no
parallax and place your second pin.

The principle of reversibility of light

Sstates that light follows the same path if the direction of the travel of light is reversed

Experiement to demsntrate the principle of reversibility of light

1. A flash of light normal to the plane mirror surface is reflected through the same path
2. By locating the images of two pin after reflection through the plane mirror by no parallax
method.
- Two pins P1 and P2 are fixed vertically in front of the plane mirror XY
- Viewing from the other side Y, pins P3 and P4 are placed such that they appear to
be in line with the images of of P1 and P2 in the mirror.
- When viewed from side X, the images of P3 and P4 will be seen to be in line with
pins P1 and P2
- This shows that light through pins P1 and P2 to the mirror then through P3 and P4
reverses through the same path from P4 to P3 to Mirror then to P2 and P1.
Formation of multiple images in thick plane mirror

Multiple images are formed due to partial reflection and refraction at the non silvered surface of
the mirror.
- İmage I1 is formed by reflection on the glass surface P
- The image I2 (the brightest is formed by reflection of the most light on the
silvered surface Q
- Others by partial refraction
Parallax
Parallax is the apparent relative motion of two objects due to the movement of the observer.
As one travels in a car, trees, houses and other fixed objects seem to be in motion relative to one
another. Parallax occurs only when the objects are at a distance from one another. For this reason
parallax can be used to locate images in a plane mirror.

Uses plane mirrors

(i) Submarine periscope

The arrangement has two plane mirrors, each fixed at 45°. Light from the object is turned
through 90° at each reflection.
 (ii) Pointer instruments
A plane mirror in the scale of the pointer instruments facilitates the correct reading of the value.
(iii). Optical lever
Plane mirrors are sometime attached to the galvanometer, such that light falling on the mirror as
the galvanometer rotates is reflected over the scale.
(iv). Kaleidoscope
Inclined mirrors are used in Kaleidoscopes for producing differentpatterns of objects placed
between them.
Revision questions
1. The brightness of the image formed by a pin hole camera depends on
A. the size of the object B. The shape of the object
C. the size of the pinhole D. the shape of the pinhole

2. When reflection occurs in a plane mirror

A. the image is real, erect and magnified
B. the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
C. the incident ray and reflected ray lie in different planes
D. the object and the real image are at the same distance from the mirror

3. A pun-hole camera, sharper and taller images are obtained by

A. widening the hole and moving the object farther
B. narrowing the hole and moving the object nearer
C. using a longer camera with a wider hole
D. using a shorter camera with a narrower hole

4.

A person observes the image of a pin placed infront of a plane mirror as shown in the
figure above. The reflected beam from the pin reaching the observer is a
A. virtual beam B. divergent beam
C. parallel beam D. convergent beam

5.

Objects P and Q are placed at distances of 2 m and 3 m respectively from a plane mirror as
shown in figure 7. find how far the image of P is from Q.
A. 1m. B. 4m. C. 5m. D. 7m.

6. When a pin hole camera is moved nearer an object, the size of the image
A. remains the same
B. becomes smaller
C. becomes larger
D. becomes diminished
7. Ligtht; energy is reflected when,
A. angle of incidence is greater than angle of reflection.
B. angle of incidence is equal to ancle of refraction,
C. angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
D. the normal at the point of incidence iviakey the same angle us the incident ray.
8. When does the eclipse of the moon occur?
A. When the moon is between the sun and the earth
B. When the earth is between the sun and the moon
C. When the sun is totally eclipsed by the moon
D. When a bright ring of sun light shows round the age of the moon

9. The image formed in a plane mirror is

(i) the same distance behind as the object is infront.
(ii) laterally inverted.
(iii) magnified and virtual.
A. (i) and (ii) only. B. (i) and (iii) only.
C. (ii) and (iii) only. D. (i), (ii) and (iii).

10. Which one of the following is true about a periscope? It

A. gives a laterally inverted image.
B. is used to observe an obscured object.
C. is used for viewing distant objects.
D. gives a magnified image of the object.

11. Two plane mirrors M1 and M2 are inclined to each other at an angle of 70°.

If the ray AB incident on M\ is reflected as shown in figure 2, find the angle of incidence, i.
A. 40°. B. 50°. C. 60°. D. 70°.

12. Which of the following statements are true?

(i) surfaces which reflect all colours of light appear white
(ii) Red surfaces absorb all colors and reflect only red light
(iii) Black surface appear black because they reflect all colours.
A. (i) only
B. (i) and (ii) only
C. (i) and (iii) only
D. (iii) only
13. Light energy is reflected when.
A. angle of incidence is greater than angle of reflection
B. angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
C. angle of reflection is greater than angle of incidence
D. the normal at the point of incidence makes an angle less than 900

14. The figure below shows an incident ray of light at an angle 140 to the reflecting surface, find
the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray

A. 280 B 760 C. 1520 D. 1660

Marking guide for objective

1 C 4 C 7 C 10 C 13 B
2 B 5 C 8 B 11 A 14 C
3 B 6 C 9 A 12 B 15

Section B question

1. A person stands 3.0m in front of a plane mirror. If the mirror is moved away from the parson by
0.5cm. What is the distance between the person and the person’s image in the mirror?

Solution
Object distance = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5m
Image distance = 3.5m
Total dist

1. Sketch a diagram to show the formation of a solar eclipse.

2. (a) Draw a labeled ray diagram to show the formation of an image in a pin-hole camera.

(b) State the effect on the image on a pin-hole camera of

(i) enlarging the pin-hole
Image become bright and blurred
(ii) decreasing the distance between the pin-hole and the film
İmage become dinished and brighter

3. (a) What is meant by rectilinear propagation of light?

Light travels in straight line
(b) An opaque object is placed in front of a source of light. Draw ray diagrams to
show the formation of shadows when part
(i) A point source is used

(ii) an extended source is used

4. (a) Describe an experiment to show that light travels in straight line

(i) Equal square cards A,B and D are cut from piece of thick paper board each with a
hole in the middle.
(ii) When the card are arranged as shown above with their holes in a straight line light
passes through and seen on the other end.
(iii) İf the middle card is displaced such that its hole is removed from the line, light is cut
of from the other end

(b) (i) What is the nature of the image

- İnverted
- real

(ii) Explain what happens to the image if the pinehole is made larger, incresing
the image distance, and increasing the object distance

İmage be blurred but bright due to much light entering the camera

(iii) give two differences between a pinhole camera and a lens commera

- in a pinhole camera the image is always focused while in a lens camera the
image is brought to focus by adjusting the position of the lens.
- İn pinhole camera the intensity of light entring is fixed while in a lens camera
the intensity of light entering is controlled by a shutter or diaphram.
- İn a pinhole camera the image distance is fixed while in a lens camera the
image distanc is not fixed.

(c) Draw a diagram to show formation of solar and lunar eclipse

6. (a) Describe an experiment to show that light travels in a straight line.
(b) An object of height 8cm is placed 9cm away from a pin hole camera. The screen is 12 cm
from the pinhole
(i) Draw to scale a raydiagram to show the formation of the image by pinhole camera.

10.7cm
8cm

9cm 12cm

(ii) What is the nature of the image?

İnverted
Real
Magnified

(iii) Find the magnification.

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 10.7
Magnification = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 8 = 1.3
(iv) Explain what happenes to the image if
– the pinhole is made larger,
– İncreasing the image distance
– İncreasing object distance
(c) Draw diagrams to show the formation of
– a solar eclipse
– lunar eclipse

7. (a) What do you understand by the terms

(i) deffuse reflection
Diffuse reflection occurs on a rough surface, a parallel beam is reflected in different
directions

(ii) regular reflection in reference to light

Regular reflection occurs on a smooth surface; a parallel beam is reflected as a parallel
beam.

(b) Using diagrams, why is a parabolic mirror most suitable for use in car headlight?
 (c) A ray from a bird makes an nagle of 300 with a plane reflector and a ray from from the
barrel of a gun B makes an angle of 600 to the same reflector at the same point, M, as
shown in the figure below

Find the angle through which the reflector must be rotated about M such that the ray from
the barrel of the gun makes the same angle as the ray from the bird.
30 + θ = 60 – θ
2θ = 30
θ = 150

8.(a) Explain with aid of ray diagram, the formation of umbra and penumbra

Umbra and penumbra are formed when an opaque object is placed between light from
extendd source and the screen.

The shadow in the center umbra does not receive any light; the partal shadow penumbra
receives some light.
(b) define the term leteral inversion as applied to mirrors.
İs the formation of the image in the plane mirror where the light hand side of the
object appears to be the left hand side of the image.
 (c)

An incident ray makes an angle of 200 with theplane mirrorin position M1 as shown in
the diagram above . What will be the angle of reflection, if the mirror is rotated through
60 to position m2 while the direction of incidence remain the same?

After rotation of the mirror, the glancing angle becomes 20 + 6 = 26

The angle of incidence becomes 90 = 26 = 640
From the second law of reflection; angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Therefore, angle of reflection = 640.

9. (a) state the laws of reflection.

1st Law states that the incidence ray, the rflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all
lie in the same plane.

2nd Law states that the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

(b) Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate the principle or reversibility of light.

By locating the images of two pin after reflection through the plane mirror by no parallax
method.
- Two pins P1 and P2 are fixed vertically in front of the plane mirror XY
- Viewing from the other side Y, pins P3 and P4 are placed such that they appear to
be in line with the images of of P1 and P2 in the mirror.
- When viewed from side X, the images of P3 and P4 will be seen to be in line with
pins P1 and P2
- This shows that light through pins P1 and P2 to the mirror then through P3 and P4
reverses through the same path from P4 to P3 to Mirror then to P2 and P1.
(c) With the aid of a labelled diagram, explain how a thich plane mirror forms multiple images

Formation of multiple images in thick plane mirror

Multiple images are formed due to partial reflection and refraction at the non silvered surface of
the mirror.
- İmage I1 is formed by reflection on the glass surface P
- The image I2 (the brightest is formed by reflection of the most light on the
silvered surface Q
- Others by partial refraction

10. An object OP placed in front of a plane mirror as shown below

(a) Complete the ray diagrm to show the position of the image of OP using incident rays PQ
and PR

(b) Give two characteristics of images formed by a palne mirror.

 - Virtual
- Erect same size as object
- Literally inverted
- Same distance as the object from the mirror

11. (a) What is light?

Light is a form of energy that enables us to seen.

(b) Describe an experienent to show that light travels in straight line (04marks)

(iv) Equal square cards A,B and D are cut from piece of thick paper board each with a
hole in the middle.
(v) When the card are arranged as shown above with their holes in a straight line light
passes through and seen on the other end.
(vi) İf the middle card is displaced such that its hole is removed from the line, light is cut
of from the other end

12. (a) State the laws of reflection (02marks)

- the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
direction
- Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

(b) (i) With the aid of a diagram describe how pinhole camera works (03marks)

- Object is placed in front of the pinhole

- Rays from object enter the camera through the pinhole as shown to form an
inverted image on the screen.
(c) State characteristics of images formed by pinhole camera
- İnverted
- real
 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PRESSURE
To make sense of the effects of a force acting on a body, we have to also consider the area to which the
force acts.
Definition:
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area of the surface.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑵)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝒎𝟐 )
The SI unit of pressure is Newton per metre squared [𝑵/𝒎𝟐 (𝑵𝒎−𝟐 )] or Pascals (𝑷𝒂).
Therefore, 1 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝟏𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ) = 1 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝟏𝑷𝒂).
Definition:
A Pascal is the pressure exerted on a body when a force of 𝟏𝑵 acts normally on an area of 𝟏𝒎𝟐 .
Other units of pressure include; 𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔, 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Examples:
When calculating for pressure, the area should always be in 𝒎𝟐 .
1. A man of mass 84kg stands on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes on the floor is 0.042𝑚2 ,
find the pressure exerted by the man on the floor.
𝒎 = 𝟖𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝒎𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑵 𝟖𝟒𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

2. A car piston exerts a force of 200N on a cross-sectional area of 40𝑐𝑚2 . Find the pressure exerted by
the piston.
𝟒𝟎
𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒
𝑷 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

3. A block of mass 40kg exerts a pressure of 20𝑁𝑚−2 on the surface. Find the area of contact between
the block and the surface.
𝒎 = 𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈, 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎 =
𝑨
𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑨=
𝟐𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A force of 100N is applied to an area of 100𝑚𝑚2 . What is the pressure exerted?

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂

5. A glass block of mass 60g exerts a pressure of 1000𝑁𝑚−2 on a table top. Determine the area of
contact between the glass block and the table top.
𝟔𝟎
𝒎 = 𝟔𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝒌𝒈, 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 𝑭
𝑷=
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑵 𝟎. 𝟔
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝑨
𝟎. 𝟔
𝑨=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟐

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM PRESSURE

𝑭
From the formula, 𝑷 = it is noted that pressure increases with a decrease in area and vice versa.
𝑨
Maximum pressure:
To obtain maximum pressure, the area should be small.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Minimum pressure:
To obtain minimum pressure, the area should be large.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

Examples:
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐
1. The figure below shows a block of wood of weight 25N placed on a flat horizontal surface.

𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒎
a) Find the minimum pressure it can exert on the surface.
b) Find the maximum pressure it can exert on the surface

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑭 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑳 × 𝑾 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝑾 × 𝑯
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒎𝟐 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟐

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟑𝟏, 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

NOTE:
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉) × (𝑵𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉) × (𝑵𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉)

2. The dimensions of a cuboid of mass 48kg are 5𝑐𝑚 × 10𝑐𝑚 × 20𝑐𝑚. Calculate the maximum and
minimum pressure it exerts.
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑵
𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝟒𝟖𝟎
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑴𝒂𝒙 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟗𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

3. A block of wood of mass 1200g measures by 30𝑐𝑚 by 6𝑐𝑚 by 5𝑐𝑚. Calculate;

a) the greatest pressure.
b) the least pressure exerted by the wood on the surface.

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = ( × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟏𝟐𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟔 𝟓
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎 𝟔
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

a) b)
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝑷𝒂

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Minimum and maximum pressure explains the following;

➢ An elephant is able to walk on a soft ground without sinking because it has

toes with a large surface area thus exerting less pressure on the ground.

➢ A tractor is made with broad wheels is able to move on a soft ground

without sinking because the large surface area of the wheels makes it to
exert less pressure on the ground.

➢ A nail has a pointed end hence having a small surface area at the end. This
makes it to exert much pressure on material thus penetrating the material
easily.

➢ A goat sinks in mud because of the small surface area of its feet hence
exerting much pressure on the mud.

➢ A hippopotamus is able to move on a soft ground without sinking because

it exerts less pressure on the ground due to its wide feet.

➢ Bridges are made thicker at the base than at the top to avoid collapse of the
bridge by exerting less pressure on water and ground.

➢ It is not easy to move on a soft ground with high-heeled pointed shoes

because they exert much pressure on the soft ground.

➢ It is easier to peel matooke using a sharp knife than using a blunt knife
because a sharp end of a knife has a small surface area thus exerting much
pressure on the matooke. This makes it penetrate the matooke easily.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. a) Define pressure and state its SI unit.
b) A block measuring 0.1𝑚 × 0.2𝑚 × 0.8𝑚 has a mass of 20kg. What is the maximum and
minimum pressure it can exert on the ground?
c) Explain why a sharp knife cuts easily than a blunt knife.

2. a) Explain why a hippopotamus can easily walk on mud without sinking than a goat.
b) A rectangular block of wood weighs 3N and measures 2𝑐𝑚 × 3𝑐𝑚 × 4𝑐𝑚. What is the greatest
pressure it can exert on a horizontal surface.

3. a) Explain what happens when a balloon is placed on

i) a sharp needle.
ii) thumb of a hand.
b) Calculate the maximum pressure of a glass block of density 2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 would exert on a
horizontal surface if the block is measured 20 × 10 × 5𝑐𝑚.

4. a) A block of concrete weighs 900N and its base is a square of side 3𝑚. What pressure does the
block exert on the ground?
b) Explain the following observations:
i) A person feels much pain when pierced by a sharp nail than a blunt nail.
ii) It is harder to walk on a soft ground with narrow-heeled shoes than wide-heeled shoes.

5. a) A box of dimensions 6𝑚 × 2𝑚 × 4𝑚 exerts its weight of 400N on the floor. Determine its;
i) maximum pressure.
ii) minimum pressure.
iii) density.
b) Explain the following observations in real life.
i) A hippopotamus is able to walk on the mud but a goat gets stuck.
ii) A woman putting on high-heeled shoes damages a cemented floor compared to one putting
on flat shoes.
iii) Water containers (reservoirs) are usually made wide at the base.
iv) A very tall building is made wider and thicker at the bottom than at the top.
v) The rear tyres of a tractor are made wider than the front ones.

6. The tank below has a mass of 2.5𝑘𝑔.

𝟎. 𝟓𝒎

𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
Determine the minimum and maximum pressure exerted by the tank on the ground when it is;
i) empty.
ii) filled with water up to the brim.
iii) half-filled with water
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
Since liquids take up the shape of the container in which they are placed, the volume of liquid filling a
container is equal to the volume of the container.

Consider a cylindrical container of cross-sectional area (base area), 𝑨 filled with a liquid of density, 𝝆 to
a height, 𝒉 as shown below.

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒉

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟

= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
= 𝑨𝒉
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 𝝆𝑨𝒉
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌𝐴ℎ × 𝑔
= 𝑨𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

OR
Consider a cylindrical container with a circular base of radius, 𝒓 filled with a liquid of density, 𝝆 to a
height, 𝒉 as shown below.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟
= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
= 𝝆𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉
𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒉 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ × 𝑔
= 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝒓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃=
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Factors affecting pressure in liquids:

From the above derivations, pressure at any point in a liquid is the same in all directions and it depends
on the following factors:
a) Depth (height) below the liquid surface (𝒉):
Pressure increases with an increase in the depth of the liquid and vice versa.
The higher the depth of the liquid, the more the weight of the liquid thus increasing the pressure
exerted by the liquid.
b) Density of the liquid (𝝆):
Denser liquids exert more pressure than less dense liquids.
c) Acceleration due to gravity (𝒈):
Liquid pressure is higher in areas (planets) whose acceleration due to gravity is high.

Experiment to show that pressure in a liquid depends on the depth below the liquid surface.

𝑪𝒂𝒏 𝑨

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪

Procedures:
▪ Three equally spaced holes 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 of the same size are made on one vertical side of a tall can at
different depth.
▪ The holes are then closed and the can is filled with water.
▪ The holes are then opened at the same time and the jetting of water from the holes observed.

Observation:
▪ It is observed that water comes out fastest and lands furthest from the lowest hole 𝑪 followed by 𝑩
and lastly hole 𝑨.
▪ Therefore, pressure at 𝑨 is greater than pressure at 𝑩 and 𝑪.
▪ This shows that pressure increases with increase in the depth below the surface of a liquid.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM:

Water supply often comes from a reservoir which is at a high ground level. Water flows from the
reservoir through the pipes to the taps which are below the level of the water reservoir. This increases
the pressure at which water is supplied.
This explains why storage tanks are put at high level ground than the taps so that water comes through
the taps at a very high pressure.

NOTE:
❖ Pressure of the liquid does not depend on the cross-sectional area of the container in which it is
placed.
❖ Pressure of a liquid does not depend (independent) on the shape and size of the container.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to show that pressure is independent of the cross-sectional area and the shape of the
container

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
▪ A liquid is poured into a set of connected tubes with different shapes called communicating tubes.
▪ The liquid flows until the levels of the liquid are the same in all the tubes. This shows that the liquid
finds its own level and the pressure is the same in all tubes.
▪ Therefore, pressure in liquids is independent of the shape and the cross-sectional area of the
container.

Examples:
(𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 )
1. Find the pressure in a liquid of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 at a height of 8𝑚.
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟖𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

2. The pressure of a liquid is 10000𝑁𝑚−2. What is the height of the liquid if its density is
1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3?
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟏𝒎

3. The pressure exerted in a liquid of density 0.4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is 8000 𝑃𝑎. Calculate its height.
𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑷 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑷𝒂
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟐𝒎

4. What is the pressure 100𝑚 below the surface of sea water of density 1150𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ?
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑷𝒂

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The tank below contains mercury and water. The density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and that of
water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .

𝟐𝒎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟑𝒎 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

Find the total pressure exerted at the bottom of the tank.

𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉𝒘 = (𝟐 + 𝟑) = 𝟓𝒎, 𝒉𝒎 = 𝟑𝒎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 + 𝒉𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟒𝟓𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

6. The density of liquid is 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. It was poured in a container to a depth of 400𝑐𝑚. Calculate the
pressure it exerts at the bottom of the container.
𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝝆 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟒𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑷 = 𝟒 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

EXERCISE:
(𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a swimming water pool 1000𝑐𝑚 deep.
2. A diver dives to a depth of 20m below the surface of sea water of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate
the pressure experienced.
3. A flask is filled to a depth of 16cm with a liquid of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the pressure exerted by
the liquid on the base.
4. The pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury of density 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 is 50𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate
the height of the mercury column.
5. a) Show that the pressure of a liquid in a cylindrical can of height, 𝒉 and radius, 𝒓 is 𝒉𝝆𝒈 where 𝝆
is the density of the liquid.
b) Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by a diver working 15m below the surface of the
sea.
c) Describe an experiment to show that the pressure of a liquid is independent of the cross-sectional
area.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

A fluid is a substance which can flow e.g. a liquid or a gas.

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE (Principle of transmission of pressure in fluids):

Pascal’s principle states that pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid is transmitted
equally throughout the whole fluid in all directions.

NOTE: Pascal’s principle works on an assumption that the fluid is incompressible.

Definition:
An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose volume can not be reduced by squeezing i.e. it can not
be compressed e.g water but not air.

Experiment to demonstrate Pascal’s principle:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
Procedures:
▪ Holes of equal size are made at different points in a container.
▪ The container is filled with the liquid as shown above.
▪ The piston is pushed inside the container to exert pressure on the liquid.
Observation:
▪ The liquid comes out of the holes with an equal force and pressure. This shows that pressure was
equally transmitted throughout the whole liquid.

Practical example:
A glass bottle is filled with water and covered with a cork.
a) Explain why the bottom of the bottle breaks when a greater force is applied on the cork to push it
down.
When a force is applied on the cork, pressure is exerted inside the water and it is transmitted
equally throughout the whole bottle. Therefore, equal pressure is exerted on the bottom by the
bottle thus breaking it.
b) Explain why a liquid like water was used instead of a gas in (a) above.
Since the experiment required transmission of pressure, it needed a fluid which is incompressible.
Therefore, a liquid like water is incompressible yet a gas is not.
RECALL: Pascal’s principle applies only to incompressible fluids.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

APPLICATIONS PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

The principle of transmission of pressure in fluids is applied in hydraulic machines namely;
• Hydraulic press.
• Hydraulic lift.
• Hydraulic jack.
• Hydraulic brake.
In hydraulic machines, a small force applied at one point of an incompressible liquid produces a larger
force at the points of the liquid. Therefore, a small force is used to lift heavy materials like cars.

HYDRAULIC PRESS / LIFT / JACK:

▪ It consists of a small piston fitted in a small cylinder and a large piston fitted in the large cylinder.
▪ When a force is applied on a small piston, the pressure exerted by the piston is transmitted equally
throughout the liquid to the larger piston thus forcing the larger piston to move up.
▪ This force exerted on the larger piston raises a heavy load as shown below.
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏
𝑨𝟐 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

(𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓) (𝑹𝒂𝒎 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓)

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Operation of hydraulic machines

❖ When a small force, 𝑭𝟏 is applied on the small piston of cross-sectional area, 𝑨𝟏 , then pressure, 𝑷𝟏 is
exerted on the liquid by a small piston.
𝑭𝟏
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑨𝟏
❖ The pressure, 𝑷𝟏 is transmitted equally throughout the liquid to the larger piston. Hence, the pressure,
𝑷𝟐 acting on the larger piston is equal to initial pressure, 𝑷𝟏 .
𝑭𝟐
𝑷𝟐 =
𝑨𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐
=
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑶𝑹
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
NOTE:
The cross-sectional areas of small piston and large piston should have the same units. There is no
need of converting if the units are the same.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. The figure below shows a hydraulic press. The cross-sectional area of piston B is 80𝑚2 and the
cross-sectional area of A is 2.5𝑚2 .
𝑭𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑭𝑩

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑨
𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑩

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

Find the force exerted on the piston B if a force of 600N is applied on piston A.
𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎𝟐
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
𝑭𝑨 𝑭𝑩
=
𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑩
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝑩
=
𝟐. 𝟓 𝟖𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟖𝟎
𝑭𝑩 =
𝟐. 𝟓
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑵

2. Calculate the force applied on the small piston of area 2𝑐𝑚2 if a mass of 80𝑘𝑔 is to be lifted by a
larger piston of area 10𝑐𝑚2 .
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐

𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒎 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈

𝑭𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈 = (𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
= 𝑶𝑹 =
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝟐 𝑭𝟏 𝟐⁄
= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎⁄
𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝑭𝟏 =
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. Given that the radius of a circular piston A is 14cm and radius of circular piston B is 28cm. If the
force exerted on piston A is 77N, find the force exerted on piston B.
𝑭𝑨 = 𝟕𝟕𝑵 𝑭𝑩

𝑨
𝑩

𝒓𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎, 𝒓𝑩 = 𝟐𝟖𝒄𝒎,
𝑭𝑨 𝑨𝑨
=
𝑭𝑩 𝑨𝑩
𝑭𝑨 𝝅𝒓𝑨 𝟐
=
𝑭𝑩 𝝅𝒓𝑩 𝟐
𝟕𝟕 𝟏𝟒𝟐
=
𝑭𝑩 𝟐𝟖𝟐
𝟕𝟕 × 𝟕𝟖𝟒
𝑭𝑩 =
𝟏𝟗𝟔
𝑭𝑩 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖𝑵

4. In a hydraulic press, a force of 400𝑁 is applied to a pump piston of area 0.1𝑚2 . The area of the ram
piston is 4𝑚2. Calculate;
i) the pressure transmitted through the liquid.
ii) weight on the ram piston.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟒𝒎𝟐 , 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑵
i) ii)
𝑭𝟏 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑨𝟏 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂 𝑭𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟒
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 (𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

5. A hydraulic press machine is used to raise a load, W, on a piston of cross-sectional area 100𝑐𝑚2 by
using an effort of 20N at a piston of cross-sectional area of 2𝑐𝑚2. Calculate load, W.
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝑾
𝑭𝟏 𝑨𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝑨𝟐
𝟐𝟎 𝟐
=
𝑾 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾=
𝟐
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The area of the large piston of a hydraulic press is 10𝑚2 and that of the smaller one is 0.25𝑚2. A
force of 100N is applied on the smaller piston. Calculate the force produced at the larger piston.
2. The area of a small piston of a hydraulic press is 0.5𝑚2. If an effort of 250N is applied on the pump
cylinder and raises a load of 20000N, calculate the area of the piston at the ram cylinder.
3. In a hydraulic press, a force of 200N is applied to small circular piston of area 25𝑐𝑚2 . If the
hydraulic press is designed to produce a force of 5000N, determine;
i) the area of the large piston.
ii) the radius of the large piston.
4. A hydraulic press has cylindrical pistons of radii 2cm and 0.4m respectively. Calculate the maximum
load at the larger piston that can overcome a force of 78N.
5. A hydraulic jack is used to lift a car by applying a force of 120N at the pump cylinder. If the area of
the ram and pump piston is 100𝑐𝑚2 and 1𝑚2 respectively. Calculate the force applied to the ram
piston.
6. Calculate the weight, W raised by a force of 56N applied on a small piston of area 14𝑚2. Take the
area of the large piston to be 42𝑚2.

HYDRAULIC BRAKE:
A hydraulic braking system is used in motor vehicles.
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑻𝒐 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒔

𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒐𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒍
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒆
𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒖𝒎

𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒅𝒔
How a hydraulic brake works:
▪ When the driver pushes down the foot pedal, the force applied exerts pressure on the brake fluid in
the master cylinder.
▪ This pressure is transmitted by the brake fluid to the wheel cylinder. This causes the pistons of wheel
cylinders to push the brake shoes which in turn press the brake pad against the brake drum. The
contact between the brake drum and brake pads stops the rotation of the wheels.
▪ When the force on the foot pedal is removed, the return spring pull back the brake shoe which then
pushes the cylinder pistons back.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of hydraulic fluids (brake fluid):

Any fluid to be used in hydraulic machines should have the following properties;
• The fluid should be incompressible. This enables pressure to be equally transmitted in all parts of the
braking system.
• The fluid should have a low freezing point. This helps the fluid not to cool easily which may make it
a thicker fluid thus not behaving well.
• The fluid should have a high boiling point. This helps the fluid not to warm up easily which may
increase its compressibility.
• The fluid should not corrode the parts of the brake system.

Uses of hydraulic machines:

✓ Used to lift loads such as cars in garages. (Hydraulic Jack)
✓ Used to compress materials such as cotton, steel for easy transportation. (Hydraulic press)

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The air (mixture of gases) surrounding the earth is called “atmosphere”. This air surrounds us and
everything on the earth’s surface.
The weight of air exerts pressure on all objects on the earth’s surface and this pressure is called
atmospheric pressure.
Definition:
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on all objects on the earth’s surface.

❖ Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.

Variation of atmospheric pressure with number of air molecules (Air density):

The more the air molecules around an object, the more force exerted on the object hence exerting high
pressure on the object. Therefore, pressure increases with increase in air molecules and pressure
decreases with decrease in air molecules.

Variation of atmospheric pressure with altitude:

Atmospheric pressure increases with decrease in altitude (height) and vice versa.
The density of air above the earth’s surface decreases as altitude increases leading to a decrease in
atmospheric pressure at high altitudes.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure is low at high altitudes (e.g. mountain peaks) and atmospheric pressure
is high at low altitudes.
This effect explains why cooking takes long at higher altitudes (See Book 2, Heat measurement).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
❖ At sea level, the value of atmospheric pressure is very large though we do not normally feel it
because blood pressure is slightly greater than atmospheric pressure.
❖ A person may faint if he/she experiences a loss in blood pressure. The low blood pressure decreases
the rate at which blood flows to the brain thus causing an insufficient blood flow to the brain.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Crushing or Collapsing can experiment.

𝑪𝒂𝒑

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
(𝑎) 𝑂𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑏) 𝑂𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
▪ An empty metal can is filled with some water and left uncovered.
▪ Water in the metal can is boiled for sometime until steam is produced.
▪ When the steam has driven out most of the air, the metal can is covered with a cap.
▪ Cool the metal can by pouring cold water over it.
▪ On cooling, steam condenses to water hence reducing air pressure inside the metal can.
▪ The metal can collapses inwards (crushes) because the atmospheric pressure outside the can is
greater than the reduced air pressure the can.

Other important demonstrations include;

a) Liquid trapped in inverted glass full of water:

𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

• Pour water in a glass and make it full.

• Cover the entire glass with a smooth card.
• Put one hand on the card and the other hand holds the glass.
• Quickly turn the glass upside down and then remove the hand holding the card.

𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
• On releasing the card, it remains tightly fixed to the glass thus preventing water from pouring out.
This is because water occupies most of the space which would have been occupied by air hence
reducing air pressure inside the glass. Therefore, the atmospheric pressure outside the glass becomes
greater than the inside air pressure thus acting strongly on the card.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) Sticking two wet glass slides together:

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

• One face of a glass slide is wetted with a water and a second glass slide is intimately placed on it.
• Try to move the glass slides apart.
Observation:
• It becomes difficult to separate the slides. This is because water expels air molecules between the
slides thus reducing the air pressure between the two glass slides. Therefore, the atmospheric
pressure acting outside the slides becomes greater than the air pressure in between the slides hence
forcing the slides to stick tightly together.

Practical example
Explain why mountain climbers may suffer from nose bleeding at the top of a mountain.
On top of a mountain, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at the bottom. Due to the body’s
metabolism, the blood pressure may exceed the low atmospheric pressure at the top of the mountain.
Since the blood capillaries are weaker, they may break due to the high pressure of the blood thus
causing nose bleeding.

EXERCISE:
1. Explain why it is difficult to pull a cork of a flask when it is filled with water.
2. Explain why it is difficult to separate two microscopic glass slides when water is placed between
them.
3. Explain why some people moving in aero-planes may suffer from headache and nose bleeding.
4. Explain why a fainted person is laid on his back with his feet raised above the chest.
5. A senior two student at Mbuye Farm school started nose bleeding while they were in a trip at the top
of mountain Elgon.
a) Explain the possible reason for her nose bleeding.
b) Discuss how you can help her to stop the nose bleeding.
6. Explain why cooking takes a longer time than expected at a higher altitude.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

APPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure is important in;
⬧ Lift pump (Common borehole)
⬧ Force pump
⬧ Drinking straw
⬧ Siphon
⬧ Syringe, etc.

LIFT PUMP:
Lift pumps are used raise water from the wells or earth’s surface. It is commonly known as a bore hole.

𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕

𝑷𝒍𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 A
𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍
𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 B
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

During the upstroke;

▪ the plunger moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve A closes and inlet valve B opens.
▪ water is pushed up the pipe through the inlet valve B by the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the water and occupies the space above the inlet valve B.

During the downstroke;

▪ the plunger moves downwards.
▪ inlet valve B closes and outlet valve A opens.
▪ water level in the barrel rises further through the outlet valve A and in the next repeated strokes,
water reaches the spout and pours out.

Limitations of the lift pump

❖ The lift pump can’t raise water beyond 10m. This is because atmospheric pressure is low in high
altitudes. Atmospheric pressure can only support a water column of 10𝑚.
❖ The lift pump can not work if there are leakages in the pipe.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FORCE PUMP:
The force pump was designed to overcome the limitations of the lift pump i.e. it can raise water to
heights beyond 10𝑚 . It is commonly used to raise water from wetlands, lakes, wells to fill in storage
tanks.

𝑺𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕
𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 A

𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆 B
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

During the upstroke;

▪ the piston moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve A closes and inlet valve B opens
▪ water is pushed up the pipe through the inlet valve B by the atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of the water and occupies the space above the inlet valve B.

During the downstroke;

▪ the piston moves downwards thus compressing the water.
▪ inlet valve B closes and outlet valve A opens.
▪ water level in the barrel rises further and enters the air chamber through the outlet valve A and in the
next repeated strokes, water reaches the spout and pours out.

NOTE:
The force pump enables continuous flow of water since the air in the air chamber is compressible.
The height to which water is raised does not depend on the atmospheric pressure but it depends on;
❖ Force applied during the downstroke.
❖ The ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the water in the chamber.

DRINKING STRAW:

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒘
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ When air is sucked out from a straw dipped in a liquid, a vacuum is created and the air pressure
inside the straw reduces. This causes the atmospheric pressure to be greater than the inside air
pressure.
▪ The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid forces the liquid to rise through the
straw up to the mouth.

Question: Explain what happens when one drinks water using a straw with a hole.
Since the straw has a hole, the air keeps on entering through the hole So no vacuum is
created thus the air pressure inside the straw doesn’t reduce. Therefore, the
atmospheric pressure doesn’t force water into the straw.

SYRINGE:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆

▪ When a piston is pulled outwards, a vacuum is created inside the barrel thus decreasing the air
pressure inside the barrel. This causes the atmospheric pressure to be greater than air pressure inside.
▪ The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid forces the liquid to rise through the
nozzle into the barrel.

BICYCLE PUMP:

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆
𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒍

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

During the upstroke;

▪ the piston moves upwards which reduces the pressure inside the barrel.
▪ outlet valve closes and inlet valve opens.
▪ air is pushed into the barrel through the inlet valve by the atmospheric pressure outside.

During the downstroke;

▪ the piston moves downwards thus compressing the air inside the barrel.
▪ inlet valve closes and outlet valve opens.
▪ due to high pressure on the compressed air inside the barrel, air pushed out through the outlet valve
to the tyre.

SIPHON:
This is a tube used to remove petrol from petrol tanks and also empty toilets.

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒉
𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑫
▪ One end of the tube D is put at a height below the surface of liquid. Therefore, pressure at this end,
D is greater than the atmospheric pressure at the surface of liquid.
▪ Since the liquid at end D has a high pressure, it can easily flow out.
▪ The liquid will continue flowing out as long as tube end D is below the surface of the liquid.

Application of the siphon principle

AUTOMATIC FLUSHING TANK

𝑺𝒊𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒏

▪ Water drops slowly into the tank. Therefore, the water rises until it finds a bend.
▪ The action of the siphon starts and the tank is emptied.
▪ The action is then repeated again and again.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RUBBER SUCKER:
These are used in attaching car licenses to wind screens.
They are also used to lift papers to be fed into printers.

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 ▪ A rubber sucker is moistened with water and then

𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 pressed on a smooth surface. The air between the
rubber sucker and the smooth surface is decreased
𝑺𝒎𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒉 thus causing a partial vacuum.
𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ▪ The atmospheric pressure outside the rubber sucker
exceeds the air pressure in between the sucker and
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 the surface.
▪ Therefore, the atmospheric pressure pushes the
rubber sucker onto the smooth surface thus holding
it firmly

EXERCISE:
1. Explain how it is able to fetch water from a borehole.
2. Explain how one can drink Soda using a straw.
3. Explain why one gets difficulties when using a straw with a hole to drink milk.
4. Explain how one is able to pump air inside a bicycle tyre using a bicycle pump.

MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

In a physics laboratory, atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.
There are three types of barometers namely;
• Simple mercury barometer (𝑁𝑚−2 )
• Fortin barometer (𝑃𝑎)
• Aneroid barometer (𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠)

How to construct (make) a simple mercury barometer in a laboratory:

▪ A dry glass tube is filled with mercury.
▪ The open end of the glass tube is covered with a finger and inverted into a beaker filled with
mercury.
▪ The finger is then removed.
▪ When the finger is removed, the mercury level in the tube falls until it is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
pressure
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
➢ The space left after the falling of the mercury level in the glass tube is called the Torricellian
vacuum. This space is not a true vacuum because it has some mercury vapour.

➢ The height of mercury in the glass tube above the surface of mercury in the beaker is called the
barometric height.

➢ After carrying out an experiment at sea level, atmospheric pressure is found to be equal to;
𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂 or 𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 or 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 or 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈.

➢ When the glass tube is tilted, the height of mercury (h) remains the same as shown below.

𝒉 𝒉

Reasons why mercury is more convenient to use in a barometer

• Mercury doesn’t wet the glass tube and it is opaque. This makes it easier for someone to read the
barometric height.
• Mercury has a high density thus giving a low barometric height hence a short glass tube (capillary
tube) may be used.

Reasons why water is not more convenient to use in a barometer

• Water wets the glass tube and it is not opaque. This makes it not easier for someone to read the
barometric height.
• Water has a low density thus giving a high barometric height hence a long glass tube (capillary tube)
is required.

Examples:
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑯) = 𝒃𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

1. If the barometer reads 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. Find the atmospheric pressure if the density of mercury is
13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝟕𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝒎, 𝝆 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑, 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. The figure below shows a mercury barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure. (Density of
mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
Calculate the atmospheric pressure;
a) In cmHg
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎 (1𝑐𝑚 = 10𝑚𝑚)
𝟏𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑯 = 𝟔𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈

b) In Pascals (𝑁𝑚−2)
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟖𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

3. The height of mercury column of the barometer supported by the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚.
Calculate the height of the column of water supported by the same atmospheric pressure.
(Density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

For mercury;
𝟕𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑, 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

For water;
𝒉 =?
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 = 𝒉 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒎
The above example explains why water is not used in barometers because it gives a high barometric
height thus requiring a long glass or capillary tube.

HOW TO MEASURE HEIGHT OF A MOUNTAIN

𝑷𝑷𝑻𝑨 ▪ Pressure at the top 𝑃𝑇 and pressure at the bottom 𝑃𝐵 are
determined using a mercury barometer.
▪ The difference between the two pressures is got i.e.
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝑇
▪ The pressure difference is equal to the pressure of air
between the bottom and the top of the mountain.
▪ The height of the air ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 is calculated and it is equal to the
𝑷𝑩 height of the mountain.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
(Density of mercury is 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 and Density of air is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑)

1. A mercury barometer reads a pressure of 75𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the bottom of the mountain and 73.5𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at
the top. Calculate the height of the mountain.
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟕𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑻 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
−𝟐
In 𝑵𝒎 ;
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟓 𝟕𝟑. 𝟓
𝑷𝑩 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝑷𝑻 = 𝟗𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

But;
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟗𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 =
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓
𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝒎
Height of mountain = 𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝒎

2. The pressure at the bottom of a mountain is 75.0𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. If one climbs a mountain 1𝐾𝑚 high, what
would be the pressure at the top?
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑻 =?, 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟏𝒌𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
In 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ;
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟕𝟓 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑩 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝑻
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟖𝟗, 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

Converting it to cmHg
𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝒉
𝟖𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟗𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒉=
𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎
𝒉 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈

3. A barometer reads 638.7𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the top of a hill. Calculate the pressure reading at the bottom if
the hill is 2𝑘𝑚 high.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝑷𝑩 =?, 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟐𝒌𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎

In 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 ;
𝑷𝑻 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟔𝟑𝟖. 𝟕 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒈 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝑷𝑻
𝑷𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝑷𝑩 − 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐𝑵𝒎−𝟐

Converting it to mmHg
𝑷𝑩 = 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝒉
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐 = × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟑. 𝟐
𝒉=
𝟏𝟑𝟔
𝒉 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝑷𝑩 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈

EXERCISE:
(Density of mercury is 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 and Density of air is 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑)
1. The air pressure at the top of a mountain is 60𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. Given that the height of the mountain is
850𝑚. Find the pressure at the bottom of the mountain in 𝑁𝑚−2.
2. The barometric height at sea level is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 while that at the top of a highland is 74𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔. What
is the altitude?
3. The difference between the atmospheric pressure at the top and bottom of a mountain is
10,000 𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate the height of the mountain.
4. A barometer reads 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and 73.8𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at the bottom and top respectively. Find the height of
the mountain.
5. A barometer is taken to the top of a mountain 440𝑚 high. If the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 at
the bottom, calculate the barometer reading.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
A fluid may be a liquid or a gas. The pressure of fluids is usually measured by an instrument known as a
manometer.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IN GASES (GAS PRESSURE)

In a physics laboratory, the instrument used to measure gas pressure is called a manometer.

Manometer
A manometer consists of a U-tube or J-tube filled with a liquid. Water is used as a liquid in a manometer
if the gas pressure to be measured is “low”. Mercury is used as a liquid in a manometer if the gas
pressure to be measured is “high”.
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔
𝒉
𝑨 𝑩

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ One end of the manometer is closed and the other end is left open.
▪ The closed end is connected to the gas supply.
▪ When the gas is turned on, it exerts a pressure at point B causing a rise in the level of water in the
open end of the manometer.
▪ The height, 𝒉 due to the rise of water is obtained.
▪ Since pressure is transmitted equally (Pascal’s principle), 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
▪ Therefore, 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓) 𝒂𝒕 𝑨

𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉

▪ In Pascals (𝑁𝑚−2), the heights must be in metres and 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈

▪ If the gas pressure is less than the atmospheric pressure, the level of the liquid in closed end of the
manometer will be lower than that in the open end. Then 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 − 𝒉
▪ If the closed end of a manometer is opened, the trapped gas escapes and liquid levels in both arms of
the manometer remain the same. Therefore, 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
Examples:
1. The diagram below shows a water manometer used to measure gas pressure.
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
Find the gas pressure in
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
(ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝒂𝒔 (iii) Pascals
(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (iii) Pascals

𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 Recall; 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 Heights in metres.
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟏𝟎)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) 𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎)𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

2. The figure below shows a mercury manometer. If the atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and density
of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, find the pressure of the gas in
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
−2
(ii) 𝑁𝑚

𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝒂𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚
(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (i) 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟓
𝑮𝑷 =( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟏 𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

3. The diagram below shows a manometer used to measure gas pressure. Find the gas pressure if the
atmospheric pressure is 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟒𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟒) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕, 𝟕𝟔𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. The figure below shows a J-tube containing mercury used to measure gas pressure.
(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯

𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

Find the pressure in;

(i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 (ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (iii) Pascals
𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈, Recall; 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎 Heights in metres.
𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) 𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉 𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎)𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟕𝟔𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎)𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟐) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟗𝟔𝒄𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎, 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

5. The figure below shows a mercury manometer connected to a gas supply tank. Determine the
pressure of the gas in 𝑁𝑚−2 .
(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯 Level of liquid is lower in open end than closed end
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 − 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( − ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟏) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟖𝟗, 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

6. In the figure below, a fixed mass of dry air is trapped in bulb A. Calculate the total pressure of the
air in A given that 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒉 = 𝟔𝟖 − 𝟑𝟖 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑮𝑷 = (𝑯 + 𝒉)𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟔 𝟑𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = ( + ) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = (𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟑) × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

𝟑𝟖𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
Sometimes, the atmospheric pressure may be given in 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 . Therefore, there is no need
of first finding the atmospheric pressure.

7. Calculate the gas pressure if a mercury manometer reads 86𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.03 × 105 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟖𝟔
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟔𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗, 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑷𝒂

8. A man blows air in one end of a water U-tube manometer until the level differ by 40.0𝑐𝑚. If the
𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.0 × 105 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Calculate the
pressure of air.
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟒𝟎. 𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

9. A mercury manometer connected to a gas supply mains 70𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔. Calculate the gas pressure in
𝑁𝑚−2. (𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 103360 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟕𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟎 + 𝟗𝟓𝟐𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐, 𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝑷𝒂

10. The figure below shows a gas trapped by a mercury column in a J-tube. The atmospheric pressure is
1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
a) Find the pressure at which the gas is.

𝑮𝑷 = 𝑯 + 𝒉𝝆𝒈
𝟐𝟓
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 + ( × 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑮𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝒂

𝑮𝒂𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) What would happen if the closed end of the J-tube was opened.
If the closed end of the J-tube manometer is opened, the trapped gas escapes and liquid levels
in both arms of the manometer remain the same. Therefore, 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆.

COMPARISONS OF DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS THAT DON’T MIX

(𝑯𝑨𝑹𝑬′ 𝑺 𝑨𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑼𝑺)

𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒂𝒑

𝒉𝟏
𝒉𝟐

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
▪ Liquids of different densities are poured in the glass beakers as shown above.
▪ When the gas tap is opened, air is let out and each liquid rises to different heights ℎ1 and ℎ2 .
▪ Since the liquids are pressurized by the same gas;
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈 = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝑔

Examples:

1. Two liquids were sucked up in two identical tubes as shown below.

𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟔𝒄𝒎

𝑩𝟏 𝑩𝟐
Given that liquid in beaker 𝐵1 is water. Calculate the density of liquid in beaker 𝐵2.
(density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟏 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈 = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝑔
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔 × 𝝆𝟐 × 10
𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝝆𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝟐 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝝆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. The figure below shows a mercury manometer having two liquids. Find the density of paraffin.
(Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟖𝒄𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏
𝑨 𝑩

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏

𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒑 𝝆𝒑 𝑔
𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝝆𝒑 × 10
𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒑
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒑 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒑 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

3. In the figure below, find the density of mercury given that density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝒉𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟐𝟎 × 𝝆𝒎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒎 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

4. The levels of mercury in a manometer are found to be as shown below. Given that
density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, find the density of alcohol.

𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒉𝒐𝒍

𝒉𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒉𝒂 𝝆𝒂 𝑔
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝝆𝒂 × 10
𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝝆𝒂
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒂 =
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟕 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

EXERCISE:
1. The levels of liquids in the arms of a mercury manometer are as shown in the figure below.

𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒏
𝑨 𝑩

If the density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, determine the density of paraffin.

2. In the figure below, determine the pressure exerted by the gas.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
𝑯

𝑮𝒂𝒔
𝟑𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎

3. In the figure below, determine the pressure of the gas in.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )

i) 𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
ii) 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
iii) 𝑃𝑎

𝟓𝟔𝒄𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. The level of mercury in the arms of the manometer shown below is equal.
(density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

𝑲𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒆
𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚

Determine the;
(i) Density of kerosene.
(ii) Relative density of kerosene.

5. The U-tube in the figure below contains mercury and oil of density 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and 600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
respectively. Calculate the height of the oil column.

𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎

6. The diagram below shows air trapped by a column of mercury in a J-tube.

(𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 76𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 density of mercury is 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 )
Calculate the pressure of the enclosed air.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MOTION IN FLUIDS
A fluid is a substance which can flow e.g. liquids and gases.
When a body falls through a fluid, it will be acted upon by the following forces.
𝑼 𝑭𝒗

❖ Upthrust (𝑼) acting upwards.

𝑩𝒐𝒅𝒚 ❖ Viscous drag or Viscous force (𝑭𝒗 ) acting upwards.
❖ Weight of the body (𝑾) acting downwards.

𝑾
Upthrust (Buoyancy):
This is the upward force that a fluid exerts on a body falling through it.
For example;
• When pushing a jerrycan into water, our fingers experience an upward force.
• A balloon filled with air or hydrogen rises up due to upthrust.

Viscous drag (Viscous force):

This the force that opposes motion of a body in a fluid.
Viscous drag increases with an increase in velocity or speed of the body in a body.

Describing motion of a body falling in a viscous fluid (e.g. oil)

𝑼 𝑭𝒗
𝑻𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒋𝒂𝒓

𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑾
𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒆. 𝒈. 𝑶𝒊𝒍)

When the ball falls through a fluid, it first accelerates downwards until it attains a constant velocity
called terminal velocity. At this velocity, the weight of the ball is equal to sum of upthrust and viscous
drag.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 + 𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈
𝑾 = 𝑼 + 𝑭𝒗
The ball continues with this constant velocity until it hits the bottom of the tall glass jar.

NOTE:
As the body accelerates downwards, the viscous drag continues to increase with the increasing
velocity and eventually the body can no longer accelerate. Therefore, it has a constant velocity.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Terminal velocity:
This is a constant velocity attained by the body falling in a fluid when the resultant force on the body is
zero.
i.e. when upward forces (viscous drag and upthrust) = downward forces (weight of the body).

Velocity-time graph for a body falling in a fluid

𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
𝑽𝑻

𝑽𝑻 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝟎
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)

Note: In case the object is moving in air (e.g. a balloon floating in air), the viscous drag is composed of
the air resistance.

Question:
Explain what happens to a parachutist diving from an aero plane.
• At first, the parachutist accelerates downwards as he/she begins to fall.
• As the parachutist’s velocity (speed) increases, the viscous drag also increases until the
parachutist is unable to accelerate any more. At this point the parachutist attains a constant
velocity called terminal velocity.
• At terminal velocity, weight of the parachutist is equal to the upthrust and viscous drag.
Therefore, the resultant force on the parachutist is zero.

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝑽𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒈

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLUID FLOW
Fluid flow describes how fluids move and how they behave and interact with the surrounding
environment. The flow of a liquid may either be steady (orderly) or unsteady (unorderly).
Flow of a fluid depends on three factors namely;
▪ Characteristics of the fluid (i.e. density, compressibility and viscosity)
▪ Speed or velocity of flow.
▪ Shape of surface on which the fluid is flowing.

Types of fluid flow:

There are two types of fluid flow namely;
• Streamline flow (Laminar flow).
• Turbulent flow.

STREAMLINE FLOW (LAMINAR FLOW):

Streamline flow is the type of fluid flow where all the fluid particles that pass any point follow the same
path at the same velocity (uniform velocity).
In streamline flow, the fluid particles move or travel in the same direction and with the same speed.
Therefore, streamline flow is a steady, orderly and uniform flow of a fluid.
Streamline flow occurs when the fluid is moving at a low speed.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

Definition:
A streamline is a line showing particles of a fluid having streamline flow.

TURBULENT FLOW:
Turbulent flow is the type of fluid flow where the speed (velocity) and the direction of fluid particles
passing any point vary with time.
In turbulent flow, the fluid particles travel in different directions with different speeds.
Therefore, turbulent flow is an unsteady, disorderly and non-uniform flow of the fluid.
Turbulent flow occurs when the fluid is moving with a high speed.

Practical example:

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

When a tap is opened slightly, the water flows out slowly in form of a thin smooth orderly stream. At
this point, the type of fluid flow is streamline flow.
As the tap is opened further, the water flows out fast in a disorderly way. At this point, the type of fluid
flow is turbulent flow.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle states that when the speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure in the fluid
decreases and vice versa.

This relationship between speed and pressure was formulated by a scientist called Daniel Bernoulli.

Rate of flow of a fluid:

This is the volume of the fluid that passes a point of a tube in a given time.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑨×𝒅
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝒕
𝒅
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅, 𝒗 =
𝒕
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝑨 × 𝒗
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 𝑨𝒗
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 − 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝑣 − 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.

NOTE:
❖ The rate of flow at any section of the pipe is the same.
❖ In streamline flow of a fluid, the larger the pipe, the lower speed of the fluid and vice versa

Examples:
1. Water flows in through a horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 0.01𝑚2. At the outlet section, the
cross-sectional area is 0.005𝑚2 . If the velocity of water at the larger cross-section is 1.25𝑚𝑠 −1 ,
find;
i) rate of flow of water in the larger pipe.
ii) Speed of water in the smaller pipe,
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐

𝒗𝟐 =?
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

i) ii)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 0.0125 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝒔−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒗𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
2. Water flows through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section area as shown in the figure below.the
velocity of water in pipe A is 2𝑚/𝑠. Determine the velocity of water in pipe B.

𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎𝟐 𝑨 𝑩 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟐

𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆;

𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝑨 = 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝑩
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/𝒔

Demonstrating Bernoulli’s principle in liquids

Consider a liquid flowing through a horizontal uniform tube from left to right as shown below.

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

Height of the liquid in the tube goes on decreasing as water flow. This indicates that the liquid pressure
decreases from left to right.
This explains that liquids flow from places with higher pressure to place with lower pressure.

However, if a venturi tube (non-uniform tube) is used where the diameter at B is made smaller than A
and C, the liquid level become lowest at B and water level rises again at C.

𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑨 𝑪
𝑩
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘
The liquid level falls at B indicating a decrease in pressure.
This is because the liquid flows fastest at B and according to Bernoulli’s principle, the faster the liquid
flow, the lower the liquid pressure.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Demonstrating Bernoulli’s principle in gases
➢ When air is blown between two sheets of paper;

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓

Observation: The two sheets come together.

Explanation: When air is blown between them, the air molecules moves faster resulting to a decrease in
pressure in between. Therefore, the external pressure out exceeds the inside pressure and forces the
sheets to come closer.

➢ When air is blown between two balloons filled with a gas;

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏

𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
Observation: The two balloons come together.
Explanation: When air is blown between them, the air molecules moves faster resulting to a decrease in
pressure in between. Therefore, the external pressure out exceeds the inside pressure and forces the
balloons to come closer.

➢ When air is blown below a paper placed on two wooden blocks.;

𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
Observation: The paper curves upwards.
Explanation: When air is blown below the paper, the air molecules under the paper move faster
resulting to a decrease in pressure. Therefore, the external pressure on top of the paper exceeds the the
pressure below and forces the paper down thus curving upwards.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s principle is applied in:
Spray guns:

𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆

𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑷𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒆. 𝒈. 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆)

▪ When the piston is pushed in, it forces the air in the cylinder to move with a high velocity through
the nozzle.
▪ The movement of air with a high velocity causes a decrease in pressure inside the cylinder.
▪ Since the pressure in the cylinder is less than the pressure acting on the liquid (atmospheric
pressure), the atmospheric pressure forces the liquid to rise through the metal tube.
▪ The rising liquid is sprayed out through the nozzle.

Bunsen burner:
▪ When a Bunsen burner is connected to a gas supply, the gas is made
𝑵𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆 to move with a high velocity inside the burner through the nozzle.
This creates a region of low pressure inside the burner.
▪ Since the atmospheric pressure outside the burner is now more than
the pressure inside, it forces air from outside atmosphere to enter in
the burner and mixes with the gas.
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 ▪ The mixture of air and gas enables the gas to burn completely and
produce a clean, hot and smokeless flame.

Aero foil: 𝑳𝒊𝒇𝒕

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆)

𝑨𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒊𝒍

𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆)

▪ The wing of an aero plane is the form of an aero foil i.e. the upper surface is curved and the surface
below is flat. This makes the air passing over the top of the wing to move a longer distance thus the
air travels faster at top than at the bottom.
▪ Since the speed of air is higher on the top surface than the bottom, the pressure is lower than that at
the bottom surface. This causes a pressure difference which causes a net upward lifting force which
helps the plane to rise.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Practical examples:
1. Explain why a thatched roof of a house can be completely lifted off the house by a strong wind.

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅

A strong wind moves over the roof top with a high speed thus creating a lower pressure above the roof
top than the pressure below the roof.
Since the pressure below the roof is higher than that at the top, it causes an upward force which lifts
up the roof resulting into blowing of the roof.

2. Explain using Bernoulli’s principle why it is dangerous to stand near the edge of a platform in a
railway station, when a fast-moving train is passing by.

This is because a person standing near a fast-moving train will tend to fall towards it according to
Bernoulli’s principle.
The speed of air molecules between the fast-moving train and the person is high thus creating a
region of low pressure. Since the pressure behind the person is now greater than pressure in front of
the person, it pushes the person towards the train.

VISCOSITY:
When water is poured on a person’s head, it runs through his/her hair and then flows over the face
quickly. But when honey is poured on the person’s head, it takes a lot of time to flow through the
person’s head. This is because of a property of fluids called viscosity.
Definition:
Viscosity is the measure of fluid’s resistance to flow.
Therefore, honey is thicker than water so it has a high viscosity than water.

Viscous fluid:
This is a fluid with a high viscosity. Therefore, a viscous fluid doesn’t flow easily.
Examples of viscous fluids include;
⬧ Honey
⬧ Oil
⬧ Glues
⬧ Syrups

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLOATING AND SINKING

𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

❖ If you lift a bucket of water from a tank, the bucket appears to be lighter inside the water and
suddenly heavy when it comes out of water.
❖ When we go swimming, we feel a little weightless in the water than our actual weight.
❖ A large ship made of metal (steel) floats on water while a small steel pin sinks in water.
Therefore, an object weighs less in water than it does in air. This loss of weight is due to the upthrust of
water acting on the object.
All the above experiences can be explained by Archimedes’ principle formulated by a Greek
mathematician called Archimedes.

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE:
It states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅

Terms used in Archimedes’ principle:

▪ Upthrust (Buoyancy):
This is the upward force that a fluid exerts on a body falling through it.
▪ Actual weight:
This is the weight of the body in air.
▪ Apparent weight:
This is the weight of the body when completely immersed or submerged in a fluid.
Apparent weight is always less than the actual weight.
▪ Apparent loss in weight:
This is the difference between actual weight of a body and apparent weight of the body.
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Apparent loss in weight is also equal to upthrust.
Therefore,
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = (𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

Also, 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Factors affecting upthrust acting on the body
Density of the fluid:
Denser liquids exert greater upthrust on a body immersed in it than less dense liquids.
E.g. salty water is denser than fresh water therefore, an object immersed in salty water displaces a
greater weight of the salty water (upthrust) than when in fresh water. Thus, the body feels weightless.
Volume of body immersed the fluid:
A body experiences a greater upthrust when fully or wholly immersed in a fluid than when it is partially
immersed.

Practical examples:
❖ The figure below shows a uniform bar in equilibrium with two equal masses suspended at an equal
from the pivot from either ends.

𝑨 𝑩

Salt water is added into beaker A and fresh water in beaker B until the masses are fully submerged. It is
observed the bar tips towards beaker B. Explain this observation.
Salt water is denser than fresh water so it exerts a greater upthrust on the mass immersed in beaker A.
Therefore, the mass in beaker A displaces a greater weight of the salty water.
The apparent weight of mass in beaker A is therefore lower than the apparent weight of mass in
beaker B. This causes the bar to tilt towards B.

❖ The figure below shows weights of a ball suspended on a spring balance when weighed in air and
water respectively.

𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝟐𝟓𝑵

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Explain why the weight of the ball in water is less than the weight of the ball in air.
This is because when the ball is submerged in water, it experiences an upthrust thus lowering the
apparent weight of the ball.

Recall, 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑾𝒂
𝑾𝒘

𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒌𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ An object is weighed in air using a spring balance and its weight in air, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ An eureka can (displacement can) is completely filled with water up to its spout.
▪ An empty beaker of known weight, 𝑾𝒃 is placed under the spout of the eureka can.
▪ The object is then weighed when completely immersed in water using a spring balance and its
weight in water, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
▪ The weight of the beaker and displaced water, 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 is measured and recorded.
▪ The weight of displaced water is then calculated from 𝑾𝒅 = 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 − 𝑾𝒃 .
▪ Since upthrust is equal to apparent loss in weight, it is calculated from 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 .
▪ It is found out that upthrust is equal to weight of displaced water (i.e. 𝑼 = 𝑾𝒅 ) thus verifying
Archimedes’ principle.

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

❖ When a body is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight which is equal to the
upthrust acting on the body.
Therefore, 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇

❖ According to Archimedes’ principle;

𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚𝑓 × 𝑔
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝜌𝑓 × 𝑉𝑓 × 𝑔
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆𝒇 𝒈
Where 𝑽𝒇 − density of water.
𝝆𝒇 − volume of displaced water.
NOTE:
The volume of displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the body immersed in the fluid.
Recall: Displacement of finding volume of an irregular object.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A block weighs 25N in air. When completely immersed in water, it weighs 10N. Calculate;
i) upthrust on the block.
ii) volume of water displaced.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵
i) ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟓
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒎𝟑

2. A metal weighs 20N in air and 15N when fully immersed in water. Calculate;
i) upthrust.
ii) weight of displaced water.
iii) volume of displaced water.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
i) iii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝑵 𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟓
ii) 𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 = 𝟓𝑵
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

3. A concrete block of mass 3.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔 and volume 1.2𝑚3 is totally immersed in a fluid of density
2.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find;
i) weight of the block in air.
ii) Weight of the block in the fluid.
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈 , 𝑽𝒃 = 𝑽𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒇 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑾𝒂 = (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) × 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒇 𝝆𝒇 𝒈
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = (𝟏. 𝟐) × (𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) × (𝟏𝟎)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒇
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝑾𝒇
𝑾𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. An object weighs 30N in air and 25N when immersed in water. Calculate;
i) upthrust.
ii) volume of the object.
iii) density of the object.

𝑾𝒂 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵
i) iii) 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝝆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝑵 𝟑𝟎
𝝆𝒐 =
ii) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟓 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 OR
𝟓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒎𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝑽𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟑𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐 = = 𝟑𝒌𝒈
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽 𝒘 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

5. A body weighs 50N in air and 30N when fully immersed in water. Calculate the mass of water
displaced.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝟐𝟎 = 𝒎𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎
𝒎𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎
𝒎𝒘 = 𝟐𝒌𝒈

6. A piece of metal of density 2500𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 weighs 1N in air. Find the weight of the metal when
completely submerged in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟏𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝝆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒎 𝝆𝒎 𝒈 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟏 = 𝑽𝒎 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑵
𝑽𝒎 =
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟑 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟏 − 𝑾𝒘
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝑵
𝑽𝒘 = 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
7. An object weighs 50N in air and 30N when wholly submerged in water. Calculate;
i) Buoyant force on the object.
ii) volume of the object.
iii) density of object.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
i) iii) 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝝆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝟓𝟎
ii) 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈
𝟐𝟎 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 OR
𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒎𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝑽𝒐 )
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎 𝟑 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟓𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐 = = 𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
𝟓
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽 𝒘 𝝆𝒐 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

8. A solid of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 is totally immersed in oil of density 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3. Calculate the
i) mass of oil displaced.
ii) upthrust on the solid.

i)
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝒎𝒐 = 𝝆𝒐 × 𝑽𝒐
𝒎𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒐 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒈
ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒈
𝟔𝟒𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = ( ) × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝑵

NOTE:
When a body is partially immersed in a fluid, it displaces a volume of a fluid equal to the fraction of its
volume that is immersed in the fluid.
i.e. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

9. An iron cube of mass 480𝑔 and density 8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is suspended by a string so that it is half immersed
in oil of density 0.9𝑔𝑐𝑚−3. Find
i) upthrust acting on the cube.
ii) the tension in the string.
𝟒𝟖𝟎
𝒎𝒄 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝒌𝒈,
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟖𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝒎𝒄 𝟏
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑽 𝒐 = × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝝆𝒄 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟏
𝑽𝒄 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒐 = × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝒎𝟑
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐
i) ii)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝒈 𝑾𝒂 = 𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 × 𝟗𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑾𝒂 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝑵
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝑵
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝑾𝒐 )
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒐
𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 = 𝟒. 𝟖 − 𝑾𝒐
𝑾𝒐 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟑𝑵
EXERCISE:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A body weighs 100N in air and 80N in water. Calculate.
i) upthrust on the body.
ii) volume of displaced water.
iii) density of the body.
iv) mass of the body.
2. A string supports a solid block of mass 1𝑘𝑔 and density 9000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 which is completely immersed
in water. Calculate the tension in the string.
3. A stone of volume 200𝑐𝑚3 and density 2.7𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is completely immersed in Kerosene.
a) Determine the upthrust exerted on the stone.
b) Determine how much it will weigh in kerosene (𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3)
4. A glass block of mass 2.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔 and volume 2.4𝑚3 is totally immersed in a fluid of density
1.0 × 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find;
iii) weight of the block in air.
iv) Weight of the block in the fluid.

5. An iron cube of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 is totally immersed in

a) Water b) oil of density 0.8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3
Calculate the upthrust in each case.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
DETERMINING RELATIVE DENSITY OF A SOLID USING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
▪ The solid is weighed in air and its weight, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in water and its weight, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘

Recall:
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A solid weighs 25N. It weighs 15N when completely immersed in water. Calculate;
i) relative density of a solid.
ii) density of a solid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟓 𝝆𝒔
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓 𝝆𝒘
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝝆𝒔
𝟐. 𝟓 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. A metallic solid weighs 24N and 16N when completely immersed in water. Calculate;
i) relative density of the metal.
ii) density of the metal.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟒𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
i) ii)
𝑾𝒂 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟒 𝝆𝒔
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟒 − 𝟏𝟔 𝝆𝒘
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟑 𝝆𝒔
𝟑=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒔 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
3. An object has a relative density of 7 and weighs 70N in air. Find its weight when it is fully immersed
in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟕𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟕
𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟕𝟎
𝟕=
𝟕𝟎 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟒𝟗𝟎 − 𝟕𝑾𝒘 = 𝟕𝟎
𝟒𝟗𝟎 − 𝟕𝟎
𝑾𝒘 =
𝟕
𝑾𝒘 = 𝟔𝟎𝑵

4. A body weighs 600g in air and 400g in water. Calculate;

a) upthrust on the body.
b) volume of the body.
c) relative density of the solid.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒂 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝑵 𝑾𝒘 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟒𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
a) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 c)
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟔 − 𝟒 𝑾𝒂
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟔
b) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟔−𝟒
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑽𝒘 𝝆𝒘 𝒈 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟑
𝟐 = 𝑽𝒘 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑

DETERMINING RELATIVE DENSITY OF A LIQUID USING ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

▪ The solid is weighed in air and its weight, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in water and its weight, 𝑾𝒘 is recorded.
▪ The solid is then weighed when completely immersed in another liquid and its weight, 𝑾𝒍 is
recorded.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
(𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 )
1. A metal weighs 25N in air and 20N in water and 15N in a liquid. Calculate;
a) relative density of the liquid.
b) density of the liquid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟏𝟓𝑵
a) b)
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎 𝝆𝒘
𝟏𝟎 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐=
𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟐 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. A solid weighs 55N in air. When in a liquid, it weighs 25N and it weighs 30N when in water.
Calculate;
i) relative density of the liquid.
ii) density of the liquid.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟓𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟑𝟎𝑵
c) d)
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟓𝟓 − 𝟐𝟓 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟓𝟓 − 𝟑𝟎 𝝆𝒘
𝟑𝟎 𝝆𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐 =
𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

3. An object weighs 100N in air and 40N in kerosene of relative density 0.8. Find its weight in water.
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒘 =? 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎
𝟎. 𝟖 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝑾𝒘 = 𝟔𝟎
𝟖𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎
𝑾𝒘 =
𝟎. 𝟖
𝑾𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝑵

4. A body weighs 20g in air, 18.2g in milk and 18g in water. Calculate;
a) the relative density of the body.
b) the relative density of the milk.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 𝟏𝟖
𝑾𝒂 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝑵 𝑾𝒘 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

a) 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 b) 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑘

𝑾𝒂 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟗

5. When a metal is completely immersed in liquid A, its apparent weight is 20N. When immersed in
another liquid B, the apparent weight is 16N. If the density of the liquid is 𝟗 times that of A,
calculate the weight of metal in air. 𝟖
𝑾𝒍𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵, 𝑾𝒍𝑩 = 𝟏𝟔𝑵
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑨 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑨
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑩 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑩
𝝆𝑨 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍𝑨
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑹. 𝑫 =
𝝆𝑩 𝑾𝒂 − 𝑾𝒍𝑩
𝝆𝑨 𝟖 𝑾
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝒂 − 𝟐𝟎
𝟗𝝆𝑨 =
𝟗 𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟔
𝟖
𝟖 𝟖𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟐𝟖 = 𝟗𝑾𝒂 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝑹. 𝑫 = 𝑾𝒂 = 𝟓𝟐𝑵
𝟗

EXERCISE
1. A piece of glass weighs 0.5N in air and 0.3N in water and 0.32N in benzene. Calculate;
i) relative density of glass.
ii) density of glass.
iii) relative density of liquid.
iv) density of benzene.
2. An object weighs 5.6N in air, 4.8N in water and 4,6N when immersed in a liquid. Find the relative
density of the liquid.
3. A piece of iron weighs 555N in air. When completely immersed in water, it weighs 530N and
weighs 535N when completely immersed in alcohol. Calculate the relative density of alcohol.
4. A glass block weighs 43N in air. When wholly immersed in water, the block weighs 23N. Calculate
the;
a) upthrust on the glass block.
b) density of the glass block.
c) volume of the glass block.
5. A solid weighs 0.50N in air. It weighs 0.30N when fully immersed in water and 0.32N when fully
submerged in a liquid. Calculate the;
i) upthrust on the body due to water.
ii) volume of the solid.
iii) density of the solid
iv) relative density of the liquid.
v) density of the liquid.
6. A solid weighs 600g in air, 450g in water and 480g in a liquid. Find the;
a) relative density of the liquid.
b) density of the liquid.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

FLOATATION
Recall: A body floats in a fluid if its average density is less than the density of the fluid.
When an object is placed in liquid, it is acted upon by the upthrust and its weight.
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
❖ The object sinks in the liquid if its weight is greater than upthrust.
❖ The object floats in the liquid if its weight is equal to upthrust. Therefore, the apparent weight
(resultant force on the object) must be zero for a body to float in the liquid.
However, when a cork is held below the liquid surface (e.g. water), and released, it rises because its
upthrust is greater than its weight.

Note: By Archimedes’ principle, 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑. Therefore, for a floating
body, its weight is equal to weight of displaced fluid.

LAW OF FLOATATION:
It states that a floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which its floats.
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

Mathematically;
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑾𝒇
𝒎𝒃 𝒈 = 𝒎 𝒇 𝒈
𝒎𝒃 = 𝒎 𝒇 [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑]
𝝆𝒃 𝑽𝒃 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒇

Examples:
1. A piece of wood of density 2.5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 100𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 4𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of liquid displaced.
𝝆𝒘 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟒𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒍 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑾𝒘 = 𝑾𝒍
𝒎𝒘 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒈
𝒎𝒘 = 𝒎𝒍
𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘 = 𝝆𝒍 𝑽𝒍
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝑽𝒍
𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑽𝒍 =
𝟒
𝑽𝒍 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A piece of cork of density 0.15𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats in water of density 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of the cork out of the water.
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑

3. A piece of cork of volume 100𝑐𝑚3 is floating on water. If the density of cork is 0.25𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 .
Calculate the volume of the cork immersed in water. (density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3).
𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝑽𝒘 =?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒎𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝟐𝟓
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟏
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟑

4. A glass block of density 5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 8000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Calculate the volume of liquid displaced.
𝝆𝒈 = 𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 = (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒍 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒈 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝟑 , 𝑽𝒍 =?
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑾𝒈 = 𝑾𝒍
𝒎𝒈 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍 𝒈
𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎𝒍
𝝆𝒈 𝑽𝒈 = 𝝆𝒍 𝑽𝒍
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝑽𝒍
𝟏
𝑽𝒍 =
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW OF FLOATATION

𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑

𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒔
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ A measuring cylinder is filled with some water and its initial volume 𝑽𝟏 is recorded.
▪ A test tube with a cotton loop is then placed in the measuring cylinder.
▪ Lead shots are then added to the test tube until the test tube floats vertically.
▪ The reading of the new water level 𝑽𝟐 is recorded.
▪ Volume of water displaced by test tube is calculated as (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 ).
▪ The weight of displaced water = 𝝆𝒘 (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 )𝒈.
▪ The test tube with lead shots is then removed from water, dried and weighed and its weight is
recorded. (The cotton loop helps to attach the test tube to the spring balance)
▪ It is found that (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 + 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑠) is equal to the weight of displaced water thus
verifying the law of floatation.

OR

𝑾𝒂

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒌𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒏

𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒓

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ An object is weighed in air using a spring balance and its weight in air, 𝑾𝒂 is recorded.
▪ An eureka can (displacement can) is completely filled with water up to its spout.
▪ An empty beaker of known weight, 𝑾𝒃 is placed under the spout of the eureka can.
▪ The object is made to float on water in the Eureka can (displacement can) and displaced water is
collected in the beaker.
▪ The weight of the beaker and displaced water, 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 is measured and recorded.
▪ The weight of displaced water is then calculated from 𝑾𝒅 = 𝑾𝒃+𝒅 − 𝑾𝒃 .
▪ It is found out that weight of the object in air is equal to the weight of displaced water (𝑾𝒂 = 𝑾𝒅 ),
thus verifying the law of floatation.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Fraction of a floating body submerged in a fluid:
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑊𝑏 = 𝑊𝑓
𝑚𝑏 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔
𝑚𝑏 = 𝑚𝑓 [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑]
𝜌𝑏 𝑉𝑏 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
Therefore,
𝜌𝑏 𝑉𝑓
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 = =
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑏

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
OR
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚

Examples: 𝟒
1. A piece of wood floats with of its volume under a liquid of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the density
𝟓
of the wood.
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝝆𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒍
𝟒 𝝆𝒘
=
𝟓 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟖𝟎𝟎 × 𝟒
𝝆𝒘 =
𝟓
𝝆𝒘 = 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

2. An object of volume 240𝑐𝑚3 floats with three quarters of its volume under water. Calculate the
i) density of the object if the density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.
ii) volume of displaced water
i)
𝟑
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 = , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝟒
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟑 𝝆𝒐
=
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟑
𝝆𝒐 =
𝟒
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
ii) OR
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒𝒎𝟑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒘
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒎 𝒐 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒘 𝒎𝒐 = 𝒎𝒘
=
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝑽𝒐 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
𝟑 𝑽𝒘 𝟕𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝑽𝒘
=
𝟒 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒 × 𝟑 𝑽𝒘 =
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟒 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟑
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝒎𝟑

3. The mass of a piece of cork of density 0.25𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 is 20𝑔.

a) What fraction of the cork is immersed when it floats in water? (Density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 )
b) What is the volume of displaced water?
a)
𝒎𝒄 = 𝟐𝟎𝒈, 𝝆𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑 , 𝝆𝒘 = 𝟏𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒄
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏
𝟏
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟒

b) OR
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝒎𝒄
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝝆𝒄
𝟐𝟎 𝑾𝒄 = 𝑾𝒘
𝑽𝒄 = = 𝟖𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 𝒄 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒘 𝒈
𝒎 𝒄 = 𝒎𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒄 𝑽𝒄 = 𝝆𝒘 𝑽𝒘
=
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟏 × 𝑽𝒘
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒘 𝟐𝟎
𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 = 𝑽𝒘 =
𝑽𝒄 𝟏
𝟏 𝑽𝒘 𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑
=
𝟒 𝟖𝟎
𝟖𝟎
𝑽𝒘 =
𝟒
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. A cube made of oak and of height 15cm floats in water with 10.5cm of its height below the surface.
Calculate;
a) fraction of oak immersed in water.
b) density of oak. (Density of water is 1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3)
a)
𝟏𝟎. 𝟓
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟓
𝟕
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎
b)
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒂𝒌
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒂𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒂𝒌 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟕 𝝆𝒐
=
𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝟏×𝟕
𝝆𝒐 =
𝟏𝟎
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒈𝒄𝒎−𝟑

5. An object of Relative density 0.8 floats in water. Find

i) fraction of object immersed in water.
ii) fraction of object exposed.
(Density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
i) ii)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝟒
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 = 𝟏 −
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝟓
𝝆𝒐 𝟏
𝑅. 𝐷 = 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘 𝟓
𝝆𝒐
0.8 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝆𝒐 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝝆𝒐
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝝆𝒘
𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟒
𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 =
𝟓

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
EXERCISE:
𝟑
1. A solid of volume 10𝑚3 floats in water of density 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 with of its volume submerged.
𝟓
Calculate;
a) the mass of the solid.
b) the density of the solid.

2. A piece of wood of density 5𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 and volume 200𝑐𝑚3 floats on a liquid of density 8𝑔𝑐𝑚−3.
Calculate the volume of wood immersed in the liquid.

3. A piece of wood of volume 40𝑐𝑚3 floats in water with only half of volume submerged. If the
density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , calculate the density of wood.
𝟐
4. A piece of wood of volume 30𝑐𝑚3 on a liquid of density 0.8𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 with of its volume immersed
𝟑
in the liquid. Determine the weight of the piece of wood.
𝟑
5. A solid of volume 2.0 × 10−4 𝑚3 floats in water of density 103 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 with of its volume
𝟒
submerged. Find the mass of the solid.

6. A block of wood of volume 100𝑐𝑚3 and density 500𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 floats in a liquid of density
800𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Calculate the volume of wood submerged in the liquid.

7. A slab of ice of volume 800𝑐𝑚3 and density 0.9𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 floats in water of density 1.1𝑔𝑐𝑚−3 . What
fraction of ice slab is above the salt water?

APPLICATIONS OF THE LAW OF FLOATATION

1. Ships:
A ship is able to float whenever the upthrust is equal to its weight. Thus, it displaces an amount of water
equal to its weight.

𝑷𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
𝑊ℎ𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Ships float on water although they are made from iron and steel (metals) which are denser than water.
This is because the ship is made hollow and contains air so that the average density of the ship is less
than that of water.
If a hole develops on one side of a ship, the ship will take in water making its average density more than
that of water thus it sinks.
NOTE:
The plimsoll lines (loading lines) on the sides of the ship show the level to which the ship can be safely
loaded so that it can float on water.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Submarines:
Submarines can float on water and can sink in water. The average density of a submarine is varied by
the ballast tanks.

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅

𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔
𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒊𝒓

❖ For submarines to float, the ballast tanks are filled with air so that the average density of the
submarine is less than that of water.
❖ For submarines to sink, the ballast tanks are filled with water so that the average density of the
submarine is greater than that of water.

3. Hydrometer:
This is a device used to find the relative density of a liquid by noting how far it floats in a liquid.

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒔

It consists of;
▪ a long and thin stem which makes the hydrometer more sensitive.
▪ a bulb filled with air with lead shots at the bottom. The lead shots keep the hydrometer upright
when it floats in a liquid. Lead shots lower the centre of gravity of the hydrometer which
increases its stability.

𝑯𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓.

• By making the stem very thin (narrow)
• By making the bulb large.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Uses of a hydrometer:
▪ It is used to test the purity of milk.
▪ It is used to determine the level of sugar in some drinks (Lactometer).
▪ It used to determine the relative density of a car battery acid (Car battery tester).

4. Balloons:

𝑩𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏

A balloon filled with hydrogen rises in air because the density of hydrogen is less than the density of air
in the atmosphere. Therefore, the upthrust acting on the balloon is greater than the weight of the balloon
hence causing it to rise.
The balloon rises until when it becomes stationary. At this point, the weight of the balloon is equal to
upthrust hence it starts to float.

NOTE: Balloons that carry passengers control their weight by blowing in hot gases into the gas bag to
make them rise and letting out gases out of the gas bag to make them go down.

When the balloon is floating in air,

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒔 + 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅

Examples:
1. A balloon of mass 0.005𝑘𝑔 is inflated with hydrogen gas and held stationary on the ground by a
string. If the volume of inflated balloon is 0.005𝑚3 .
a) Calculate the upthrust acting on the balloon (Lifting force of the balloon)
b) Calculate the tension in the string.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.080𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.150𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝑼
a) 𝒎𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑻
𝑾𝒃+𝒉

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 × 𝑽𝒂 × 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝝆𝒉 𝑽𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒 + 𝑻
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝑵

2. A balloon of mass 5g is inflated with hydrogen and held stationary by a string. If the volume of the
balloon is 0.005𝑚3 , find the tension in the string.
(𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.25𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝑼
𝟓
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟓𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
𝒎𝒉 = 𝟎𝒌𝒈 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆)
𝑻 𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑾𝒃+𝒉

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓

𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 × 𝑽𝒂 × 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑵
But also;
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝟎 + 𝑻
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝑻
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑵

3. A balloon has a capacity 10𝑚3 and is filled with hydrogen. The balloon’s fabric and container have a
mass of 1.25𝑘𝑔. Calculate the maximum weight in the container the balloon can lift.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.089𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒈
𝑽𝒉 = 𝑽𝒂 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝟑
𝝆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒈
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈
But also;
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 + 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝒎𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑾𝑳
𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒈 = 𝒎𝒃 𝒈 + 𝝆𝒉 𝑽𝒉 𝒈 + 𝑾𝑳
(𝟏. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) = (𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎) + 𝑾𝑳
𝟏𝟐𝟗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒 + 𝑾𝑳
𝑾𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟔𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
4. Explain what happens to a balloon;
i) When it is filled with air and its open end tied and released.
When a balloon is filled with air, the upthrust is less than the weight of the fabric of the
balloon and the weight of air inside the balloon. The resultant force causes the balloon to
move slowly downwards.

ii) When it is filled with hydrogen gas and its open end tied and released.
When the balloon is filled with hydrogen (or helium), which is less dense than air, the
upthrust is greater than the weight of the balloon and its contents. Therefore, the balloon
rises until when upthrust is equal to the weight of balloon and its content thus making the
balloon to float.

EXERCISE:
1. A balloon of capacity 20𝑚3 and is filled with hydrogen. The balloon’s fabric and container have a
mass of 2.5𝑘𝑔. Calculate the maximum mass of the load the balloon can lift
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.089𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

2. A hot air balloon is made from a very light material. It displaces 360𝑘𝑔 of air and contains 300𝑚3
of hydrogen gas of density 0.08𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Find the maximum load the balloon can lift.

3. The envelope of a hot-air balloon contains 1500𝑚3 of hot air of density 0.8𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. The mass of the
balloon (not including the hot air) is 420𝑘𝑔. The density of the surrounding air is 1.3𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
Calculate the lifting force of the balloon.

4. A weather forecasting balloon is made of a fabric of mass 40𝑘𝑔. Calculate the volume of hydrogen
in the balloon which would just support an additional load of mass 80kg when floating in air.
( 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 0.09𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 , 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3)

5. A weather forecasting balloon of volume 15𝑚3 contains hydrogen of density 0.09𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. The
volume of container carried by the balloon is negligible. The mass of empty balloon alone is 7.15kg.
The balloon is floating in air of density 1.29𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate;
a) the mass of hydrogen in the balloon.
b) the mass of hydrogen and the balloon.
c) the mass of air displaced by the balloon

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

This chapter deals with the behavior of materials used in construction of structures (e.g. bridges,
vehicles, dams, roofs etc.) under the action of external forces.
These materials include;
• Timber • Rubber • Metals • Glass
• Concrete • Bricks • Plastics • Stones
Before these materials are used, they are tested under different conditions to see whether they can
withstand weather conditions and the action of external forces. The behavior of these materials under
test are called mechanical properties.

Definition:
Mechanical properties of matter are the behavior of matter when acted upon by external forces.

These mechanical properties include;

a) STRENGTH:
This is the ability of a material to withstand an applied force before it breaks.
Materials that have this property are said to be strong.
 A strong material is a material that can withstand a large force before breaking.
Strong materials include; concrete, metals, etc.

Factors that affect the strength of a material

▪ Magnitude of applied force:
It is easier for a material to withstand a small force than a large force. Therefore, strength of a
material increases when a small force is applied than when a large force is applied.
▪ Cross-sectional area of a material:
A material of large diameter (large cross-sectional area) is able to withstand a large force than
a material of small diameter.
Therefore, materials with large cross-sectional areas are stronger than material with small
cross-sectional areas.
▪ Nature of the material:
Different materials withstand different forces before breaking e.g. a steel rod is able to
withstand large forces than a piece of wood.

b) STIFFNESS:
This is the ability of a material to resist any force that try to change its shape and size.
OR
This is the ability of a material to resist bending when a force is applied on it.
Materials that have this property are said to be stiff.
 A stiff material is a material that resists any forces that try to change its shape and size.
Stiff materials are not flexible and they require a large force to be bent.
Stiff materials include; concrete, steel, iron etc.
How to increase the stiffness of a material:
▪ By reducing the length of a material.
▪ By reducing the temperature of a material.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
c) DUCTILITY:
This is the ability of a material to be changed or molded into different shapes and sizes without
breaking.
Materials that have this property are said to be ductile.
 A ductile material is a material that can be changed or molded into different shapes and
sizes without breaking.
Ductile materials are flexible and they can be bent greatly before they break.
Ductile materials include; copper wire, plasticine, rubber etc.

d) BRITTLENESS:
This is the ability of a material to break suddenly without bending when a force is applied on it.
Materials that have this property are said to be brittle.
 A brittle material is a material that breaks suddenly without bending when a force is applied
on it.
Brittle materials are not flexible and they cannot be molded into other shapes. They break
easily (fragile) without undergoing plastic deformation.
Brittle materials include; chalk, glass, bricks, dry biscuits, concrete, charcoal, etc.

e) ELASTICITY:
This is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size when a stretching force is
removed.
Materials that have this property are said to be elastic.
 An elastic material is a material that can regain its original shape and size when a stretching
force is removed.
Elastic materials include; rubber springs, etc.
The extension of an elastic material depends on;
→ Nature of a material.
→ Magnitude of stretching force.

f) PLASTICITY:
This is the ability of a material not to regain its original shape and size when a stretching force is
removed.
Materials that have this property are said to be plastic (inelastic).
 A plastic material is a material that cannot regain its original shape and size when a
stretching force is removed.
Plastic materials include; plasticine, clay, etc.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

HOOKES’S LAW
It states that the extension of a material is directly proportional to force applied provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭) 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒆)
𝑭∝𝒆
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
Where;
F Force applied
e Extension
K Spring constant / Proportionality constant / Elastic constant
The SI unit of the spring constant, K is 𝑵𝒎−𝟏 .
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍𝟐 ) − 𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒍𝟏 )

Examples:
1. A force of 3N is applied on an elastic wire of length 10cm. If its new length after the application
of force is 12cm, calculate;
a) Extension.
𝒍𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎,
𝒆 = 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏
𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎
𝒆 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎
b) Elastic constant.
𝟐
𝒆 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟑𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟑 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟑
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏

2. A spring extends by 0.5cm when a load of 0.4N hangs on it.

i) Calculate the spring constant.
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝟎. 𝟒
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑲 = 𝟖𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏
ii) Find the force required to cause an extension of 0.06m.
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝑭 = 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTE:
 If force, 𝐹1 acts on an elastic material, and produces an extension, 𝑒1 and then force, 𝐹2 acts
on the same elastic material and produces an extension, 𝑒2 , then;
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟏 𝒆𝟏
= 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟐 𝑭𝟐 𝒆𝟐
Examples:
There is no need of converting units for extension if the two extensions have the same units.
3. A force of 50N causes an extension of 5mm on stretched material. Calculate its extension if a
force of 150N is applied.
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟓𝒎𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 =?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝟓
=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒆𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟓
𝒆𝟐 =
𝟓𝟎
𝒆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒎

4. A mass of 10kg is hang on a spring and it produces an extension of 2cm. What will be the
extension if a force of 150N is applied?
𝑭𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 =?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
=
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒆𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒆𝟐 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝟐 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎

5. When a force of 1N is applied on a spring, the length of the spring increases from 7.4cm to
8.4cm. Calculate;
a) The elastic constant of the spring.
𝟏
𝒆 = (𝟖. 𝟒 − 𝟕. 𝟒) = 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟏𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟏 = 𝑲 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝟏
𝑲=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟏
b) The extension produced when a force of 50N is applied.
𝑭 = 𝑲𝒆
𝟓𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝒆
𝟓𝟎
𝒆= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
6. A spring has a natural length of 12cm. When a load P is suspended from it, its length increases to
22cm and when a load of 250N is attached to it, its length increases to 27cm. Find the value of P.
𝑭𝟏 = 𝑷, 𝒆𝟏 = (𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐) = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑵, 𝒆𝟐 = (𝟐𝟕 − 𝟏𝟐) = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝑷 𝟏𝟎
=
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑷=
𝟏𝟓
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝑵

7. A mass of 500g causes an extension of 2cm. Calculate the mass that can cause an extension of
0.5cm.
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒈, 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝒎𝟐 =?, 𝒆𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝒎 𝟏 𝒈 𝒆𝟏
=
𝒎 𝟐 𝒈 𝒆𝟐
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟐
=
𝒎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒎𝟐 =
𝟐
𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒈

EXERCISE:
1. A mass of 0.5kg causes a spiral spring to extend by 4cm. Calculate the mass that would cause an
extension of 6cm.
2. A force of 10N extends a wire by 2cm.
i) Find the constant of proportionality.
ii) Find the extension produced by the force of 50N.
3. A spring produces an extension of 6mm when a load of 9N is hung from its free end. What load
would cause the same spring to stretch by 16mm?
4. A metallic cube suspended freely from the end of the spring caused it to stretch by 5cm. 500g
mass suspended from the same spring stretched it by 2cm.
a) Find the weight of the metallic cube.
b) By what length will the spring stretch if a mass of 1.5kg is attached to its end?
5. A spring stretches by 4mm when supporting a mass of 15kg. By how much would it stretch when
supporting a load of 55N?
6. A spring increase its length from 20cm to 25cm when a force is applied. If the spring constant is
100𝑁𝑚−1, calculate the force applied.
7. A 5.0cm long spring was used in an experiment. When a load of 2000N is suspended from it, its
length increases to 6.5cm and when a load Q is attached to it, its length increases to 8.0cm. Find
the value of Q.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
8. A vertical spring of length 30cm is stretched to 36cm when an object of mass 100g is placed in
the pan attached to it. The spring is stretched to 4ocm when a mass of 200g is placed in the pan.
Find the mass of the pan.
9. A spring of natural length 8.0 × 10−2 𝑚 extends by 2.5 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 when a weight of 10N is
suspended on it.
i) Find the spring constant.
ii) Determine the extension when a weight of 15N is suspended on the spring.
10. A force of 500N extends a wire by 2mm. If the force is reduced by a half, what will be the new
length of the wire if the original length is 10cm.

An experiment to verify Hooke’s law

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒆

𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓

▪ The experiment is set up as shown above.

▪ The initial position of the pointer, 𝑷𝟏 is read and recorded.
▪ A standard mass, 𝒎 is attached at the end the spring.
▪ The new position of the pointer, 𝑷𝟐 is read and recorded.
▪ The extension, 𝒆 of the spring is determined from the expression, 𝒆 = 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 .
▪ The above procedures are repeated with different masses.
▪ The results are then put into a suitable table including values of the load (force) i.e. 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔.
𝒎(𝒌𝒈) 𝑳(𝑵) 𝑷𝟐 (𝒄𝒎) 𝒆(𝒄𝒎)

▪ A graph of 𝑳 against 𝒆 is plotted.

𝑳(𝑵)

𝒆(𝒎)
▪ A straight-line graph through the origin is obtained.
▪ This shows that 𝑳 is directly proportional to 𝒆 hence verifying Hooke’s law.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTE:
 In order to get accurate results in the above experiment, the elastic limit of the spring should
not be exceeded.

A graph of load against extension for copper wire (ductile material):

𝑳(𝑵)
𝑴
𝑷 − 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
𝑬 𝒀
𝑩 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕
𝑷 𝒀 − 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑴 − 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔)
𝑩 − 𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

𝑶𝑹 − 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑶 𝑹 𝒆(𝒎)

Between O and P:
The extension, 𝑒 is directly proportional to applied force (Load, 𝐿) hence Hooke’s law is obeyed in
this region. In this region, the material can regain its original shape and size when the stretching
force is removed.
Between P and E:
In this region, the material undergoes elastic deformation until it reaches the elastic limit, 𝐸.
In this region, Hooke’s law is not obeyed but the material can regain its original shape and size when
the stretching force is removed.
Beyond E:
Point, 𝐸, is the elastic limit of the material. Therefore, beyond E, the material undergoes plastic
deformation whereby it cannot regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is
removed.
The material is permanently stretched between Y an M.
Beyond M:
This point represents the maximum stress a material can withstand (i.e. the maximum load it can
handle). Addition of any extra load (force) at this point makes the wire to break on reaching the
breaking point B.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
❖ Proportional limit:
This is a point beyond which Hooke’s law is not obeyed.
❖ Elastic limit:
This is a point beyond which a material cannot regain its original shape and size when a
stretching force is removed.
❖ Yield point:
This is a point beyond which a material is permanently stretched and there is a permanent
increase in length when the stretching force is removed.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
❖ Elastic deformation:
This is a temporary deformation which occurs before the elastic limit and the material can
regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is removed.
❖ Plastic deformation:
This is a permanent deformation which occurs after the elastic limit and the material cannot
regain its original shape and size when the stretching force is removed.

TENSILE STRESS, TENSILE STRAIN AND YOUNG’S MODULUS

TENSILE STRESS:
This is the ratio of force applied to the cross-sectional area of a material.
OR
This is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area of a material.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
The SI unit of tensile stress is 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 (𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠).

Question: Distinguish between Pressure and Tensile stress.

Pressure is the force acting normally per unit surface area of a material.
WHILE
Tensile stress is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area of a material.

TENSILE STRESS:
This is the ratio of extension to the original length of the material.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒍𝟏
Tensile strain has no units since extension and original length have the same units.

YOUNG’S MODULUS:
This is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain of a material.
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝐹⁄
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑒 𝐴
⁄𝑙1
𝐹𝑙1
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝐴𝑒
The SI unit of Young’s modulus is 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 (𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠).

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Examples:
1. A copper wire of length 10cm is subjected to a force of 2N. If its cross-sectional area is 5𝑐𝑚2
and a force causes it to extend by 0.2cm, calculate;
i) Tensile stress.
ii) Tensile strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎, 𝑭 = 𝟐𝑵, 𝑨 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎
i) Tensile stress ii) Tensile strain iii) Young’s modulus
𝟓 𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑨 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝟏 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝟎. 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝑭 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑨 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟐 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵𝒎−𝟐

2. A mass of 2.4kg is attached to the end of a long vertical wire 2m long and produces an extension
of 0.5mm. If the diameter of the wire is 0.78mm, calculate;
i) Tensile stress.
ii) Tensile strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖
𝒎 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝒌𝒈, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎, 𝒓= = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝒎𝒎, 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
i) Tensile stress
𝟐𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟕
𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝑵
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟐𝟒
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

ii) Tensile strain iii) Young’s modulus

𝟎. 𝟓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒆= = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒆 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝒍𝟏 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
3. A mass of 2000g is placed at the end of the wire 15cm long and cross-sectional area 0.2𝑐𝑚2 . If
the mass causes an extension of 1.5cm, calculate;
i) Stress.
ii) Strain.
iii) Young’s modulus.
𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈, 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎, 𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒄𝒎,
i) Stress
𝟎. 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟐 = = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝑵
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟐𝟎
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

ii) Strain iii) Young’s modulus

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒆 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒍𝟏 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝟏. 𝟓 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏𝟓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵𝒎−𝟐

4. A piece of wire of diameter 0.64mm and length 12m is stretched through 2.5cm by a 5kg mass.
a) Determine the;
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓 = ×( ) = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟕 𝟐
−𝟏 𝟐
𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏
𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒎 = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑭
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
𝟓𝟎
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟑. 𝟐𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
b) What force will stretch the wire through 4cm?
𝑭𝟏 𝒆 𝟏
=
𝑭𝟐 𝒆 𝟐
𝟓𝟎 𝟐. 𝟓
=
𝑭𝟐 𝟒
𝟓𝟎 × 𝟒
𝑭𝟐 =
𝟐. 𝟓
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
5. A material stretched by 6cm develops a strain of 4.8 × 10−2 . Find the original length of the
material.
𝒆 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎, 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒍𝟏
𝟔
𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 =
𝒍𝟏
𝒍𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎

EXERCISE:
1. Calculate the tensile stress when a force of 25N acts on a wire of cross-sectional area 5𝑚2.
2. The breaking stress of a material is 4.0 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 . Calculate the force required to break a piece
of material of cross-sectional area 10𝑚2.
3. A string 4mm in diameter has original length 2m. The string is pulled by a force of 200N. If the
final length of the spring is 2.02m, determine;
a) Stress.
b) Strain.
c) Young’s modulus.
4. A piece of wire of diameter 0.32mm and length 14m is stretched through 2.8cm by a 10kg mass.
i) Determine the young’s modulus of the material.
ii) What force will stretch the wire through 12cm?
5. An elastic material of cross-sectional area 32𝑚2 is 4m long. When a force of 1.6 × 105 𝑁 is
applied to the material, its length increases by 1mm. Calculate;
a) The stress in the material.
b) The strain in the material.
6. A mass of 200kg is placed at the end of the wire 15cm long and cross-sectional area 0.2𝑐𝑚2 . If
the mass causes an extension of 1.5cm, calculate the young’s modulus of the material.

COMPRESSION AND TENSILE FORCES

Compression forces:
When compression forces act on a material, they cause the particles of the material to be pressed
more closely together. This causes a decrease in length of a material but the thickness of the material
increases.

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Tensile forces:
When tensile forces act on a material, they cause the particles of the material to be pulled further
apart from one another. This causes an increase in length of a material but the thickness of the
material decreases.

𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
SHEAR FORCE:
A shear force is the force needed to fracture the material in direction parallel to applied force.
A shear force is produced when two equal but opposite forces are applied on the body. Shear forces
causes a body to be twisted and deformed.

𝒐𝒓
𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆
𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
In Uganda, some of the important building or construction materials today are natural stones, timber,
glass, bricks, concrete, iron bars, iron sheets, etc.

NATURAL STONES:
These are inorganic minerals quarried from the earth’s surface.
These natural stones occur in form of basalt, flint, granite, limestone, marbles, sand stones, slate,
quartzite, limestone, etc.

BRICKS OR BLOCKS:
Bricks are made by mixing clay and water together. The mixture is then molded into different shapes
and then fired in a kiln at high temperatures.
Bricks are hard, stiff, brittle and strong under compression.

MORTAR:
Mortar is a mixture of sand and cement made into paste by adding water. It is used for bonding
bricks

METALS:
These are used in construction of different structures e.g. ships, vehicles, buildings, etc.
Metals can be deformed into different shapes and sizes depending on the construction to be made.
Metals are usually stronger and durable when compared to timber.
Common metals used in construction include; iron for making iron sheets and nails, steel, etc.

TIMBER:
It is used for making furniture used to make scaffolds, bridges, bodies of vehicles, ceiling boards,
etc.
Advantages of timber as a construction material
→ It is cheap.
→ It is durable when seasoned and treated well.
→ It is easy to work with.
Disadvantages of timber as a construction material
→ It is not fire resistant.
→ It can get rotten if not treated and seasoned well.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Glass:
Glass is a magical construction material as it has various applications in doors and windows because
of its desirable properties.
Properties of glass that make it a desirable building material:
➢ It is transparent.
➢ It is weather resistance i.e. it can withstand the effects of rain, sun, wind.
➢ It is heat resistant i.e. its an insulator to heat.
➢ It is chemical resistant i.e. few chemicals can react with it.
➢ Its surface is hard and difficult to scratch.
➢ It is fire resistant.
Disadvantages of timber as a construction material
→ Glass is brittle i.e. it can break immediately when a maximum force is applied.

CONCRETE:
Concrete is a proportioned mixture of cement, sand, gravel (small stones) and water.
Concrete is used where heavy loads have to be supported e.g. in foundations of tall buildings, dams,
etc.
 Since concrete is a brittle material it is weak under tension (tensile forces) but strong under
compression.

Properties of concrete which make it a desirable building material

➢ It is weather resistant.
➢ It is fire resistant.
➢ It is strong under compression.
➢ It is durable i.e. it can be used for a long period of time.

NOTE:
 Although concrete is a desirable building material, it is unsuitable for use in structures under
tension since it has a small tensile strength (weak under tension). Therefore, to increase the
tensile strength of concrete, it has to be reinforced.

REINFORCED CONCRETE:
Reinforced concrete is concrete obtained by combining concrete with materials that have a high
tensile strength e.g. steel or iron bars, wire mesh, wooden strands, etc.

Question: State any materials that maybe used to reinforce concrete.

• Steel rods • Wire mesh
• Iron bars • Wooden stands

Advantages of reinforced concrete

→ It is strong under compression and under tension.
→ It is weather resistant.
→ It is fire resistant.
→ It is durable.
→ It has much greater ductility when still wet.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
STRUCTURES AND BEAMS
A structure is a make-up which consists of pieces of materials that are joined together.
In order to construct a structure that will be durable, beams and girders are put into use.

BEAMS:
A beam is a large and long piece of material used to provide main support to the structure.
Without a beam, a structure is unable to withstand the compressional and tensile forces.
NOTE:
 When a beam bends, one side of the beam is compressed (under compression) and the other
side is stretched out (under tension) but the centre of the beam is not stretched or
compressed (neutral).

❖ 𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ❖ 𝑨𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

From the diagram, the neutral axis is the central region of a beam that is not affected by either
compression or tensile forces. Therefore, if removed, the tensile and compressive strength of the
beam increases since less material is stuck in the middle.
This explains why pipes used in construction of structures are made hollow.

Advantages of hollow beams:

(Why are pipes used in construction of structures like bicycles and bridges are made hollow?)
→ They can withstand both compression and tensile forces.
→ Notches cannot spread easily thus there is less risk of breaking.
→ They are light.
→ They are economical since less material is used for construction.
→ Structures can expand and contract easily.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
NOTCHES AND CRACKS:
A notch is a cut or a weak point on a material.
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒄𝒉

𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍

Notches and cracks spread more easily when a material is under tension than when it is under
compression.
How a notch weakens a beam of a brittle material:

𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
When a tensile (tensional) file is applied on a brittle material like glass with a notch, it will cause a
notch to be stretched (under tension) causing it to widen further hence weakening the material.

Question: Explain why in bridge, a beam with a notch lasts longer when a notch is on the top surface
than when the notch is on the lower surface.
When a notch is on the top surface of beam, it is under compression. Therefore, it
doesn’t spread easily since it can withstand compressional forces thus making it
stronger in this case.

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

When a notch is the lower surface of the beam, it is under tension. Therefore, it spreads
easily since it cannot withstand tensional forces thus making it weak in this state.

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆

Methods of reducing notch effect:

▪ Structures are designed in such a way that all parts are under compression.
▪ Structures are laminated. i.e. layers of a structure are joined together e.g. tables are covered with
plywood on their top surfaces and pieces of timber are glued to get a stronger one.
▪ Surfaces of structures e.g. made as smooth as possible

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Applications of the notch effect:
→ Some papers like bank slips are designed in such a way that they perforations (notches) to
separate them easily.
→ Notches or cracks are put on glass so that it can easily cut into pieces.

STRENGTH AND TYPES OF STRUCTURES

There are many types and shapes of structures commonly used in Uganda. The type and shape of a
structure determines its strength.
The common types of structures include;
a) Rectangular structures:
These are made in form of a rectangle.
They are less rigid and weak compared to others. Therefore, they can easily collapse.

Rectangular structures can be made more rigid by placing a beam along one of its diagonals.

b) Triangular structures:
These are made in form of a triangle.
They are more rigid and strong compared to others. Therefore, they cannot easily collapse.

Since triangular structures are strong and rigid, this explains why structures like doors, house
roofs, water tanks are made with triangular shapes.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
GIRDERS
A girder is a piece of material which strengthens a structure.
In a structure, some girders are under tension and others are under compression.

TIES AND STRUTS:

Tie: This is a girder under tension.
Ties can be replaced by strings.
Strut: This is a girder under compression.

How to identify ties and struts in a given structure:

▪ Remove each of the girder one at a time from the structure and observe the effect it causes on the
points that were joined by that girder.
▪ If the points that were joined by the girder move further apart, then the girder is a tie.
▪ If the points that were joined by the girder move closer together, then the girder is a strut.
▪ Always note that the weight of the structure acts downwards.

NOTE:
 Therefore, the functions of ties prevent the points they join from moving further away and
struts prevent the points they join from moving closer together.

Examples:
1. The figure below shows a structure of a bridge. Identify the ties and struts in the structure.
𝑩 𝑪

𝑨 𝑫
𝑬

In order to determine each of the girders whether they are struts or ties, each of the girders is
removed and the effect noted.
❖ When BC is removed, point B moves close to point C. Then girder BC is a strut.
❖ When AB is removed, point A moves close to point B. Then girder AB is a strut.
❖ When CD is removed, point C moves close to point D. Then girder CD is a strut.
❖ When BE is removed, point E moves further away from point B. Then girder BE is a tie.
❖ When CE is removed, point E moves further away from point C. Then girder CE is a tie.
❖ When AE is removed, point A moves further apart from point E. Then girder AE is a tie
❖ When ED is removed, point E moves further apart from point D. Then girder ED is a tie

2. Identify the girders in the structure below.

𝑫
𝑬
𝑬𝑫 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝑫𝑪 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝑩𝑪 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑪 𝑨𝑩 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑨 𝑬𝑩 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝑩
𝑩𝑫 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
❖ When ED is removed, the structure will bend at B. Therefore, D moves further away from E.
Then ED is a tie.
❖ When DC is removed, the load pulls point C downwards. Therefore, C moves further away from
D. Then DC is a tie.
❖ When BC is removed, the load pulls point C to come close to point B. Then BC is a strut.
❖ When AB is removed, the structure bends at E. Therefore, point B moves close to A. then AB is
a strut.
❖ When BD is removed, points E, D, C will become straight thus making point D to come closer to
B. Then BD is a strut. Similarly, BE is a strut.

3. The diagram below shows a structure firmly fixed on the wall. Identify the ties and struts.
𝟑

𝟏 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝟑 − 𝑻𝒊𝒆
𝟒 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕
𝟒
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

4. The diagram below shows an arm of a crane used to carry a load. Name the forces acting on the
structure.

𝑲 − 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑲
𝑹 − 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑵 − 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

5. The diagram shows the framework of a bicycle.

𝑹

𝑴 𝑵

𝑸
Which of the parts labelled M, N, R and Q would be in;
a) tension.
𝑸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹
b) compression when a heavy person sits on the seat.
𝑴 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑵

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
Applications of struts and ties:
→ They are used in roof supports.
→ They are used in communication masts.
→ They are used in construction of bridges.
→ They are used to support water tanks.

EXERCISE:
1. The figure below shows part of a roof structure.

a) Copy the diagram and on it show how the structure

can be strengthened by using two other girders.
b) Label one tie and one strut on your diagram.

2. Explain the functions of the following girders in a structure.

a) Struts.
b) Ties.
3. The diagram below shows a structure of a simple bridge.

𝑾𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎

i) Mark the neutral axis of the beam.

ii) Explain the mechanical state of the beam.
iii) What would be the effect on the beam if a notch is made on the lower side of the beam.
iv) Indicate on the diagram how the bridge can be strengthened.
4. a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the effect of a shear force on the body.
b) State any three characteristics of concrete which make it a desirable building material.
c) State any three reasons why the pipes used in the structures of bicycles are made hollow.
5. a) Many construction materials are commonly used in Uganda.
i) State one advantage of glass as a construction material.
ii) Explain briefly how concrete maybe improved so that it can withstand tensional forces.
c) In construction of bridges, hollow cubes of strong metals are used instead of the solid ones.
What advantages do those bridges have?
6. Identify the ties and struts in the following diagrams.
a) b)

𝟐
𝑾𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝑨 𝑩
𝑪 𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT
7. The figure below shows an arrangement of three planks on a vertical frame.

𝟏 𝟐

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

State the planks that can be replaced by strings or ropes.

8. The diagram below shows the structure of a bridge.

𝟏

𝟐
𝟑 𝟒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

a) Name the types of force that acts along the parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 when the bridge has been
loaded at the centre.
b) Name one material in each case that can be used to construct parts 2 and 4. Give a reason for
your answer.

9. a) Define the term “notch” as used in construction.

b) State three ways of reducing notches in beams.
c) Describe the advantages of reinforcing concrete.
10. The following readings were obtained in an experiment to verify Hooke’s law when a spring was
extended by hanging various masses on it.
Mass (g) 0 25 50 75 100 125
Extension (cm) 10.0 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.4 16.0
Plot a graph of mass against extension and use it to determine.
a) The mass when the extension is 12cm.
b) The extension for 0.02kg.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MAGNETISM
This is a piece of material that attracts other materials.
Magnetism is the force exerted by a magnetic field.
Magnetic material:
This is a material that can be attracted or repelled by a magnet e.g. steel, iron etc.
Non-magnetic material:
This is a material that cannot be repelled or attracted by a magnet e.g. plastic, rubber, paper etc.
There are different magnetic materials and non-magnetic materials and these include
the following;
Ferro magnetic materials:
These are magnetic materials that are strongly attracted by a magnet.
Ferro magnetic materials are capable of being made into a magnet and retain magnetic
properties when the external magnetic field is removed.
Paramagnetic materials:
These are materials that are weakly attracted by a strong magnet.
A paramagnetic material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
Diamagnetic materials:
These are magnetic materials that are weakly repelled by a strong magnet.
A diamagnetic material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.

The table below shows examples of different materials;

Ferro magnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Non-magnetic
Cobalt Magnesium Zinc Rubber
Iron Lithium Silver Plastic
Nickel Gold Leather
Steel Paper
Copper
Brass

POLARITY OF A MAGNET:
A pole of a magnet is a region on a magnet where the magnetic force is strongest.
Poles of a magnet are found at the ends of a magnet and they occur in pairs of equal strength.
A magnet has two poles namely;
• North Pole
• South Pole.

LAW OF MAGNETISM:
It states that unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to determine the polarity of a magnet

(a) Suspension method:
Suspend an unmarked marked magnet with the help of a thread so that it can rotate freely.
Wait until the magnet comes to rest.

It is observed that the magnet comes to rest in the North-South direction.

The end pointing in the earth’s geographical north (northern hemisphere) is the North pole (N).
The end pointing in the earth’s geographical south (southern hemisphere) is the South pole (S)

NOTE:
Since the earth is also a magnet, its north pole is in the southern hemisphere and its
south pole is in the northern hemisphere.

(b) Using a magnet of known poles:

A magnet whose poles are known is brought near the ends of another suspended magnet
whose poles are unknown.
Observation:

𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑳𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒍

If there is repulsion between the ends of the two magnets, then the poles are like.
If there is attraction between the ends of the two magnets, then the poles are unlike.

NOTE: Repulsion is the only sure way to test for the polarity of a magnet since attraction can
occur either between magnets or between a magnet and un-magnetized material.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of a magnet:
• Unlike poles attract while like poles repel each other.
• The attraction power of a magnet is strongest at the poles.
• When a magnet is freely suspended, it always come to rest in the North-South direction.
• Magnets attract certain materials e.g. steel.

Experiment to show that attraction power is strongest at the poles.

▪ Dip a bar magnet into iron fillings and observe.
▪ It is observed that most of the iron fillings concentrate/ cluster around the magnetic poles
than in the middle.

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The domain theory of magnetism states that all magnetic materials are made up of tiny magnets
called dipoles which are divided into regions called domains.
In a magnetized magnetic material, the dipoles face in the same direction.

In an un-magnetized magnetic material, the dipoles face in different directions.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MAGNETIZATION
This is the process of making a magnet.
This process helps to arrange the dipoles of a ferromagnetic material to face in one direction.

Methods of magnetization:
The methods include;
• Single touch/stroke method.
• Double or divided touch/stroke method
• Electrical method
• Hammering
• Induction method

SINGLE TOUCH OR STROKE METHOD

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

N S 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒓

▪ The steel bar is stroked from one end to another several times in the same direction using one
pole of a permanent magnet.
▪ At the end of each stroke the permanent magnet is lifted high above the steel bar
▪ The end of the steel bar where the magnet finishes stroking acquires an opposite pole to that
of the stroking pole.

Note: The disadvantage of this method is that it produces a magnet with one pole nearer the end
of the steel bar than the other.

DOUBLE TOUCH METHOD

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

N S 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒓

▪ The steel bar is stroked using two unlike poles of permanent magnets simultaneously from
the centre outwards for several times.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ At the end of each stroke, the permanent magnets are lifted high above the steel bar.
▪ The ends of the steel bar where the magnets finish stroking acquires opposite poles to that of
the stroking pole.

Note: Lifting the permanent magnet high above the steel bar helps to avoid cancellation of
arrangement of dipoles already made.

Consequent poles:
Consequent poles of a magnet are double like poles both at the centre and at the ends of a
magnetic material.
Consequent poles are obtained when a steel bar is stroked using two like poles of permanent
magnets from the centre outwards.
A magnet with consequent poles never comes to rest if it is suspended.

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

N SS S 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒓

ELECTRICAL METHOD
A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wires.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

S N

𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒓

𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑫𝑪 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚
▪ A steel bar is placed inside a solenoid connected to a direct current supply.
▪ Current is switched on for a short time and then switched off.
▪ The steel bar is magnetized and the polarity of the magnet formed depends on the direction of
current.
▪ On looking at one end of the solenoid, if current is flowing in the anticlockwise direction
then that end is a North pole and if current is flowing in the clockwise direction then that end
is a South pole.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
➢ Since direct current flows in one direction, the dipoles of the steel bar are arranged so as
to face in the same direction.
➢ If Alternating current was used, the arrangement of the dipoles of the steel bar would be
disorganized so that they don’t face in the same direction.

HAMMERING
A steel bar is hammered several times while facing in the North-South direction. During the
hammering, the dipoles are arranged to face in one direction.

INDUCED MAGNETISM
Magnetic induction is the process by which a magnetic material becomes magnetized by
bringing near or in contact with the pole of a permanent magnet.
A piece of un-magnetized steel/iron becomes magnetized when it is placed in contact with the
pole of a permanent magnet for some time. This is magnetization by induction because magnetic
properties are induced in steel/iron by the permanent magnet.
The end of the magnetic material nearest the pole of a permanent magnet an opposite pole.

N S 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝐍
𝐒
𝐍
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒃𝒂𝒓
𝐒
𝐍
𝐒
𝐍

𝐒
In the above diagram, the nails form a magnetic chain. The south pole of the permanent magnet
induces a north pole at the tip of the first nail and south pole at the bottom. The process
continues.
The dipoles in the iron nails are arranged to face in the same direction by the permanent magnet.
However, induced magnetism is short lived i.e. it doesn’t last for a long period of time.

Magnetic saturation:
Magnetic saturation is a point reached where a magnetic material cannot be magnetized any
more.
At this point, all the tiny magnets (dipoles) are arranged in the same direction.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

DEMAGNETIZATION
This is a process by which a magnet loses its magnetism.
During this process, the order of the tiny magnets (dipoles) is so disorganized such that the
dipoles face in different directions.

Methods of demagnetization:
Magnets are demagnetized in the following ways;
Heating:
The magnet is heated until it becomes red-hot and then cooled while resting in the East-
West direction.
The disorganizes the arrangement of the magnetic dipoles.

Hammering:
The magnet is hammered several times while resting in the East-West direction.

Using alternating current:

A magnet is placed in a solenoid connected to an alternating current supply while resting in
the East-West direction.
Switching on and off and then removing the magnet.
The magnet loses its magnetism since A.C current disorganizes the arrangement of the
dipoles.

Note: During demagnetization, the magnet is rested in the East – West direction so that it doesn’t
retain some magnetism due to the earth’s magnetic field.
Other methods of demagnetization include dropping a magnet.

BREAKING A MAGNET
When a magnet is broken into two or more pieces, each broken piece has a North pole and South
pole. Therefore, each piece is a complete magnet.

N S

N S N S

N S N S N S N S

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

STORING MAGNETS
Magnets tend to become weaker with time due to self-demagnetization due to repulsion
between free like poles near the ends. This disorganizes the arrangement of the dipoles in
magnets.
To prevent self-demagnetization, magnets are stored in pairs with their unlike poles adjacent to
each other with small pieces of soft iron called keepers placed across their ends.
The keepers are magnetized by induction thus forming a closed loop of magnets with no free
exposed poles. This eliminates self-demagnetization.

S N SN
𝑲𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒓

N S N S

𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
These are magnetic materials which are easily magnetized but do not retain their magnetism for a
long period of time. E.g. Iron, Nickel.
They are used in making of temporary magnets e.g. in electric bells, relays, magnetic keepers
and transformer cores.

HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

These are magnetic materials which are not easily magnetized but retain their magnetism for a
long period of time. E.g. steel.
They are used in making of permanent magnets e.g. in loud speakers, dynamos, telephone
receiver etc.

Magnetic properties of iron:

It is easily magnetized.
It is easily demagnetized.
It keeps its magnetism for a short period of time.

Magnetic properties of steel:

It is not easily magnetized.
It is not easily demagnetized.
It keeps its magnetism for a long period of time.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to distinguish between the properties of steel and iron.

S 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

N
S S
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏

N N
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔

▪ Un-magnetized strips of Iron and Steel are placed side by side in contact with the pole of a
magnet.
▪ Both strips are then dipped in iron fillings.

Observation:
• More iron fillings are attracted to the iron strip than the steel strip indicating that iron is
easily magnetized than steel.
• On removing the permanent magnet, almost all iron fillings on iron fall off and very few
fall from steel indicating that iron is easily demagnetized than steel.

MAGNETIC FIELDS
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced.
Magnetic field is stronger near the poles but weaker further away from the poles.
Magnetic fields are represented by magnetic field lines.

Magnetic field lines: These are lines which show the strength of a magnetic force.
Magnetic flux: This is the number of magnetic field lines that pass a given region.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

DETERMINING MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN

(i) Using a plotting compass:

𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒔

N S 𝑩𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

▪ A bar magnet is placed on a piece of paper.

▪ The outline of the bar magnet is marked and its poles indicated on the paper.
▪ A plotting compass is brought near the North pole of the magnet.
▪ The direction pointed by the North pole of the plotting compass is marked with a pencil dot.
▪ The compass is moved onto the dot and a second dot is made.
▪ The process is continued until the south pole of the magnet is reached.
▪ The dots are joined by a smooth curve which represents a magnetic field line.

(ii) Using iron fillings:

▪ A bar magnet is placed on a table and then covered with a smooth paper.
▪ Iron fillings are sprinkled all over the paper.
▪ The paper is gently tapped.
▪ The iron fillings arrange themselves as shown above.

Properties of magnetic field lines:

They move from North pole to South pole.
They do not cross each other.
They are closer at the poles.
They can pass through a non-magnetic material.
They all have the same strength.
The number of magnetic field lines show the strength of a magnet.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERNS

(a) Isolated bar magnet:

N S

(b) Two magnets with unlike poles facing each other:

S N S N

(c) Two magnets with like poles facing each other:

S N X N S

N S X S N

Neutral point: This is a point in a magnetic field where the resultant magnetic force is zero.

(d) Horse shoe magnet:

N S

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(e) Two bar magnets placed parallel with same poles facing each other:

S N
X X

S N

(f) Two bar magnets placed parallel with same poles facing each other:

S N

N S

MAGNETIC SHIELDING (SCREENING)

This is the creation of a magnetically neutral space or region in the neighbourhood of the
magnetic field irrespective of the strength of the field.
Iron has the ability of concentrating all magnetic field lines from the surrounding through itself
because it is more permeable to magnetic fields than the surrounding air.
➢ In magnetic shielding/screening, a soft iron ring is used since it concentrates all magnetic
field lines to pass through its walls and no magnetic flux passes the surrounding of the iron
ring.

S N S N

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑩𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕
The space inside the ring is said to be shielded from magnetic fields.
This property of iron is used to protect delicate instruments which are easily affected by
magnetic fields.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Magnetic screening can be applied in;

- Non digital watches.
- Television tubes or cathode ray tubes.
Note: if a soft iron box is used, the magnetic field lines just pass directly through it.

S N S N

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

A freely suspended bar magnet always comes to rest pointing in the North-South direction. This
is due to the magnetic field of the earth.
The earth behaves as though it contains a short bar magnet inclined at a small angle to its axis of
rotation with its South Pole in the northern hemisphere (geographic North) and the North Pole
pointing to the Southern hemisphere (geographic South).
The earth’s magnetic field lines are made up of parallel lines running from the geographical
south (magnetic North pole) to the geographical north (magnetic South pole).
Geographical South pole

Geographical North pole

Effect of magnetic field of a bar magnet on the earth’s magnetic field:

(a) North pole of a bar magnet pointing in the earth’s geographical south.

X
N
S

N
X
X-neutral point

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(b) North pole of a bar magnet pointing in the earth’s geographical North.

X
N X
N

X X
S

X-neutral point

Terms used in the earth’s magnetic field:

𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

𝜽 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜹 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒑

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

Geographic meridian:
This is the vertical plane which passes through the earth’s geographical poles.
OR
This is a vertical plane passing through the geographical axis of the earth.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Magnetic meridian:
This is the vertical plane in which passes through the poles of a freely suspended bar magnet in
the earth’s magnetic field.
OR
This is a vertical plane passing through the earth’s magnetic axis.

Angle of declination (𝜽):

This is the angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian.

Angle of dip or inclination (𝜹)

This is the angle between the earth’s horizontal surface and the earth’s magnetic field at a point.
The angle of dip varies from place to place i.e. it is 00 at the equator and 900 at the geographic
North pole of the earth.

Magnetic axis: This is an imaginary line passing through poles of a freely suspended bar magnet
in the earth’s magnetic field.
Geographic axis: This is an imaginary line passing through the geographical poles of the earth.

EXERCISE:
1. Describe two methods of magnetizing a steel rod
2. Compare magnetic properties of steel and iron
3. Explain why a magnetic material is attracted by a magnet
4. Explain why iron filings are not suitable for plotting lines of force of a weak magnet field
5. Explain why soft iron cannot be used to make permanent magnet
6. Describe how you would verify the basic law of magnetism.
7. Explain the meaning of the following magnetic field and magnetic lines of force
8. Describe how you would shield a magnetic material from a magnetic field and state one
application of magnetic shielding.
9. Describe the methods of demagnetizing a permanent magnet.
10. Use domain theory to explain the difference between magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
11. (a) What is meant by neutral point as applied to a magnetic field?
(b) (i) Draw a diagram to show the magnetic field pattern due to an iron ring placed in the
earth’s magnetic field.
(ii) State one application of the effect illustrated in b (i).
(c) Name two properties of a magnet.
(i) What are ferromagnetic materials? Give two examples of such materials.
(ii) (a) State the basic law of magnetism.
(b) Explain how you would identify the polarities of a magnet whose poles are not
marked.
(iii)Using domain theory explain the process of magnetization.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

WAVES
A wave is a disturbance through a medium which transfers energy from one point to another
without causing any permanent displacement of medium itself.

Waves can be seen when;

▪ A stone is thrown into water.
▪ Oscillating a spring.
▪ A rope is fixed at one end and then jerked at another end.

CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES:
There are two classes of waves namely;
▪ Mechanical waves.
▪ Electromagnetic waves.

MECHANICAL WAVES:
These are waves that require a material medium to transfer energy from one point to another.
These waves are produced by vibrating bodies.
These waves can’t travel through a vacuum.
They normally have a low velocity.
Examples of mechanical waves include;
• Sound waves.
• Water waves.
• Waves in stretched strings.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
These are waves that do not require a material medium to transfer energy from one point to
another.
They are produced by varying electric and magnetic fields.
They can travel through a vacuum.
All electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of light (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
Examples of electromagnetic waves include;
• Gamma rays
• X-rays
• Radio waves
• Infrared
• Visible light
• Ultra-violet light (UV), etc

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves

▪ They require a material medium for ▪ Don’t require a material medium for
their transmission. their transmission.
▪ They can’t travel through a vacuum. ▪ They can travel through a vacuum.
▪ They are produced by vibrating bodies ▪ They are produced by varying electric
and magnetic fields.
▪ They are slower. ▪ They are faster since they travel at a
speed of light.

REPRESENTATION OF A WAVE:
Waves are normally represented in form of oscillations or cycles.
Definition:
An oscillation is a complete to and fro movement of a wave.
𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝝀
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒂

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆/𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒂

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉

Rest position:
This is the undisturbed position of a wave.
Amplitude, a:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave particle from the rest position.
Crest:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave above the rest position.
Trough:
This is the maximum displacement of a wave below the rest position.
Wavelength, 𝝀:
This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.
OR
This is distance covered in one complete oscillation/cycle.
Wavelength is measured in metres.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Period, T:
This the time taken to complete one oscillation.
𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇
It is measure in seconds.
Frequency, f:
This is the number of oscillations per second.
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
It is measured in Hertz (Hz)
Wave form:
This is the shape of the wave.
Wave phase:
This is the timing of one oscillation of a wave in comparison with another oscillation of another
wave.
Wave particles are in phase if they are exactly at the same point at the same time at same
distance from rest position and are moving in the same direction.

B G
C H

D I
A F K

E J

Particles A and F and K are in phase.

Particles B and G are in phase.
Particles C and F are not in phase.
Particles A and D are not in phase.

VELOCITY OF A WAVE
This is the distance travelled by a wave per unit time.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Since in one complete cycle/oscillation, a wave travels a distance equal to wavelength, 𝝀 in time
equal to period, T.
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝜆 1
𝑉= 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑓
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
If the number of oscillations is not known then,
𝒕
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑻 =
𝒏
Where t – time taken for 𝒏 oscillations.
Examples:
1. Calculate the frequency of the wave if its velocity and wave are 5ms-1 and 0.5m respectively.
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟓 = 𝒇 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟓
𝒇=
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎
2. A vibrator of frequency 50Hz produces circular waves. If the distance between the two
successive crests is 5cm. find the speed of the waves.
𝟓
𝝀= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A vibrator with a frequency of 20Hz vibrates for a distance of 25cm in 5 seconds. Find
(i) The speed of the wave produced
(ii) Wave length of the wave produced
(i) (ii)
𝟐𝟓 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒅= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎𝝀
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝝀=
𝒕 𝟐𝟎
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒎
𝑽=
𝟓
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

4. A vibrator produces waves which travel a distance of 35cm in 2 seconds. If the distance
between two successive crests is 5cm. find
(i) The velocity of the waves
(ii) The frequency of the waves

(i) (ii)
𝟑𝟓 𝟓
𝒅= = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒎 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝝀 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 = 𝒇 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝒕 𝒇=
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑽= 𝒇 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝑯𝒛
𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. The figure below shows circular waves produced by a vibrator of frequency 32Hz. Calculate
their speed.

𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝟓𝒄𝒎 𝟓𝒄𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
𝟓
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒐 𝝀 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏

6. A radio station produces radio waves of wavelength 10m.

(i) Calculate the frequency of the wave.
(ii) Period of the wave
(iii) Number of oscillations in 10s.
(iv) State any assumption taken.

(i) (ii) (iii)

𝟏 𝒕
𝑻= 𝑻=
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀 𝒇 𝒏
𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 𝒇 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟏𝟎
𝑻= 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 =
𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒏
𝒇= 𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝒏=
𝒇 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝒏 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔.

(iv) Radio waves are electromagnetic waves so they travel at a speed of light (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )

7. The diagram below represents a wave travelling from left to right with a velocity of 300𝑚𝑠 −1
𝟒𝒎
𝒚(𝒎)
𝟐𝒎

𝒙(𝒎)
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Find
(i) Amplitude in metres.
(ii) Frequency of the wave.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(i) (ii)
𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟐𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝒇 × 𝟒
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇=
𝟒
𝒇 = 𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛
8. The wave below has a velocity of 320𝑚𝑠 −1.
𝒚(𝒎)
𝟒
𝟐

𝟏𝟐 𝒙(𝒎)

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Find;
(i) The amplitude.
(ii) Wavelength.
(iii) Frequency of the wave

(i) Amplitude, 𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎
(ii) (iii)
𝝀 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝝀 = 𝟖𝒎
𝟑 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟎 = 𝒇 × 𝟖
𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = = 𝟖𝒎 𝒇=
𝟑⁄ 𝟖
𝟐 𝒇 = 𝟒𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝝀 = 𝟖𝒎
NOTE:
If the distance, d between n successive crests or troughs then;
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆,𝒅
Wavelength, 𝝀 =
𝒏−𝟏
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏

9. If the distance between 9 successive crests is 48cm.find the wavelength of the wave.
𝟒𝟖
𝒅 = 𝟒𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝒎, 𝒏=𝟗
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
𝝀=
𝟗−𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

10. Water waves are produced at a frequency of 50Hz and the distance between 10 successive
troughs is 18cm. Calculate the velocity of the waves.
𝟏𝟖 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝒎,
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎
𝒅
𝝀=
𝒏−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
𝝀=
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎

WAVE MOTION
When a wave is setup in a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate from their rest position
while carrying energy. The energy is passed from one particle to another until when the final
destination is reached.

Types of waves according to their motion:

There are two types of waves which include:
▪ Progressive waves.
▪ Stationary/standing waves.

PROGRESSIVE WAVES
These are waves which carry energy away from the source and spread out continuously.
There are two forms of progressive waves namely;
▪ Transverse waves.
▪ Longitudinal waves.

TRANSVERSE WAVES
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of a wave.
They form crest and troughs.
Examples include;
✓ Water waves.
✓ Waves from vibrating strings.
✓ Electromagnetic waves.
A transverse wave is represented in the figure below.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

𝑻𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

LONGITUDINAL WAVES:
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation
of a wave.
OR
These are waves in which particles of a medium vibrate in the same direction as the direction of
propagation of a wave.

Longitudinal waves form compressions and rare factions.

Examples include;
✓ Sound waves
✓ Waves from compressed or stretched strings.

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

R C R C R C R
Where 𝑪 − 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑹 − 𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Compression: This is a region where particles of a wave are close together.

Rare faction: This is a region where particles of a wave are far apart from each other.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
Wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two successive compressions
or rarefactions of a wave.

Example: The distance between two successive compressions is 20m. Find the speed of a wave
if its frequency is 16Hz.
𝝀 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎, 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝑯𝒛
𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟐𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE WAVES.

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

▪ Particles vibrate perpendicular to ▪ Particles vibrate parallel to direction
direction of propagation of a wave. of propagation of a wave.
▪ Forms crests and troughs. ▪ Forms compressions and rare factions.
▪ Distance between successive crests or ▪ Distance between successive
troughs is the wavelength. compressions or rare factions is
wavelength.

Question; State differences between light waves (transverse) and sound waves (longitudinal)

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM/BAND
Electromagnetic waves are categorized in terms of their wavelength.
𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
𝐆𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚 𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐗 − 𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐔𝐥𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐌𝐢𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐑𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞
𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑳𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

Gamma rays:
▪ They have the shortest wavelength.
▪ They have the highest frequency.
▪ They have the greatest penetrating power.
▪ They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long time.
▪ They harden rubber solutions.
▪ They are emitted from radioactive substances.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

X-rays:
▪ They have a longer wavelength than the gamma rays.
▪ They are produced by fast moving electrons (cathode rays) on hitting the metal target in
the X-ray tube.
▪ They destroy body tissues if exposed for a long time.
▪ They are used in industries to detect leakages in pipes and in hospitals to detect fractures
of bones.

Ultra violet light (UV):

▪ These are radiations got from very hot bodies (e.g. sun) and also through gases (e.g.
mercury vapour)
▪ It causes sun burn.
▪ Causes blindness if there is too much exposure.
▪ It causes electrons to give off electrons by the process called photo-electric emission.
▪ Used to detect forged bank notes.

Visible light:
▪ This is the light that enables us to see.
▪ It’s got from lamps, flames etc.
▪ It determines the colour and appearance of an object.
▪ It makes objects appear bent due to refraction.
▪ Used in photosynthesis.

Infrared:
▪ All objects emit infrared radiations.
▪ They cause the body temperature to rise because most of the heat in light is carried by
infrared. Infrared enables us to get vitamin D.
▪ Used in production of night vision cameras.
▪ Used in T.V remotes.

Micro-waves:
▪ They are used to cook food in micro-ovens.
▪ They transmit information in radar systems.

Radio waves:
▪ They are produced when electrons are accelerated in an aerial.
▪ They have the longest wavelength and shortest frequency.
▪ Used in broadcasting radio and T.V signals.

Properties of electromagnetic waves:

• They are transverse waves.
• They can travel through a vacuum.
• They travel at a speed of light (3 × 108 )𝑚𝑠 −1
• They carry energy.
• They do not need a material medium for their propagation.
• They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Similarities between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves:

• Both carry energy from one place to another.
• Both are subject to interference.
• Both can be reflected, refracted and diffracted

WAVE FRONT
This is the surface of a wave in which every particle is at the same distance from the source of
the wave.
OR
This is a line that joins particles of a wave that are in phase.

There are two types of wave fronts namely;

Circular wave fronts

𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Plane/straight wave fronts

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

NB: The distance between successive wave fronts is equal to wavelength.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RIPPLE TANK

Dipper

A ripple tank is an instrument used to study the properties of water waves.

It has a transparent glass trough containing water.
The images of the waves are formed on the white screen placed below it.
The ripple tank is illuminated with a source of light (lamp) in order to observe the wave patterns
clearly.
The waves are produced by means of a dipper when it hits the surface of the water.
The dipper is vibrated by an electric motor which is connected to it.
The stroboscope helps to make the waves stationary so they can be studied very well.

How to produce wave fronts:

▪ Circular wave fronts are produced when a spherical dipper is vibrated on the surface of water
by an electric motor.
▪ Plane wave fronts are produced when a straight rod dipper is vibrated on the surface of water
by an electric motor.

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Waves undergo the following properties;
• Reflection.
• Refraction.
• Diffraction.
• Interference.

REFLECTION OF WAVES.
This is the bouncing off of waves as they meet a barrier.
The shape of the reflected waves depends on the shape of the barrier.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reflection of plane waves:

(a) On a plane surface.
Plane wave fronts are reflected as plane wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

(b) On curved surfaces.

Plane wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are reflected as concave wave fronts.
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝐒
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Plane wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are reflected as convex wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝐒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reflection of circular waves;

(a) On plane surfaces.
Concave wave fronts incident on a plane surface are reflected as convex wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝐒 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Convex wave fronts incident on a plane surface are reflected as concave wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝐒 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
(b) On curved surfaces.
(i) Concave reflector: Concave circular wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are
reflected as plane wave fronts
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝐒 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Convex circular wave fronts incident on a concave reflector are

reflected as concave wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝐒 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(ii) Convex reflector: Convex circular wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are
reflected as plane wave fronts.

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝐒

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

Concave circular wave fronts incident on a convex reflector are

reflected as convex circular wave fronts.

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒙
𝐒 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕

REFRACTION OF WAVES:
This is the change in direction of a wave as it moves from one medium to another of different
depth.
Water waves can be refracted in a ripple tank by placing a sheet of glass in water to make it
shallow.
𝝀𝟏 𝝀𝟐

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑫𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
When a wave is refracted, there is change in wavelength and speed but frequency remains
constant.
NOTE:
When waves move from deep water to shallow water, it’s;
▪ Wavelength decreases
▪ Speed decreases in the shallow water.
▪ Frequency remains constant
▪ Waves bend towards the normal.
Wave fronts become close to one another in shallow water than in deep water as shown in
the diagram below.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑫𝑬𝑬𝑷 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑺𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑳𝑶𝑾 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

When waves move from shallow water to deep water, it’s;

▪ Wavelength increases.
▪ Speed increases in the deep water.
▪ Frequency remains constant
▪ Waves bend away from the normal.
Wave fronts become further apart from one another in deep water than in shallow water as
shown in the diagram below.

𝑺𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑳𝑶𝑾 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝑫𝑬𝑬𝑷 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑽𝟏 )

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑽𝟐 )
𝝀𝟏 𝒇
∩=
𝝀𝟐 𝒇
𝝀𝟏
∩=
𝝀𝟐
Refraction of plane wave fronts at lenses:
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔

𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔
DIFFRACTION OF WAVES:
This is the spreading of waves as they as they pass through holes, around corners or edges of an
obstacle.
In a ripple tank, diffraction can be made by placing two barriers with a gap between them.
▪ If the gap between two barriers is small (narrow), then plane wave fronts with a circular
shape and then spread out.
▪ If the gap between the two barriers is wide, then plane wave fronts emerge when slightly bent
at the edges.
Small (Narrow) gap Wide gap

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝑵𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔
At a corner or edge of an obstacle:

EFFECT OF LONG AND SHORT WAVELENGTH:

▪ Waves are greatly diffracted (spread out more) when the wavelength is longer and they
are less diffracted (spread out less) when the wavelength is small.

QUESTION 1: Explain why sound can be heard in corners yet light can’t be seen in corners
(corners are always dark)
This is because sound waves are more diffracted than light waves since they
have a longer wavelength than the light waves. Therefore, light can’t spread
out to all the corners of the room since it has a shorter wavelength hence the
darkness.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ Waves of short wavelength are easily scattered than waves of long wavelength i.e. blue
light are more scattered when it strikes different molecules than red light.

QUESTION 2: Explain why the sky appears red during sun-rise or sun-set.
When rising/setting of the sun, light rays travel a longer distance in the earth’s
atmosphere to reach our eyes. So blue light scatters away easily and is removed
before reaching our eyes. Therefore, only light of longer wavelength reach
straight to our eyes and that light is red.

QUESTION 3: Explain why the sky appears blue during day-time.

During day, the sun is overhead the atmosphere so light travels a shorter
distance to reach our eyes. The blue light which has a short wavelength is
easily scattered throughout all directions in the atmosphere hence the blue
appearance of the sky.

When two or more gaps are in a barrier, the waves will be diffracted and interference occurs.

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES:
This is the superposition of two identical waves travelling in the same direction to form a single
wave with lower or greater amplitude.
OR
This is the overlapping of two identical waves travelling in the same direction to form a single
wave with lower or greater amplitude.

Conditions for interference to occur:

▪ The two waves should have the same frequency.
▪ The two waves should have the same speed.
▪ The two waves should have the same wave length.
▪ The two waves should have the same amplitude.
▪ The two waves should be moving in the same direction

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Types of interference:
There are two types of interference namely;
• Constructive interference.
• Destructive interference.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
This is the type of interference which occurs when a crest of one wave meets a crest of another
wave or a trough of one wave meets a trough of another wave forming a single wave with greater
amplitude.

𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂 𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒂

For light: Constructive interference would give increased brightness.

For sound: Constructive interference would give increased loudness.

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
This is the type of interference which occurs when a crest of one wave meets a trough of another
wave forming a single wave with no amplitude.
+ =
For light: Destructive interference gives darkness or reduced brightness.
For sound: Destructive interference gives reduced loudness or no sound at all.

NOTE:
When two sources of waves are placed close to each other, both destructive and
constructive interference occur.

𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊 − 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

𝑺𝟏

𝑺𝟐 𝑵𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

Anti-nodal lines: These are lines joining points of constructive interference.

Nodal lines: These are lines joining points of destructive interference.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. The wave length of a radio wave is 10m. Given that the speed of the radio wave
is 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find the frequency and period of the wave
Ans: (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛, 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔)
2. The frequency of a radio wave is 6.0 x 107Hz. Given that the speed of the radio wave is
3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find the wave length of the wave.
Ans: (𝟓𝒎)
3. Water waves travel a distance of 36cm in 6 seconds and the separation between two successive
troughs is 3.0cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves
Ans: (𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟐𝑯𝒛)
4. A source produces waves which travel a distance of 140cm in 0.08 seconds and the separation
between two successive crests is 20cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves.
Ans: (𝟏𝟕. 𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟖𝟕. 𝟓𝑯𝒛)
5. Water waves of frequency of 6Hz travel a distance of 24m in 10 seconds. Calculate the velocity
and wave length of the waves
Ans: (𝟐. 𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎)
6. A vibrator in a ripple tank vibrates at 500Hz. If the distance between 10 successive crests is
37.8Cm. Calculate the wave length and the velocity of the waves
Ans: (𝟒. 𝟐𝒄𝒎, 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
7. A vibrator produces waves which travel a distance of 315cm in 20 seconds and the separation
between two successive crests is 20cm. Calculate the velocity and the frequency of the waves
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛)
8. The frequency of a sound wave is 6.8 x 105Hz. Given that the speed of the sound wave is
340ms-1. Find the wave length of the wave.
Ans: (𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎)

SOUND WAVES
This is the form of energy produced by vibrating objects.
Sound waves are produced when particles of a medium are set into vibrations e.g. plucking a
guitar string, drumming etc.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves and mechanical waves so they require a medium for their
transmission e.g. solids, liquids and gases.

PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES:

▪ They are longitudinal waves.
▪ They require a material medium to travel so they can’t travel through a vacuum.
▪ They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.
▪ They undergo interference.
▪ They travel at a lower speed.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
Sound is a mechanical wave; therefore, it requires a material medium for its transmission so it
cannot travel through a vacuum.

Experiment to show that sound waves need a material medium for its transmission:
(Describe an experiment to show that sound is a mechanical wave)
𝑾𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚

𝑩𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒋𝒂𝒓

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓
𝑮𝒐𝒏𝒈

𝑻𝒐 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑

▪ When an electric bell inside a bell jar is switched on, a loud sound is heard.
▪ When the air inside the bell jar is gradually removed by means of a vacuum pump, the
loudness starts to fade out/ die away.
▪ When all the air is completely removed from the bell jar, no sound is heard even though the
hammer is seen hitting the gong.
▪ When air is again allowed in the bell jar, sound is heard again.
▪ This shows that sound requires a material medium for its transmission.

Factors that affect the speed of sound in a medium:

The speed of sound in a medium depends on; -

Temperature:
Increase in temperature increases the speed of sound. This is because temperature increases the
speed of molecules of the medium.
Sound travels faster in hot air than in cold air.

Density of medium:
Speed of sound is more in denser medium than in a less dense medium.
Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and gases. This is because molecules of a solid are
closely packed together; therefore, movement of sound energy from one molecule to another is
very easy.

Wind:
Speed of sound is increased if sound travels in the same direction of wind.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Altitude:
Sound travels faster at lower altitude and slower at higher altitudes because temperature is higher
at low altitudes than at high altitudes.

Humidity:
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air.
The higher the humidity, the higher the speed of sound.

QUESTION: Explain why a person hears sound of a moving train at a distance further away
from where he is when he places his ears on the rails.
The rails are solids, sound from the train travels faster in solids because the
molecules of solids are closely packed together so it is easy for sound to move
from one molecule to another.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES:

This is the bouncing off of sound waves as they meet a barrier.

Laws of reflection of sound:

1st law: The incident wave, reflected wave and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.
2nd law: The angle of incidence of the wave is equal to angle of reflection of the wave.

ECHOES
An echo is a reflected sound.
Echoes are produced when sound waves are move to and fro from the reflecting surface e.g. on
walls, mountains, etc.
The time taken before an echo returns back depends on; -
▪ Distance from the reflecting surface.
▪ Speed of sound in the medium.

QUESTION: Explain why echoes are not heard in small rooms.

In small rooms, echoes are not heard because reflected sound from the walls
of the room returns very quickly and mix up with the original sound so the
ear cannot differentiate between the two sounds.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR BY ECHO METHOD

▪ Two people stand at a distance, d from a tall vertical wall.

▪ One person claps and the other immediately starts a stop clock.
▪ On hearing the echo, a stop clock is stopped and time, t is noted.
▪ The speed of sound is then calculated from;
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅, 𝑽 =
𝒕

EXAMPLES:
1. A man stands at 495m away from a cliff and makes a loud sound, he hears the echo after 3
seconds. Calculate the speed of sound.
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕
𝟐 × 𝟒𝟗𝟓
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑽=
𝟑
𝑬𝒄𝒉𝒐 𝟗𝟗𝟎
𝑽=
𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝒔 𝟑
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
2. A girl stands 34m away from a wall. She makes sound and hears an echo 0.2seconds after.
Find the velocity of sound.
𝟐𝒅
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕
𝟐 × 𝟑𝟒
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑽=
𝟎. 𝟐
𝑬𝒄𝒉𝒐 𝟔𝟖
𝑽=
𝒅 = 𝟑𝟒𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒔 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A gun was fired and an echo from a cliff was heard 8 seconds later. If the velocity of sound is
340𝑚𝑠 −1, how far was the gun from the cliff.
𝟐𝒅
𝑽=
𝒕
𝟐𝒅
𝟑𝟒𝟎 =
𝟖
𝟑𝟒𝟎 × 𝟖
𝒅=
𝟐
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. A man stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the first echo after one
second and the second echo after 2 seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs if the
speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1.

𝟏𝒔 𝟐𝒔
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐

For first echo; For second echo; Total distance

𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐
𝑽= 𝑽=
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 + 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝒎 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎
5. A man is standing midway between two cliffs. He claps his hands and hears an echo after 3
seconds. Find the distance between the two cliffs. (speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1 )
V= 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟐𝒅𝟏 Total distance
𝑽= 𝒅 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐
𝒕𝟏
𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔 𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝒅 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓 + 𝟒𝟗𝟓
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝒅 = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒎
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝟏 = 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎

6. A sound wave of frequency 200Hz is produced 300m away from a high wall. If the echo is
received after 2s. Find the wavelength of the sound wave.
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒅 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎, 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝟐𝒅 𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝝀
𝑽=
𝒕 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎
𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑽=
𝟐
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

EXERCISE:
1. A person standing 𝟗𝟗𝒎 from a tall cliff claps his hands and hears an echo 𝟎. 𝟔𝒔 later.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air.
Ans: (𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏)
2. A gun was fired and an echo from the cliff was heard 𝟖𝒔 later. If the velocity of sound is
𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, how far was the gun from the cliff?
Ans: (𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎)
3. A girl standing between two cliffs hears the first echo after 𝟐𝒔 and hears another after a
further 𝟑𝒔. If the velocity of sound is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, calculate the distance between the two cliffs.
Ans: (𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓𝒎)
4. A child stands between 2 cliffs and makes a loud sound, if the child hears the first echo after
1.5s and the second after 𝟐𝒔. Find the distance between the two cliffs if the speed of sound in
air is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔.
Ans: (𝟓𝟔𝟎𝒎)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. A boy standing between two cliffs 𝑨 and 𝑩 claps his hands and hears the first echo from 𝑨
after 𝟒𝒔 and the second echo from 𝑩 after 𝟓𝒔. If the velocity of sound in air is 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔, find
the distance between 𝑨 and 𝑩.
6. A sound wave is produced 600m away from a high wall. If an echo is received after 4
seconds. Find the frequency of sound wave with the wavelength of 2m.
7. A man standing midway between two cliffs makes sound. He hears the first echo after 3s.
Calculate the distance between the two cliffs. (velocity of sound is 330m/s)
8. A man stands between two cliffs and fires a gun. He hears the first echo after 2 seconds and
1
second echo after 3 2 seconds. Calculate the distance between the two cliffs. (speed of sound
in air is 330m/s)

USES/APPLICATION OF ECHOES:
▪ Used in measurement of speed of sound.
▪ Used in echo sounding.
▪ Used in ultrasound scanning e.g. scanning womb in pregnant women.
▪ Used in radar equipment e.g. determining speed of vehicles by traffic officers.

ECHO SOUNDING:
Echo sounding is used in measurement of depth of a sea.
The device used is called an echo sounder.
An echo sounder consists of a transmitter and a hydrophone (microphone)
MEASUREMENT OF DEPTH OF A SEA

𝑩𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒂

▪ The transmitter of an echo sounder sends out sound of very high frequency to the bottom of
the sea at regular time intervals.
▪ The echo from the bottom of sea is received by the hydrophone which is connected to an
electric timing circuit.
▪ The circuit automatically calculates the depth of sea from the graph plotted.

ULTRASONIC SOUNDS:
This is the sound of very high frequency which the human can’t hear.
The human ear has a range of sound frequencies which it can hear.
𝑨𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒓𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

𝟐𝟎 𝑯𝒛 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑯𝒛
The lowest limit of audibility of human ear is 20Hz and the highest limit of audibility is 20 kHz.
Therefore, sounds above 20 kHz cannot be heard by the ear.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Applications of ultrasonic sounds:

▪ They are used in measuring the depth of the sea.
▪ They are used in ultrasonic scanning e.g. scanning the womb of a pregnant woman.
▪ They enable bats and dogs to communicate and navigate.
The bats send out repeated ultrasonic sounds, hear and process the echo. This enables
them to;
✓ Distinguish between an obstacle and flying insects.
✓ Determine direction, speed and size of flying objects

REVERBERATION
This occurs in large halls with many reflecting surfaces or walls where many echoes are
produced due to multiple reflections. Therefore, sound lasts longer and it appears as if it is
prolonged.
If the time taken to hear the echo is less than 0.1s, the human ear cannot distinguish between the
original sound and the echo. If the time is just 0.1s, the original sound appears to be prolonged.
This prolonged sound is called reverberation.

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑳𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓

𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

Definition:
Reverberation is the prolonged sound due to multiple reflections.
Advantage of reverberation:
▪ Reasonable reverberation makes speeches audible.

Disadvantage of reverberation:
▪ Unreasonable reverberation produces disorganized sound so sound becomes unclear.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Reverberation in large halls is minimized by using sound absorbing materials e.g. soft boards,
curtains, carpets and cushioning seats.

QUESTION: Explain why reverberation time in a church filled with people is less than when
the church is empty.
In an empty church, only the roof, walls, floor and furniture can absorb the
sound but when the church is filled with people, human bodies and clothes
are included to absorb sound.

REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES:

Refraction occurs when the speed of sound waves changes as it crosses the boundary between
two media. The speed of sound is affected by temperature.

Refraction of sound waves during day:

During day, air around the ground is warm (less dense) and air above the ground is cold (more
dense). The sound waves move from a less dense medium to a more dense medium hence they
are refracted away from the ground thus moving upwards.
This explains why;
▪ Sound is not easily heard during day.
▪ Radio signals are not clear during day.

Cold air

Warm air
Ground

Refraction of sound waves during day:

During night, air around the ground is cold (more dense) and air above the ground is warm (less
dense). The sound waves move from a more dense medium to a less dense medium hence they
are refracted towards the ground after undergoing through total internal reflection.
This explains why;
▪ Sound is easily heard during night.
▪ Radio signals are clear during clear.

Warm air

Cold air
Ground

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Differences between sound waves and light waves:

Sound waves Light waves

▪ They are longitudinal waves. ▪ They are transverse waves.
▪ They are mechanical waves so they ▪ They are mechanical waves so they
require a material medium for their travel. require a material medium for their travel.
▪ They can’t ravel through a vacuum. ▪ They can travel through a vacuum.
▪ They have a longer wavelength. ▪ They have a short wavelength.
▪ They travel at a low speed i.e. 330𝑚𝑠 −1 ▪ They travel at a high speed i.e. 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1

MUSICAL SOUNDS
These are sounds of regular and uniform vibrations.
Musical sounds are also called musical notes or tones.
Definition:
A musical note is a sound of regular frequency produced by a musical instrument.
A combination of musical notes gives out music.

MUSIC AND NOISE:

Music: This is an organized sound produced by regular vibrations.
Noise: This is a disorganized sound produced by irregular vibrations.
Characteristics of musical sounds:
There are properties of music namely; -
• Pitch
• Loudness
• Quality/timbre

Pitch:
This is the loudness or softness of sound.
It depends on the frequency of sound produced. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Loudness of sound:
This is the amount of sound energy that enters the ear per second.
It depends on the:
▪ Amplitude i.e. a loud note has higher amplitude and a soft note has a low amplitude.
▪ Sensitivity of the ear i.e. a more sensitive ear will hear a soft note as being loud.
▪ Intensity of sound i.e. rate of flow of sound per unit area.

Quality/Timbre:
This is the characteristic which helps the ear to differentiate between sounds of same pitch and
loudness.
It depends on the frequency and amplitude of a note therefore, the number of overtones produced
by a musical instrument determines the quality of music.

VIBRATING STRINGS
Many musical instruments produce sound by plucking their strings e.g. guitar, violins

Violin Guitars

FACTORS AFFECTING FREQUENCY OF STRETCHED VIBRATING STRINGS

(a) Length, L:
Frequency is inversely proportional to length of the string. Increasing the length of a string
produces a note of low frequency and decreasing the length gives a note of high frequency.

Experiment to show how length affects frequency of sound waves using a sonometer:
𝑇𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑳

▪ Known masses are hung at the end of the string passing over the bridges A and B.
▪ A tuning fork of known frequency, f is sounded.
▪ Keeping A fixed, B is moved until a note heard by plucking in the middle of the string
is same as that from the fork.
▪ The length between A and B is measured and recorded.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The experiment is repeated with tuning forks of different frequencies.

▪ A graph of 𝑓 against 𝐿 is plotted and it is a non-straight graph showing that frequency
is inversely proportional to length.
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇∝ , 𝒇=𝑲
𝑳 𝑳
𝒇𝑳 = 𝑲 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐

EXAMPLES:
1. A string has length of 0.75m and the first frequency of 200Hz. Find the new frequency if the
length is increased to 1m.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎 𝒇𝟐 =? 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟏𝒎
𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 = 𝒇𝟐 × 𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
2. A musical note has frequency of 420Hz and length, L. If the length of the string reduced by a
half. Find the new frequency.
𝑳
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳 𝒇𝟐 =? 𝑳𝟐 =
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝑳𝟐
𝑳
𝟒𝟐𝟎 × 𝑳 = 𝒇𝟐 ×
𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎𝑯𝒛
(b) Tension, T:
The higher the tension in the string, the higher the frequency of the note produced. Therefore,
increasing tension increases the frequency.
In the above experiment, adding more masses will increase the frequency of note.
Note: This explains why drummers first warm their drums before using them.
(c) Mass per unit length (thickness of string):
Thin strings/wires normally produce notes of high frequency while thick strings/wires
normally produce notes of low frequency.

WAVES PRODUCED BY A VIBRATING STRING

When the ends of a string are fixed and it is plucked in the middle, two transverse waves are
formed and travel in opposite directions along the string forming a stationary wave.
STATIONARY (STANDING) WAVE:
This is the wave formed when two progressive waves of the same frequency and wavelength
travelling in opposite direction meet.
Stationary waves produce nodes and antinodes.

𝐀 𝐀 𝐀 𝐀 𝐀
𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍 𝐍

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NODE (N): This is a point on a stationary wave where wave particles are at rest.
The amplitude of a wave is zero at this point.
ANTINODE: This is a point on a stationary wave where wave particles have maximum
displacement.
The amplitude of a wave at this point is maximum.

NOTE:
𝟏
The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to half of wavelength ( 𝟐 𝝀)

EXAMPLES:
1. The distance between two successive nodes is 12cm. Find the wavelength of the wave.
𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟏𝟐
𝟐
𝝀 = 𝟐𝟒𝒄𝒎
Conditions necessary for stationary waves to be formed:
▪ The waves should have the same frequency.
▪ The waves should have the same speed.
▪ The waves should have the same wavelength.
▪ The waves should have the same amplitude.
▪ The waves should be moving in opposite directions.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Fundamental note:
This is the lowest audible note produced by a musical instrument.
Fundamental frequency(𝒇𝟏 ):
This is the frequency of the fundamental note.
Overtone:
This is the note whose frequency is higher than the fundamental frequency.
▪ Overtones are used to determine the quality of sound.
Harmonic:
This is a note whose frequency is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
i.e. 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 …
Octave:
This is the interval between one note and another note which is half or double its frequency. i.e.

𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇𝟏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝒇𝟐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠.
Examples:
1. Find the frequency of a note four octaves above a note of frequency 20Hz.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝟐 =? , 𝒏 = 𝟒
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟐𝟎
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Find the frequency of a note 2 octaves below a note of frequency 512Hz.

𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟐𝑯𝒛, 𝒇𝟏 =? , 𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒏 𝒇𝟏
𝟓𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 × 𝒇𝟏
𝟓𝟏𝟐
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝑯𝒛

NOTE:
Consider a string of length, L fixed at both ends.
𝑳
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1st harmonic (fundamental note):

This is produced when the string is plucked half-way from one end (middle). The frequency of
the note is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳
𝟐
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝐍 𝐍 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟏 𝝀
𝟐
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝟐𝑳

2nd harmonic (first overtone):

This is produced when the string is plucked quarter-way from one end.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓2 .
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=𝑳
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟐 𝝀
𝑽
𝐍 𝐍 𝒇𝟐 =
𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟐 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝑳

Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)

Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 =
𝑳
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3rd harmonic (second overtone):

This is produced if the string is plucked a sixth-way from one end.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓3 .
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑳 𝑽
𝐍 𝒇 𝟑 =
𝐍 𝝀
𝟑
𝑽
𝝀 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐 𝟐𝑳
𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳
𝟑×𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊): 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
NOTE:
From the above, the harmonics are 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟔𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 … … ….
Therefore, a vibrating string produces both odd and even harmonics and overtones.

EXAMPLES:
1. The frequency of the third harmonic produced by a vibrating string is 660Hz. Find the length
of the string if the speed of sound is 330m/s
𝑳
Alternatively:
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑 𝟔𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝝀 𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟐𝑳 𝟑
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟐 𝟑 𝑽
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝒇𝟏 =
𝑽 𝑽 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = ⟹ 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝝀 𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝟐𝟎 =
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝟑𝑽 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟑 × 𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝟔𝟔𝟎 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝑳 𝟗𝟗𝟎
=
𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. Find the frequency of the second harmonic produced by a vibrating string whose
fundamental frequency is 300Hz.
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
3. The frequency of the second overtone is 300Hz. Find the fundamental frequency.
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄, 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛

WAVES PRODUCED IN PIPES

Pipes used are either closed and open.
Closed pipes:
These are pipes which are closed at one end and open at the other end.
The wave formed has a node at closed end and the antinode at open end
The length of the tube is L.
1st harmonic (fundamental note):
This is the first position of resonance.
The frequency is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟒𝑳
𝑳 𝟒
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝑽
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝝀 𝟒𝑳
𝟒

3rd harmonic (first overtone):

This is the second position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓3 .
𝟑 𝟒𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝑳 𝟒 𝟑
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝐍 𝐀 𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟑 𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝟒 𝒇𝟑 =
𝟒𝑳
𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝟒𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)

Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟑(𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 )
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟒𝑳
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏

5th harmonic (second overtone):

This is the third position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is 𝑓5 .
𝟓 𝟒𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟒 𝟓
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟓 𝝀
𝑳 𝑽
𝒇𝟓 =
𝐍 𝐀 𝝀
𝑽
𝟓 𝒇𝟓 =
𝝀
𝟒𝑳
𝟒 𝟓
𝟓𝑽
𝒇𝟓 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟒𝑳
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊):
𝟓 × (𝟒𝑳𝒇𝟏 )
𝒇𝟓 =
𝟒𝑳

𝒇𝟓 = 𝟓𝒇𝟏

NOTE:
Closed pipes only produce odd harmonics i.e. 𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 , 𝟗𝒇𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝒇𝟏 , … …
Open pipes:
Open pipes are open at both ends.
Antinodes are formed at both ends.

1st harmonic (fundamental note):

This is the first position of resonance.
The frequency of the note is the fundamental frequency, 𝑓1 .
𝟏
𝑳 𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳
𝟐
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟏 𝑽
𝝀 𝒇𝟏 = … … … … … … (𝒊)
𝟐 𝟐𝑳

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2nd harmonic (first overtone):

This is the second position of resonance.
The frequency of the note produced is 𝑓2 .
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=𝑳
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟐 𝝀
𝑽
𝐀 𝐀 𝒇𝟐 =
𝝀
𝝀 𝑽
𝒇𝟐 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)
𝑳
Combining equations (𝒊) and (𝒊𝒊)
Making V the subject in equation (𝒊) 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏 … … … … .. **
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟐 =
𝑳
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏

3rd harmonic (second overtone):

This is the third position of resonance.
The frequency of the note produced is 𝑓2 .
𝟑 𝟐𝑳
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝑳 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝐀 𝐀 𝝀
𝑽
𝟑 𝒇𝟑 =
𝝀 𝟐𝑳
𝟐 𝟑
𝟑𝑽
𝒇𝟑 = … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝟐𝑳
Substitute equation ** into (𝒊𝒊𝒊):
𝟑 × 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟐𝑳

𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏

NOTE:
Open pipes produce both odd and even harmonics i.e.
𝒇𝟏 , 𝟐𝒇𝟏 , 𝟑𝒇𝟏 , 𝟒𝒇𝟏 , 𝟓𝒇𝟏 , 𝟔𝒇𝟏 , 𝟕𝒇𝟏 … … ….

QUESTION: Explain why open pipes are preferred more than closed pipes in making music.
Open pipes are preferred more than closed pipes because they produce high
quality sound since they produce both odd and even harmonics.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMPLES:
1. The frequency of the third harmonic in an open pipe is 750Hz. Find the speed of sound if the
length of pipe is 0.8m.
Alternatively:
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝐀 𝐀 𝟕𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝟑 𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀 𝟑
𝟐
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟑 𝟐𝑳 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟖 𝟖 𝑽
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= = = 𝒎 𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝟖 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟕𝟓𝟎 ×
𝟏𝟓 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
−𝟏
𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒔

2. A pipe closed at one end has length 10cm. if the velocity of sound is 340m/s. find
(i) Fundamental frequency
(ii) Frequency of third harmonic.
Alternatively:
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒𝑳
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟏
𝟏
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝝀
(i) 𝟒
(ii)
𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝑳 = 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟒𝑳 = 𝟒 × = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑 × 𝟖𝟓𝟎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟒
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛

3. A pipe open at both ends has length 40cm. If the velocity of sound is 340m/s. Find the
frequency of the;
(i) Fundamental note.
(ii) First overtone.
𝟒𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 Alternatively:
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐𝑳
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛
𝝀
𝟐 (i) First overtone (2nd harmonic)
(i) 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏
𝟏 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟐𝟓
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹ 𝝀 = 𝟐𝑳 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟏 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟎. 𝟖
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛

4. The frequency of third harmonic in an open pipe is 660Hz, if the speed of sound in air is
330m/s. Find;
(i) the length of the air column
(ii) the fundamental frequency

𝑳 (ii)
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝐀 𝐀 𝒇𝟑
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟑
𝝀 𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝟐 𝒇𝟏 =
(i) 𝟑
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝝀=
𝒇𝟑
𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝝀=
𝟔𝟔𝟎
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎

𝟑
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑳= 𝝀
𝟐
𝟑
𝑳= × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟐
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 38

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. A third harmonic (first overtone) of a closed pipe occurs when the length of the air column is
30cm, if the speed of sound in air is 330m/s. Find the;
(i) frequency of the sound wave
(ii) fundamental frequency
𝟑𝟎
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎, 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎

(ii) Fundamental frequency

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟑
𝐍 𝐀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟑
𝟑 𝟖𝟐𝟓
𝝀 𝒇𝟏 =
𝟒 𝟑
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝑯𝒛
(i)
𝟑 𝟒𝑳 𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟑
𝑳= 𝝀, ⟹𝝀= =
𝟒 𝟑 𝟑
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑽 = 𝒇𝟑 𝝀
𝑽
𝒇𝟑 =
𝝀
𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝒇𝟑 =
𝟎. 𝟒
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟖𝟐𝟓𝑯𝒛

6. The frequency of the 4th overtone in an open pipe is 900Hz when the length of the air column
is 0.4m. Find the
(i) Frequency of the fundamental note
(ii) Speed of sound in air.
𝟒𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 (ii)
(i) 𝒇𝟓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛 𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝑽
𝒇𝟏 =
𝒇𝟓 = 𝟓𝒇𝟏 𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟓 𝑽 = 𝟐𝑳𝒇𝟏
𝒇𝟏 = 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟓
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝒇𝟏 =
𝟓
𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒛

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 39

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

RESONANCE
This occurs when a body is set into vibrations at its own natural frequency by another nearby
body vibrating at the same frequency.
The resonating body will then vibrate strongly with a greater amplitude.

Examples of resonance in daily life.

• Shaking of window glasses as a heavy vehicle passes by.
• Swinging of legs in a swing so as to swing higher.
• Breaking of wine glass by an opera singer’s sound.
• A working generator makes dust to move up and down
• Tuning a radio changes the frequency of the radio waves until it is exactly same as
frequency of the waves at transmitting station.
NOTE:
Resonance may lead to collapse of tall buildings, bridges when they resonate with strong
winds or earthquakes.

Experiment to demonstrate resonance using coupled pendulum and tubes:

Taut string

A D

▪ Hang four pendulum bobs on the same taut string such that pendulum, A has a variable
length and other pendulums B, C and D have different fixed lengths.

▪ Set pendulum, A to the same length as D and make it to swing. It is observed that
pendulum, D swings with a larger amplitude but pendulums B and C swing with smaller
amplitudes.

▪ Set pendulum, A to the same length as B and make it swing. It is observed that
pendulum, B swings with noticeable amplitude but pendulums C and D just jiggle
without a noticeable amplitude.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 40

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Experiment to demonstrate resonance using a closed air tube:

𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑪𝒍𝒊𝒑
𝑹𝒖𝒃𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒈
▪ A resonance tube is almost filled with water.
▪ A tuning fork is sounded near and above the mouth of the tube.
▪ Water level is allowed to fall gradually by means of a clip.
▪ It is observed that at some level of water, the sound suddenly becomes louder. Resonance is
said to have occurred.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR BY RESONANCE TUBE

▪ A tuning fork of known frequency, f is held over the mouth of a resonance tube and then
sounded.
▪ The tube is slowly raised until a first loud sound is heard. This is the first position of
resonance.
▪ The length, 𝐿1 of the air column is measured.

𝒄
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝑳𝟏

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝟏
𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝟒 𝝀 … … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒.
▪ The tube is again raised until a second loud sound is heard. This is the second position of
resonance.
▪ The length, 𝐿2 of the air column is measured.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 41

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝒄

𝑻𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝑳𝟏

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝟑
𝑳𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝝀 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝟒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖)
𝟑 𝟏
[𝑳𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝝀] − [𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀]
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑 𝟏
𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀 − 𝝀
𝟒 𝟒
𝟏
𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀
𝟐
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝝀 = 𝟐(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
▪ Hence velocity can be calculated from 𝑉 = 2𝑓(𝐿2 − 𝐿1 ).

EXAMPLES:
1. A tube is partially immersed in water and a tuning fork of frequency 425Hz is sounded
above it. If the tube is gradually raised, find the length of the tube when first resonance
occurs. (velocity of sound is 340m/s and neglect end correction)
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀
𝟒 𝟒
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑽 = 𝒇𝝀 𝟏
𝑳𝟏 = 𝝀
𝟑𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐𝟓 × 𝝀 𝟒
𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝟏
𝝀= = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑳𝟏 = × 𝟎. 𝟖
𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝟒
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝒎 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 42

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. A tube closed at one end resonates first at length 28.5cm and again at 88.5cm when a
tuning fork of frequency 285Hz is held near the open end. Find the velocity of sound.
𝟐𝟖. 𝟓 𝟖𝟖. 𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟕𝟓 × (𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

3. A tuning fork produces resonance in a tube at a length of 15.0cm and also at length 40.0cm.
Find the frequency of the tuning fork if the speed of sound is 330m/s.
𝟏𝟓 𝟒𝟎
𝑳𝟏 = 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝒎 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝒇 × (𝟎. 𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)
𝟑𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒇
𝒇 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛

4. A tuning fork of frequency 256Hz was used to produce resonance at a length 32.5cm and
also at length 95.0cm. Calculate the speed of sound in air.
𝟑𝟐. 𝟓 𝟗𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔𝑯𝒛 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒎 𝑳𝟐 = 𝟗𝟓𝒄𝒎 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟓𝟔 × (𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟓)
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏

5. In an experiment the velocity of sound in air using a resonance tube, the following results
were obtained:
Length of 1st resonance = 16.1cm
Length of 2nd resonance = 51.1cm
Frequency of tuning fork = 480 Hz
Calculate:

(i) Wavelength of sound (ii) Speed of sound (iii) End correction of

tube
𝟏𝟔. 𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟐𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 ) 𝟏
𝑳𝟏 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × (𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏) 𝑳𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝝀
𝟓𝟏. 𝟏 𝟒
𝑳𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏𝒎 𝑽 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟖𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏 + 𝒄 = × 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟒
𝝀 = 𝟐(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 ) 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏
𝝀 = 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟏) 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝒎
𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 43

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN EARTH AND MOON

Moon does not have an atmosphere so there is a vacuum (space without air) around it.
So, communication is possible between earth and moon by use of electromagnetic waves called
radio waves.

QUESTION: Describe how communication is possible between moon and earth yet the moon
has no atmosphere.
• Radio waves from a transmitter on earth are directed towards the moon. They are
able to travel through vacuum around the moon since they are electromagnetic waves.
• On reaching the surface of the moon, they are reflected back to the earth’s receiver.
• Through this process communication is possible.

𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒏

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓

𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉

QUESTION: Describe how communication in radios and televisions.

• Radio stations have transmitters which convert electrical signals into radio waves
and send them over a wide area.
• On reaching the radios, the antennas (aerials) on radios convert the radio waves
back to electrical signals which can be heard by a person

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 44

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. A stretched wire adjusted to a length of 48cm produces the same note as a tuning fork whose
frequency is 256Hz. If the wire is adjusted to 32cm, what frequency of the tuning fork would
be in tune with the wire?
Ans: (𝟑𝟖𝟒𝑯𝒛)
2. The frequency of a vibrating wire is 280Hz, when its length is 75cm. Find its frequency when
the length is reduced to 50cm
Ans: (𝟒𝟐𝟎𝑯𝒛)
3. The frequency of the third harmonic in an open pipe is 590Hz. Find the length of the air
column if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝒎)
4. The length of air column in an open pipe is 1.6m. Find the frequency of the third harmonic if
the speed of sound in air is 320𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛)
5. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the velocity of sound in air of the pipe is
340𝑚𝑠 −1, calculate the fundamental frequency and the frequency of the first overtone
Ans: (𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛)
6. The frequency of the second harmonic produced in a vibrating string is 600Hz. Find the
length of the string given that the speed of sound is 320𝑚𝑠 −1.
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝒎)
7. The frequency of the fourth overtone produced by a vibrating string of length 25cm given
that speed of sound in air is 320𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Ans: (𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛)
8. The length of air column in a closed pipe is 150cm. Find the frequency of the third
harmonic if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟏𝟔𝟓𝑯𝒛)
9. The frequency of the third overtone in an open pipe is 750Hz. Find the length of the air
column if the speed of sound in air is 300𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: (𝟎. 𝟖𝒎)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 45

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) Define the following terms;
i) Wavelength
ii) Reverberation
iii) Stationary waves
b) i) What is meant by resonance
ii) State three examples and one hazard caused by resonance
c) Describe an experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air by resonance tube
method
d) Calculate the frequency of vibration of the fundamental note and the second
overtone in an open tube of 25cm long if the velocity of sound is 330𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝑯𝒛, 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒛.
e) Given the factors which affect the frequency of vibrations of a stretched string
2. a) What do you understand by the following terms;
i) Anti-node
ii) Resonance
b) State the factors which affect the frequency of wave produced by a vibrating string
c) A sound wave of frequency 300Hz is produced 160m away from a high wall. Calculate
i) The wavelength of the sound wave.
ii) The time taken for the sound wave to travel to the wall and back to the source.
Ans: i) 𝟏. 𝟏𝒎 ii) 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝒔
d) A boy standing some distance from a cliff claps his hands and hears an echo after 5
seconds
i) What is distance between the boy and the cliff?
ii) How long would it take the boy to hear the echo if there was a wind blowing
towards the cliff at a speed of 20𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: i) 𝟖𝟐𝟓𝒎 ii) 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏𝒔
3. a) What is a wave
b) As regards to a wave, what is meant by the following
i) Frequency
ii) Wavelength
c) State four properties of waves
d) Describe how a resonance tube may be used to determine the velocity of sound in air
e) A boy stands between two parallel cliffs but nearer to one of them. When he claps hard
once he hears the first echo after 1 second and a second echo 1 second after the first. If
the distance between the cliffs is 510m, find the speed of sound.
Ans: 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
4. a) Define the following terms as applied to waves
i) Amplitude
ii) Frequency
b) i) What is meant by interference of waves
ii) Using a labeled diagram show how circular waves are reflected from a straight barrier
c) Use a labeled diagram to show the bands of electromagnetic waves.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 46

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. a) i) Define an echo.
ii) State the conditions required for a stationary wave to be formed
b) List the factors on which the frequency of a wave in a vibrating string depends
c) Describe an experiment to demonstrate resonance in a closed pipe
d) A child stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. If he hears the first echo
after 1.5 seconds and the second echo after 2.0 seconds, find the distance between the
two cliffs, if the speed of sound in air is 330𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Ans: 𝟓𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝒎

6. The diagram below is of a cross section of a ripple tank in which A is a straight dipper
and B a barrier with two gaps.
A B

a) Sketch a diagram showing waves produced when A vibrates perpendicular to the water
surface
b) What will happen when?
i) The gaps are made narrower
ii) The separation of the gaps is increased
iii) The frequency of the vibrator A is decreased
c) If A vibrates with a frequency of 20Hz and is 25cm from B, find
i) The speed of the wave if the wave front takes 5s from A to B
ii) The wavelength of the waves
Ans: i) 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ii) 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
d) State differences between water waves and light waves
7. a) Give three similarities and three differences between sound waves and radio waves
b) i) Describe how the speed of sound in air can be determined by an echo method
ii) A student standing between two vertical cliffs produces sound by clapping his hands
together. He hears the first echo after 3seconds and a second echo after 5seconds.
Calculate the distance between the two cliffs
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎
c) A radio station broadcasts at 100m band
i) What is meant by this statement?
ii) Calculate the frequency of the broadcast.
Ans: ii) 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝑯𝒛.
8. a) State two differences between sound and light waves
b) i) Describe a simple experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air
ii) Explain why the speed of sound is higher in solids than in air
c) Two people X and Y stand in a line at a distance of 330m and 660m respectively from
a high wall. Find the time interval taken for X to hear the first and sounds when Y
makes a loud sound if the speed of sound in air is 330 𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: 𝟐. 𝟎𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 47

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) i) What is meant by a stationary wave

ii) Give any two conditions
iii) Name one musical instrument which produces stationary waves
9. a) With aid of a diagram explain the terms amplitude and wavelength as applied to wave
motion
b) i) Derive an equation relating velocity, V frequency, f and wavelength, 𝜆 of a wave
ii) A radio wave is transmitted at a frequency of 150Hz. Calculate its wavelength
Ans: 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛.
c) i) List four properties of electromagnetic waves
ii) A long open tube is partially immersed in water and a tuning fork of frequency
425Hz is sounded and held above it. If the tube is gradually raised, find the length
of air column when resonance first occurs. Neglect end correction and take speed of
sound in air = 340𝑚𝑠 −1
Ans: ii) 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎
10. a) Explain the difference between transverse and longitudinal waves. Give one example of
each
b) The diagram in the figure below represents a plane view of horizontal ripple tanks set up
to study characteristics of water waves.

The vibrators were set up to produce waves

(i) Draw diagrams to show wave patterns in A and B.
(ii) Explain what happens to plane waves in each case.
11. a) i) Describe how the speed of waves in a ripple tank can be decreased
ii) Explain the effect of decreasing the speed of the wave in (a) (i) on frequency
b) With the aid of sketch diagrams, explain the effect of size of a gap on diffraction of
waves
c) i) Give two reasons why sound is louder at night than during the day
ii) An echo-sounding equipment on a ship receives sound pulses reflected from the sea
bed 0.02 seconds after they were sent out from it. If the speed of sound in water is
1500ms-1, calculate the depth of water under the ship.
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟓𝒎
d) Identify two differences between water and sound waves
12. a) Define the following terms as applied to waves;
i) Amplitude
ii) Frequency
b) i) What is meant by interference of waves
ii) Using a labeled diagram show how circular water waves are reflected from a straight
barrier

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 48

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) i) Use a labeled diagram to show the bands of an electromagnetic spectrum

ii) Calculate the frequency of a radio wave of wavelength 2m
Ans: ii) 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑯𝒛
d) i) State any three effects of electromagnetic radiation on matter
ii) State two properties that electromagnetic waves have in common
13. a) i) Explain each of the following observations;
ii) Sound from a distant source is louder at night than during day time
b) Describe an experiment to show interference of sound waves
c) A man stands between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the first echo after 1
second and the second echo after a further 1 second. Find the distance between the cliffs
Ans: 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝒎
d) Straight water waves travel from deep to shallow water as shown below

Copy and complete the wave front pattern in shallow water

14. a) State differences between sound and light waves
b) i) Explain how stationary waves are formed
ii) State three main characteristics of stationary waves
c) i) Define the terms frequency and wavelength as applied to sound
ii) Describe an experiment to demonstrate resonance in sound
d) The velocity and frequency of sound in air at a certain time were 320ms-1 and 200Hz
respectively. At a later time, the air temperature changed and the velocity of sound in air
was found to be 340ms-1. Determine the change in wavelength of sound.
Ans: 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎
15. a) List three differences between sound waves and radio waves
b) Figure below shows waves propagating towards a concave reflector

i) Draw a diagram to show how the waves are reflected

ii) If the velocity of the waves is 320ms-1 and the distance between two successive
crests is 10cm, find the period of the waves
Ans: 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒔
c) Describe a simple echo method of determining the speed of sound in air.
16. a) What is meant by sound
b) Describe an experiment to show that sound waves require a material medium for
transmission
c) Explain briefly the following;
i) A dog is more able than a human being to detect the presence of a thief tiptoeing at

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 49

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

night
ii) An approaching train can easily be detected by human ears placed close to the rails
d) A sound frequency 250Hz is produced 120m away from a high wall. If the speed of
sound in air is 330ms-1, calculate the
i) Wavelength ii) Time it takes the sound wave to travel to and from the wall.
Ans: i) 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝒎 ii) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝒔
17. a) i) State two factors which affect the frequency of the note produced by the string
ii) Why does the quality (timbre) of the sound produced by a violin differ from that
produced by a piano?
b) Describe an experiment to show that sound waves do not travel through a vacuum
c) A pipe is closed at one end has a length of 10cm. if the velocity of sound in the
air of the pipe is 340ms-1. Calculate
i) The fundamental frequency
ii) The first overtone
Ans: i) 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 ii) 𝟐𝟓𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛
d) State four differences between sound waves and light waves
18. a) i) Describe a simple experiment to determine the velocity of sound in air
ii) What factors would affect the value of velocity of sound obtained from the experiment
in (i) above
b) Explain why a musical note played on a piano sounds different from that played on a
guitar
c) i) Calculate the wavelength of sound waves of frequency 3.3kHz and speed 330ms-1
ii) State four differences between sound and radio waves
Ans: i) 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎

19. a) List three differences and three similarities between sound waves and light waves
b) The diagram below shows circular waves propagating towards a plane reflector

Plane surface

i) Draw a diagram to show how the waves will be reflected

ii) Calculate the frequency of the waves if their velocity and wavelength are
5.0ms-1 and 0.5m respectively
Ans: ii) 𝟏𝟎𝑯𝒛
c) A man stands midway between two cliffs and makes a loud sound. He hears the
first echo after 3 seconds. Find the distance between the cliffs, if the velocity of
sound in air is 330ms-1.
Ans: 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝒎
20. a) Define each of the following terms as applied to wave motion
i) Wave front
ii) Wavelength

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 50

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) The wavelength of radio wave is 10m. Calculate

i) The frequency
ii) The period of the wave
Ans: i) 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑯𝒛 ii) 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔
c) Why does sound travel faster in solids than in gases
d) i) What is meant by the term resonance
ii) The frequency of the third harmonic in a closed pipe is 280Hz. Find the length of
the air column in the pipe.
Ans: ii) 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 51

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

MODERN PHYSICS
The structure of an atom:

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔/𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒔

𝑵𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒖𝒔 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. An
atom consists of three particles namely;
▪ Electrons
▪ Neutrons
▪ Protons
An atom is made of a central part called the nucleus around which electrons revolve.
The nucleus is positively charged because it consists of protons which are positively charged
and neutrons which have no charge. The properties of the particles of an atom are as shown
in the table below.
Name Symbol Mass Charge
Protons P 1 Positive
Neutrons n 1 No charge
Electrons e 0 Negative
Note: The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number electrons around the nucleus
and since they have opposite charges the atom has no charge.
Likely question: Describe the model/structure of an atom
Atomic number, Z:
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑍 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠

Mass number [atomic mass], A: (nucleon number):

This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 + 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛
If an atom of an element X is represented as
𝑨 where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number
𝑍𝑿

Examples:
1. Given a chloride atom 35
17𝑪𝒍. Find the number of electrons in the atom.
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 35, 𝑍 = 17
𝑛 = 35 − 17
𝑛 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑍 = 𝟏𝟕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 1

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

2. State the composition of the atom 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 92
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 235
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 235 − 92 = 143
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 92

ISOTOPES:
These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Therefore, isotopes of an element have the same number of protons and electrons and different
number of neutrons

Examples of isotopes are:

35 36 37
Chlorine; 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙 , 17𝐶𝑙
12 13 14
Carbon; 6𝐶 , 6𝐶 , 6𝐶
1 2 3
Hydrogen; 1 , 1𝐻 , 1𝐻
𝐻

RADIOACTIVITY:
This is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus of an atom to form a stable nucleus
with emission of radiations.
There are three radiations emitted by radioactive nucleus namely:
▪ Alpha particles, 𝛼.
▪ Beta particles, 𝛽.
▪ Gamma rays, 𝛾.

Elements that undergo radioactivity are called radioactive elements/nuclides.

Heavy nuclides are generally unstable hence radioactivity ensures that they reach a stable state.

Examples of radioactive elements are:

▪ Uranium (U)
▪ Radium (Ra)
▪ Polonium (Po),
▪ Protactinium (Pa)
▪ Etc.

Radioisotopes:
These are radioactive atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different
mass number.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 2

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF RADIATIONS
Alpha particle, 𝜶:
Alpha particle is a high speed helium nucleus ( 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆)
Alpha particles have a mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2 i.e. two protons and two neutrons
and they carry a positive charge. They have no electrons to balance the two positively charged
protons.

Properties of alpha particles:

▪ They are helium nuclei
▪ They are slightly deflected by both magnetic and electric fields because of their large mass.
▪ They are positively charged.
▪ They have the greatest ionizing power.
▪ They have the least penetrating power.
▪ They are stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
▪ They have a very short range in air.
▪ They affect the photographic films.
▪ They have speed less than the speed of light.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.

Alpha decay:
When a nuclide undergoes an alpha decay, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore its mass number reduces by four and its atomic number reduces by two and the daughter
nuclide is two steps to the left in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨𝒁𝑿 undergoes an alpha decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by;
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝑍𝑿 𝑍−2𝒀 + 2𝑯𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Alpha particle)

Examples:
1. Radium (Ra) decays to become radon (Rn) according to the equation
226 222
88𝑅𝑎 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒

2. Uranium (U) decays to become thorium (Th) according to the equation

238 234
92𝑈 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

Question 1:
A radioactive substance 226𝑋 undergoes decay and emits an alpha particle to form nuclide Y. Write
an equation for the process.
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟖 𝟒
𝟔𝑿 𝟒𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 3

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Beta particle, β:
A beta particle is a high-speed electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive element.
Beta particles have no mass number and carry a negative charge ( −10𝒆).
A beta particle is produced as a result of one of the neutrons changing to a proton.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝒏 𝟏𝑷 + −𝟏𝒆
Properties of beta particles:
▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ They are lighter since they have negligible mass
▪ They are easily deflected by both magnetic and electric fields
▪ They have greater penetrating power than alpha particles because of their high speed.
▪ They have less ionizing power than alpha particle.
▪ They can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They have a greater range in air than alpha particles.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescent substance.
▪ They are electrons.

Beta decay:
When a nuclide undergoes beta decay its mass number does not change but its atomic number
increases by one. The daughter nuclide is one step to the right in the periodic table.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a beta decay to form element Y. Then the
nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝑍𝑿 𝑍+1𝒀 + −1𝒆 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)

Examples:
1. Carbon-14 decays to Nitrogen according to the equation
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝑪 𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝟐𝟑𝟓
2. 𝟗𝟐𝑈 decays by emitting 3 beta particles to form a daughter nuclide P. Find the atomic
and mass nummber of P.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼 𝟗𝟓𝑷 + 𝟑 −𝟏𝟎𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟓

Gamma rays, γ:
Gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation with a very short-wave length.
Gamma rays have no mass number and carry no charge.
Gamma rays are produced when an excited atomic nucleus loses energy and the energy is given
out as gamma rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 4

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Properties of gamma rays:

▪ They are not charged.
▪ They travel at a speed of light since they are electromagnetic radiations.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields since they are not charged.
▪ They have the least ionizing power.
▪ They have the greatest penetrating power.
▪ They undergo interference and diffraction.
▪ They cause fluorescence when incident on fluorescence substances.
▪ They have the greatest range in air.
▪ They are stopped by thick block of lead.

Gamma decay:
Gamma rays are not particles, therefore when nuclide emits gamma rays its atomic number and
its mass number do not change but the nucleus becomes more stable.

Given that a radioactive element, 𝑨

𝒁𝑿 undergoes a gamma decay to form a stable element X.
Then the nuclear reaction equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨
𝑍𝑿 𝑍𝒀 + 𝛾 + energy
(Parent) (Daughter) (Beta particle)
Note:
The change of an element to another element is called Transmutation.

Examples:
1. Radium 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 loses 5 alpha particles and 4 beta particles and is converted into a new
stable element, an isotope of lead 𝑃𝑏. Find the mass number and atomic number of this
isotope.
226 𝐴 4 0
88𝑅𝑎 𝑍𝑃𝑏 + 5( 2𝐻𝑒) + 4( −1𝑒)
226 = 𝐴 + (5 × 4) + (4 × 0) = 𝐴 + 20
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎𝟔
Also, 88 = 𝑍 + (5 × 2) + (4 × −1) = 𝑍 + 10 − 4
𝒁 = 𝟖𝟐

2. Thorium 232 224

90𝑇ℎ is converted into Radium 88𝑅𝑎 by radioactivity transformation below.
How many α and β emissions have taken place?
232 224 4 0
90Th 88Ra + x( 2He) + y( −1e)
90 = 88 + 2x − y
y − 2x = 2 ……………………………………..(eqn 1)
232 = 224 + 4x
𝒙 = 𝟐, therefore, 𝒚 = 𝟐.
There are 2𝛼 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 and 2𝛽 – 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 5

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Penetrating power of the radiations:

Alpha particles have the least penetrating power and can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper.
Beta particles have a greater penetrating power than alpha particles and can be stopped by a thin
sheet of aluminium while gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power and can be stopped by
thick block of lead.
𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜷, 𝜸 𝜸

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕

Ionizing power of the radiations:

Alpha particles produce straight traces because they are heavy and they cause greater ionization
of the air through which they pass.
Beta particles produce irregular and light traces.
Gamma rays do not traces but leave hairy traces after colliding with the air molecules since they
have a least ionization power.

(Alpha particle) (Beta particle) (Gamma ray)

Deflection of the radiations in an electric field:

When the radiations from a radioactive nucleus are passed through a strong electric field;
• The beta particles are deflected towards a positive plate showing that they carry a negative
charge.
• Alpha particles are deflected towards a negative plate in the direction opposite to that of
beta particles showing that alpha particles carry a positive plate.
• The gamma rays are not deflected at all showing that they carry no charge.

𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 6

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Deflection of the radiations in a magnetic field:

Alpha particles are deflected in a direction towards the South Pole while beta particles are
deflected towards the North Pole.
Alpha particles are less deflected than beta particles implying that alpha articles are heavier than
beta particles. The gamma rays are not deflected in the magnetic field implying that they have no
charge. 𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝜸 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝜷 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝜶 − 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
Differences between alpha and beta particles
ALPHA PARTICLES BETA PARTICLES
▪ Are helium atoms. ▪ Are electrons.
▪ They are positively charged. ▪ They are negatively charged.
▪ Deflected towards the negative plate in ▪ Deflected towards positive plate in an
electric field. electric field.
▪ Deflected towards south pole in magnetic ▪ Deflected towards the north pole in a
field. magnetic field.
▪ Stopped by thick sheet of paper. ▪ Stopped by thin sheet of aluminium.
▪ They are heavier. ▪ They are lighter.

Similarities between Alpha and Beta particles

▪ Both cause ionization of gases
▪ Both have charges.
▪ Both are deflected by electric field.
▪ Both are deflected by magnetic field.
▪ Both penetrate matter.

Uses of radioactivity:
a) Medical uses:
✓ Detection of broken bones.
✓ Detection of cancer cells and treating them.
✓ Used for sterilization of medical instruments
✓ Detection of brain tumors
✓ Detecting amount of blood in a patient

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 7

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

b) Industrial uses:
✓ Used to measure fluid flow in pipes in industries.
✓ Used to provide source of energy [electricity].
✓ Used in hardening polythene and petroleum.
✓ Used in food preservation.
✓ Used in detecting oil leakages in oil pipes.
✓ Used to measure the thickness of the metal sheet.

c) Agricultural uses:
✓ Used to produce new varieties of plants with new characteristics.
✓ Used to study the rate of uptake of fertilizers by plants.
✓ Used in pest control.

d) Archeological uses
✓ Used in determining the age of fossils (carbon-dating)
❖ Every living thing (plant or animal) has a certain constant quantity of carbon -14
elements (isotope). When the plant or animal dies this isotope begins decaying and
the rate of disintegration decreases with time. So, when a fossil is obtained the rate
of disintegration is determined, and this is used to calculate the age of the fossil. i.e.
when the plant or animal died, which would show when that type of plant or animal
existed.

HEALTH HAZARDS / DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY:

▪ Radiations cause skin burns.
▪ Radiations cause blood cancer.
▪ Radiations cause sterility [inability to produce].
▪ Radiations cause low body resistance to normal diseases.
▪ Radiations cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ Radiations destroy body cells.
▪ Radiations damage eye sight and body tissues.

Safety precautions when handling radioactive elements:

▪ They should be handled using long pair of tongs.
▪ They should be transported in thick lead containers.
▪ You should avoid unnecessary exposure to the radiations.
▪ You should wear protective clothing when handling radioactive elements.
▪ You should not eat or drink where radioactive sources are in use.
▪ You should cover any wound before using radioactive source.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 8

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Background radiations:
These are ionizing radiations from a variety of natural and artificial sources that are always
present in the environment.

Natural sources of background radiations:

Natural sources of background radiation include the following:
Cosmic Radiation:
These are radiations that reach the Earth from space.
The sun is a major source of cosmic rays. Cosmic rays originating from the sun, stars and other
major events in outer space are continuously striking the Earth. The majority of these cosmic
rays are absorbed by the Earth atmosphere but the more energetic radiations interact with the
atoms in the atmosphere creating energetic neutrons.

Terrestrial Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials that exist naturally in soil and rock.
E.g. radiations from uranium, thorium, and radium. Some rocks are radioactive and give off
radioactive radon gas. Essentially all air contains radon. In addition, water contains small
amounts of dissolved uranium and thorium, and all organic matter (both plant and animal)
contains radioactive carbon and potassium. Some of these materials are ingested with food and
water, while others (such as radon) are taken in.

Internal Radiation:
These are radiations from radioactive materials which are present in the human body. These
come from natural radioactive sources such as Carbon-14 in the air we breathe. Fruits and
crops take in radioactive materials from the soil as well as Carbon-14 from the air.

Artificial sources of background radiations:

These are mainly from human activities. They include:
Nuclear power stations:
Major incidents from nuclear power stations have released radiations into the environment.
Nuclear waste from power station also accounts for a proportion of artificial background
radiation.

Nuclear weapons:
Nuclear weapon testing resulted in an increase of radiation in the environment
because of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing.

Medical sources:
Humans are exposed to radiations by medical procedures such as x-rays and radiotherapy.
Nearly all artificial background radiation comes from medical procedures such as receiving
X-rays for X-ray photographs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 9

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Detecting the radiation:

The following can be used to detect radiations;
Photographic film:
Photographic film goes darker when it absorbs radiations. The more radiation the film absorbs,
the darker it becomes. People, who work with radiation, wear film badges which are checked
regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed.

Geiger-Muller tube and Cloud Chamber:

The Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber detects radiation and each time it absorbs radiation, it
transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine. This makes a clicking sound or displays the
count rate. The greater the frequency of clicks, the higher the count rate and the more radiation
the Geiger-Muller tube or cloud chamber is absorbing.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS:
This is a process in which energy is produced. A nuclear reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor.
There are two types of nuclear reactions and these are
▪ Nuclear fusion.
▪ Nuclear fission.

Nuclear fusion:
This is a process by which two light nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with release of
energy.
It takes place at the sun, stars and in the hydrogen bomb.
The process results into three products i.e. one heavy atom, neutron and energy.

Example:
Two Deuterium nuclei (heavy hydrogen) combine to form Helium -3 and a neutron with release
of energy
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟎𝒏 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

Conditions for nuclear fusion to occur:

• It occurs at very high temperature
• The light nuclei should be moving at a very high speed

Nuclear fission:
This is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with release of energy.
This process is started by bombardment of a heavy nucleus with a slow-moving neutron.
The four products of the process are two light atom and more neutrons which can make the
process continue and energy.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟔
Splitting of uranium-236 𝟗𝟐𝑼 to form Barium (Ba) and Krypton (Kr) with release of energy.
236 1 141 92 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 10

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Conditions for nuclear fission:

• It occurs at very low temperature.
• It requires a slow moving neutron.
• Presence of a heavy nucleus.

Uses of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

▪ Used to produce hydrogen.
▪ Nuclear fusion is used to make hydrogen bombs.
▪ Used to produce electricity.
▪ Used to produce heat energy on large scale.
▪ Nuclear fission is used to make atomic bombs.

Differences between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
▪ Is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two ▪ Is the combining of two lighter nuclei to
lighter nuclei. form a heavy nucleus.
▪ Requires a low temperature. ▪ Requires a high temperature.
▪ Requires neutrons for bombardment. ▪ Neutrons are not required.
▪ Results into four products. ▪ Results into three products.
▪ Energy released is high. ▪ Energy released is low.

Example:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒚
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝒙𝑩𝒂 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒏
Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the above nuclear fission reaction.
236 = 144 + 𝑦 + 2 92 = 𝑥 + 36 + 0
236 = 146 + 𝑦 92 = 𝑥 + 36
𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟔

HALF LIFE:
This is the time taken for a radioactive element to decay to half its original mass.
Half-life is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months and years.
Half-life is not affected by physical factors like temperature and pressure and half-life is different
for different radioactive nuclides.
If 𝑀𝑜 is the original mass of a radioactive element and 𝑀𝑇 is the mass of a radioactive element at
any time, t, then
𝑀𝑜 𝑡
=2 ½ 𝑇
𝑀𝑇
Where 𝑇½ is the half-life of a radioactive element.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 11

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. If a radioactive element of mass 32𝑔 decays to 2𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate the half-life.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
32𝑔 16𝑔 8𝑔 4𝑔 2𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝟗𝟔
𝟗𝟔
𝑻½ =
𝟒
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

Method 2:
32 96
𝑀𝑜 = 32𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 2𝑔, = 2𝑇½
2
96
𝑡 = 96𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 16 = 2𝑇½
96
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 24 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
96
𝑀𝑇
4=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔

2. A radioactive element of mass 9.6𝑔 has a mass of 0.15𝑔 after 24hours.

Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
9.6𝑔 4.8𝑔 2.4𝑔 1.2𝑔 0.6𝑔 0.3𝑔 0.15𝑔
𝟔𝑻½ = 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟒
𝑻½ =
𝟔
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

Method 2:
9.6 24
𝑀𝑜 = 9.6𝑔,
𝑀𝑇 = 0.15𝑔, = 2𝑇½
0.15
24
𝑡 = 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠,
𝑇½ =? 64 = 2𝑇½
24
𝑡
𝑀𝑜 26 = 2𝑇½
=2 𝑇½
24
𝑀𝑇
6=
𝑇½
𝑻½ = 𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 12

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

3. A radioactive element of mass 12𝑔 has a half-life of 7years. Find the time taken for the
element to decay to 0.75𝑔.
Method 1:
𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½ 𝑻½
12𝑔 6𝑔 3𝑔 1.5𝑔 0.75𝑔
𝟒𝑻½ = 𝒕
𝟒×𝟕=𝒕
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
Method 2:

𝑀𝑜 = 12𝑔, 12 𝑡
= 27
𝑀𝑇 = 0.75𝑔, 0.75
𝑡
𝑡 =?, 16 = 27
𝑇½ = 7𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑡

𝑀𝑜
𝑡 24 = 27
𝑡
=2 𝑇½
4= 𝟕
𝑀𝑇
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
4. A certain mass of a radioactive material contains 2.7 × 1024 atoms, how many atoms
decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of material is 1600 years.

𝑴𝑶 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 , 𝑻½ = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔, 𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 = 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑴𝑫 = 𝑴𝑶 − 𝑴𝑻
𝒕
𝑴𝒐 𝑴𝑫 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 − 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
= 𝟐𝑻½
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎 Mass decayed = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒈
= 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝟐𝟐
𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒𝑴𝑻
𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
= 𝑴𝑻
𝟒
𝑴𝑻 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒈

Half-life from the graph:

• The graph of amount of an element, N against time, 𝒕 is plotted.
• Draw a horizontal line from half of the original amount to meet the curve.
• Draw a vertical line from the point on the curve to meet the time axis.
• Read the half-life from where the vertical line meets the time axis.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 13

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
𝑵𝟎

𝑵𝟎
𝟐

𝟎 𝑻½ 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Example:
The table below shows results obtained in an experiment to determine the half-life of a
radioactive substance.
Count rate 250 140 76 38 25
Time (min.) 0 5 10 15 20
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to determine the half-life of the radioactive
substance.

𝑨 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝟐𝟓𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉,
𝑵𝟎 𝟐𝟓𝟎
= = 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑻½ = 𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔

𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝟓𝟎

𝟎
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝟎 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔)

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 14

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Exercise:
The following values obtained from the readings of a rate meter from a radioactive isotope of
iodine.
Time (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 5 10 15 20
−1 295 158 86 47 25
Count rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Plot a suitable graph and find the half-life of the radioactive iodine.

EXERCISE:
1. a) Define the following terms
(i) Atomic number
(ii) Mass number
b) State the composition of elements 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟖𝟔𝑿 and 𝟖𝟔𝒀
c) i) What is meant by the term radioactivity
ii) Name the radiations emitted by radioactive materials
iii)State the properties of the radiations named in (b) (ii) above
d) What dangers may arise when one is exposed to radioactive materials?
2. a) What is a radioactive nuclide
b) State the changes that take place in the nucleus of an atom if it emits
i) Alpha particle ii) Beta particle iii) Gamma ray
c) Explain the origin of beta particles and gamma rays.
d) Explain why
(i) Alpha particles are more ionizing than beta particles
(ii) Alpha particles have a short range in air than beta particles
(iii) Beta particles are deflected more than alpha particles by the same magnetic field
3. a) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟔𝑿 decays to nuclide Y by emission of alpha particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟕]
b) The nuclide 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝑨 decays to nuclide P by emission of beta particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of P.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐]
c) The nuclide 𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟐𝑿 decays to nuclide M by emission of beta particle and gamma ray.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of M.
Ans: [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟏𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟖𝟑]
d) The nuclide 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 decays to nuclide Y by emission of two alpha particles and one beta
particle.
(i) Write the equation for the decay.
(ii) State the atomic number and mass number of Y.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 15

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

4. Given that R and H decay as shown below

(i) 𝟐𝟑𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝑹
𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝟗𝟏𝒀 + 𝒎𝜶 + 𝒏𝜷
𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟖
(ii) 𝟖𝟔𝑯 𝟖𝟒𝑷 + 𝑫
Find 𝑚, 𝑛 and identify particle D
Ans: [𝒎 = 𝟐, 𝒏 = 𝟑]
5. Given that Ra decays to Y according to the equation
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝑨
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 𝒁𝒀 + 𝟐𝜶 + 𝜷
Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝑍.
Ans: [𝑨 = 𝟐𝟏𝟖, 𝒁 = 𝟖𝟓]
6. a) Define the term half-life.
b) A radioactive sample of mass 60𝑔 has half-life of 8 minutes. Determine how much of it remains
after 40 minutes.
Ans: [𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝒈]
c) An element 𝑋 of mass 64𝑔 decays to 4𝑔 in 96 days. Calculate
(i) The half-life of 𝑋.
(ii) The mass that decays in 120 days.
3
(iii) How long does it take for 4 of the sample to decay?
Ans: i) [𝟐𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔] ii) [𝟐𝒈] iii) [𝟒𝟖 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
7. a) Define the terms
(i) Nuclear fusion
(ii) Nuclear fission
b) i) State the conditions necessary for each to take place
ii) Give two examples where each takes place
c) i) 235 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛
𝑥 92
56𝐵𝑎 + 𝑦𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛
1

Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦

ii) 21𝐻 + 31𝐻 𝑄 + 10𝑛
Find the atomic number and mass number of 𝑄
Ans: i) [𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏, 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟔] ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐]
8. a) What is background radiation.
b) i) Describe the structure and action of Geiger-Muller tube.
ii) Describe the structure and action of diffusion cloud chamber.
c) Draw diagrams to show tracks of each of the radioactive radiations appear in the Geiger-
Muller tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 16

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

THERMIONIC EMISSION:
This is the process by which electrons are emitted from a hot metal surface.

Production of electrons
Electrons can be produced by;
▪ Thermionic emission
▪ Photo electric emission

Kinetic theory explanation of thermionic emission:

When a metal surface is heated to a certain temperature, the free electrons at the surface gain
kinetic energy and they overcome the forces of attraction by the nucleus hence escaping from the
metal surface.

Applications of thermionic emission:

Thermionic emission can be applied in the following devices;

• Diode valves.
• Cathode ray tube.
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X-ray tube.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION:

This is the process by which electrons are emitted from the metal surface when exposed to
electromagnetic waves of sufficient frequency.

Photo electric emission occurs in phototubes [photoelectric cells].

The electrons emitted are referred to as photoelectrons and the electromagnetic waves used are
called ultra violet radiations.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 17

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Photoelectric cell:
• Photoelectric cell is composed of the cathode coated with a photo-sensitive material and the
anode enclosed in a vacuum tube.
• The glass tube is evacuated in order to avoid collision of cathode rays with air molecules
which may lead to low current flowing due to loss in kinetic energy of cathode rays.
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

Mechanism of a photoelectric cell:
▪ Electromagnetic radiation is directed onto the cathode and supplies sufficient energy that
causes the liberation of electrons.
▪ The electrons emitted are then attracted to the anode and the flow of electrons generates a
current around the circuit and the ammeter deflects.
▪ The amount of the current produced is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
▪ The stream of electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode is referred to as cathode
rays.

NOTE:
If a gas is introduced into the tube, the current decreases slowly because the gas particles
collide with the electrons, hence reducing the number of electrons reaching the anode.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒁𝒊𝒏𝒄
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 18

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

When Ultra violet light is incident on a clean zinc plate placed on the cap of a gold leaf
electroscope:
▪ If the electroscope is negatively charged, the leaf divergence slowly decreases indicating
that it is losing charge. This is because since radiations fall on a zinc plate, electrons are emitted
from leaving it with no electrons. So this makes the electrons to move from the leaf and gold
plate to the zinc to replace the lost electrons.
▪ If the electroscope is positively charged, there is no change in divergence
of the leaf. This is because the emitted electrons after ionization in air are attracted
back by the positively charged zinc hence no loss of charge.
Conclusion:
The Zinc plate emits photoelectrons when ultra violet radiation falls on it.

Note: Radio waves can’t be used because they don’t have sufficient energy to emit electrons
from zinc.

Applications of photoelectric effect:

Photoelectric effect is applied in:
1) Burglar alarms.
2) Automatic lighting systems
3) In solar calculators.
4) Television cameras.
5) Automatic door system.
6) Sound track on a film.

CATHODE RAYS:
These are streams of fast-moving electrons.
They are produced from the cathode by thermionic emission. Cathode rays carry energy since
they possess speed.

Production of cathode rays:

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 19

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage applied across the heater.

▪ The cathode then emits electrons by thermionic emission.
▪ The emitted electrons are then accelerated by a high voltage applied between the heater
and the anode so that they move with a very high speed hence forming cathode rays.
▪ Some of the electrons (cathode rays) pass through the anode and a parallel beam of
electrons is obtained which is received as spot on the fluorescent screen.

Note: The tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air particles hence
free movement of cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays:

▪ They travel in straight lines.
▪ They are negatively charged since they are electrons.
▪ They produce X-rays when stopped by a heavy metal.
▪ They are deflected by magnetic fields i.e. towards the north pole.
▪ They are deflected by electric fields i.e. towards positive plate.
▪ They possess momentum and kinetic energy.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter i.e. they cause other materials to give off
light.
▪ They ionize air and gas molecules.

Experiment to show that cathode rays travel in straight line (Thermionic tube).

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏

𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔

When cathode rays are directed towards the Maltese cross in a cathode ray tube.
A shadow of the cross is formed on the fluorescent screen. The formation of the shadow verifies
that cathode rays travels in a straight line.

Applications of cathode rays:

Cathode rays are applied in the following devices;
• Cathode ray oscilloscope.
• X – ray tube.
• Diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 20

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope [C.R.O]:

It is an instrument used to study current and voltage wave forms.
It has three main parts and these are
▪ Electron gun.
▪ Deflecting system.
▪ Fluorescent screen. 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒖𝒏 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅 𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝒀 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

Functions of the parts:

(a) Electron gun:
It consists of a heater, cathode, grid and Anode.
(i) The heater: This heats the cathode electrically.
(ii) The cathode: It emits electrons by thermionic emission i.e. when heated electrically by
the heater.
(iii)The control grid: It controls the brightness of the spot on the screen by controlling the
number of electrons reaching the anode and screen.
(iv) The anode: It is used to accelerate the electrons produced by the cathode.

(b) Deflecting system:

It consists of the X – plates and Y – plates.
The Y – plates deflect the beam of electrons vertically.
The X – plates deflect the beam of electrons horizontally.

(c) Fluorescent screen:

This is where the bright spot of electrons is formed.

NOTE:
▪ The inner walls of the cathode ray oscilloscope are coated with graphite to trap stray
electrons emitted from the screen.
▪ The cathode ray oscilloscope is evacuated to minimize loss of energy of electrons due to
collision with air molecules.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 21

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

(d) Time base:

This is a special circuit that generates p.d which rises steadily to a certain value and falls rapidly
to zero. It is connected across the X-plates.
The time base is used to generate a saw-toothed voltage.
𝑷. 𝒅 (𝑽)
𝑭𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒑

Note:
The time base is connected to the X – plates and causes the spot to move from left to right
which is called linear sweep and the spot returns to the left before it starts the next sweep
which is called fly back.

Wave forms on C.R.O screen.

(i) No A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (ii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base off

(iii) A.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (iv) D.C voltage on the Y-plates only and
base on time base off

(v) No D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time (vi) D.C voltage on the Y-plates and time
base on base on

(vii) No potential difference is applied to the Y-plates and time base off

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 22

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

USES OF C.R.O:
▪ It is used to measure potential difference.
▪ It is used to study wave forms.
▪ It is used to measure the frequency of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure the wave length of the wave.
▪ It is used to measure phase difference between two voltages.
▪ It is used as a timing device.
▪ It is used to measure the peak value of alternating and direct current.
▪ It is used to display pictures in TV sets.

Advantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It has infinite resistance therefore draws no current from the circuit.
▪ It is not affected by high voltages/currents.
▪ It measures both alternating and direct voltages.
▪ It is very accurate.
▪ It has no coil to burn out.
▪ It responds very fast.

Disadvantages of C.R.O over ordinary ammeter or voltmeter:

▪ It is not portable.
▪ It requires skilled personnel.
▪ It is expensive.
▪ It takes a lot of time to measure voltages.
▪ It does not give direct readings.

MEASURING VOLTAGE ON A C.R.O SCREEN

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑐𝑚] × [𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒(𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) ]
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅

Also, root mean square voltage is given by;

𝑽
𝑽𝒓.𝒎.𝒔 =
√𝟐

Also, period;
𝑻 = [𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈/𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏] × [𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 23

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Examples:
1. A cathode oscilloscope CRO with time base switched on is connected across a power supply.
The wave form shown in figure below is obtained. Length between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the
power supply.
b) Find the maximum voltage (amplitude of
𝑨 𝑩 voltage) generated if the voltage gain is
5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1.
c) Calculate the frequency of the power source,
lf the time base setting on the C.R.O is
5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1 .

Solutions:
(a) 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

(b) (c)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 3𝑐𝑚 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑉 = 5×3 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4𝑐𝑚
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝑽 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 5 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
𝑇 = 5 × 10−3 × 4
𝑇 = 0.02𝑠
1 1
𝑓= ⟹ 𝑓=
𝑇 0.02
𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛

2. A CRO with the time base switched on is connected across a power supply. The wave form
shown below is obtained. Distance between each line is 1𝑐𝑚.
𝟏𝒄𝒎

𝟏𝒄𝒎

a) Identify the type of voltage generated by the power supply.

𝑨𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

b) Find the maximum value of the voltage generated if he voltage gain is 10𝑉𝑐𝑚−1 .
𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒅 = 𝟏 𝒄𝒎
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏/𝒄𝒎 × 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 𝒅
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽𝒄𝒎−𝟏 × 𝟏 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 24

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting on the CRO is
10.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1.
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅, 𝑻 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 × 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏. 𝟓
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇= , 𝒇=
𝑻 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒇 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕𝑯𝒛

X-RAYS:
These are electromagnetic waves of short wavelength which are produced when cathode
rays are stopped by a metal surface.

Production of X-Rays (X-Ray Tube):

𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑻𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕

𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒖𝒑

𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
Mode of operation:
▪ The cathode is heated by a low voltage and electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
emission.
▪ The electrons are accelerated to the anode by the high voltage supply connected across the
cathode and anode.
▪ And on reaching the metal target, 99% of the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into
heat and 1% of kinetic energy of elections is converted into X-rays.
▪ The heat generated at the target is cooled down by means of cooling fins and then conducted.
▪ The X – ray tube is evacuated to prevent cathode rays from colliding with air molecules
hence allowing free movement of electrons in the tube.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 25

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

NOTE:
✓ The tungsten is used because it has a high melting point that can withstand the heat
generated when electrons hit the target.
✓ The curvature of the cathode helps to focus emitted electrons onto the anode.
✓ The cooling fins are painted black to radiate the heat quickly.
✓ The lead shield absorbs stray X-rays

In the X – ray tube the following energy changes take place;

𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

PROPERTIES OF X – RAYS:
▪ They carry no charge.
▪ They are not deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
▪ They readily penetrate matter. Penetration is least with materials of high density.
▪ They cause ionization of gases.
▪ They affect photographic films.
▪ They travel in a straight line.
▪ They travel at a speed of light.
▪ They undergo reflection, refraction and diffraction by atoms.
▪ They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length.
▪ They cause fluorescence when they strike matter.
▪ They can produce photoelectric emission

Intensity of X- Rays (Quantity):

Intensity is the strength or power of X-rays.
The intensity of X-rays in an X-ray tube is proportional to the number of electrons reaching the
target. The number of electrons produced is determined by the filament current. Therefore, the
higher the filament current the higher the intensity of the X-rays since more electrons are emitted
with high filament current.

Question: Describe how the intensity of X-rays can be improved/increased.

This is done by increasing the filament current which increase the temperature of the filament
cathode thus increasing the number of electrons emitted thermionically. Hence the number of
electrons hitting the target will increase.

Penetration power of X-Rays (Quality):

Penetration power is the ability of X-rays to enter matter.
The penetration power of X-rays depends on the kinetic energy of electrons reaching the target.
The penetration power of X-rays is determined by the high potential difference across the X-ray
tube.
The higher the accelerating voltage the faster the electrons produced and the greater the kinetic
energy of electrons hence the higher the penetration power of X-rays produced.

Question: Describe how the penetrating power of X-rays is increased.

This is done by increasing the accelerating voltage between the anode and cathode which
makes electrons to move with a faster speed hence increasing the kinetic energy. This
increases the penetrating power of X-rays.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 26

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

TYPES OF X-RAYS
There are two types namely;
▪ Hard X-rays
▪ Soft X-rays.
SOFT X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of low penetrating power.

Properties of soft X-rays:

▪ They produced by low accelerating voltages.
▪ They have a low penetration power.
▪ They have low kinetic energy.
▪ They have a long wave length.
▪ They have a low frequency

HARD X-RAYS:
These are X-rays of high penetrating power.

Properties of hard X-rays:

▪ They produced by high accelerating voltages
▪ They have a high penetration power.
▪ They have high kinetic energy.
▪ They have a short wave length.

Differences between soft X-rays and hard X-rays

HARD X-RAYS SOFT X-RAYS
• Produced by a high voltage. • Produced by low voltage.
• They have a shorter wavelength. • They have a longer wavelength.
• They are more penetrative. • They are less penetrative.
• They have a high frequency. • They have a low frequency.
• They have high kinetic energy. • They have low kinetic energy.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

▪ They are both electromagnetic waves.
▪ They both pass through a vacuum.
▪ Both are not deflected in both electric and magnetic fields.
▪ They both have no charge.
▪ They both travel with a speed of light.
▪ They are both transverse waves.

USES OF X-RAYS:
Medical uses:
• They are used to investigate the broken bones in X – ray photography.
• They are used to treat cancer cells.
• They used to detect the complicated organs of the body.
• They are used to detect tuberculosis of the lungs.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 27

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

• They are used to diagnose stomach ulcers.

How x-rays are used to locate broken parts of a bone.

❖ When X-rays are passed through the body onto the photographic plate or film,
The bones which are composed of a much denser material than the flesh absorb most of
the X-rays and appear white on the photographic plate or film.
The flesh which is composed of less dense material allows most of the X-rays to pass
through it hence darkening the photographic film or plate.
These shadows are studied in order to locate the broken part.

Industrial uses:
• They are used to detect cracks in metal castings and welded joints.
• They are used to study the structure of crystals [crystallography].
• They are used to detect faults in motor tyres.
• They are used to detect defects in paints.

Dangers of X-rays:
▪ They destroy living cells in the body.
▪ They damage blood cells and eye sight.
▪ They cause genetic changes [mutation].
▪ They skin burns due to their greater penetration power.
▪ They cause cancer after excessive exposure.

Safety precautions taken when using X-rays:

• Avoid unnecessary exposure to X-rays.
• The X-ray apparatus should be shielded using thick lead.
• The person should wear protective clothing made of thick lead.
• Keep large distance between X-ray source and people.
• Soft X-rays should always be used on human tissues

THE DIODE:
This is an electrical device that conducts electricity in one direction only.
There are two types of diodes and these are
▪ Semi-conductor diode.
▪ Vacuum diode.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 28

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

Thermionic diode (vacuum diode):

This is a device used to change alternating current to direct current.
𝑨𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆

𝑪𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

It consists of the following;

▪ The heater which heats the cathode electrically.
▪ The cathode which emits electrons thermionically.
▪ The anode which accelerates electrons emitted from the heated cathode.
▪ Evacuated glass envelope helps to prevent electrons from colliding with air molecules.

RECTIFICATION:
This is a process of changing alternating current to direct current.
This is done by use of a diode (rectifier).

The arrow head in the diode or rectifier shows the direction of flow of current.
There are two types of rectification and these are;
• Half wave rectification
• Full wave rectification

Half wave rectification:

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆

𝑨
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑩

▪ During the first half of the cycle when A is positive and B is negative, the diode conducts
current and it flows through the resistor R.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, the diode doesn’t conduct
current to flow through the resistor R.
▪ Hence current flows through R during only one half of the cycle when A is positive with
respect to B.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 29

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

The graph of current/voltage against time for half wave is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Full wave rectification:

𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟏

𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟒
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

▪ During the first half cycle when A is positive and B is negative, diodes D1and D3 conduct
current and it flows though the resistor R. Diode D3 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct current.
▪ During the next half cycle when B is positive and A is negative, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
current and it flows through the resistor R. Diode D4 takes back current to the source.
Diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct current.
▪ Hence current flows through R during both cycles and therefore both cycles are rectified
giving a full wave rectification.

The graph of current/voltage against time for full wave rectification is as shown below.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 30

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXERCISE:
1. a) What is a diode?
(i) Draw a graph of current against p.d across the diode and explain the features of
your graph.
(ii) What is rectification?

𝑫𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝑹 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

b) The diagram above shows a diode in a circuit that can be used to change a.c to d.c.
Draw a graph for the variation of voltage against time.
c) What is meant by the term photo electric emission?
d) Give applications of photo cells
2. a) What are cathode rays
b) Give the properties of cathode rays
c) Draw a well labeled diagram of cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) and give the function
of each part.
3. a) i) Draw a well labeled diagram of an X-ray tube and describe how X-rays are produced.
b) State the effect on X-rays produce when
i) The filament current is increased ii) The anode is made more positive
c) Explain how the intensity and penetrating power of X-rays in an X-ray tube may be
varied.
4. a) i) State and explain what happens when X-rays are passed above the cap of a positively
charged gold leaf electroscope.
b) Would your observation and explanation in (a) (i) above be different if the gold
leaf electroscope is negatively charged.
c) Briefly explain how X-rays may be used to locate the broken part of a bone.
d) State and explain what happens when X-rays are directed into a metal block like
that of lead.

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 31

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𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS:
1. a) What is meant by the following;
(i) Radioactivity
(ii) Half-life
b) The following figures were obtained from the reading of a rate metre for the alpha
particle emission from Thoron – 220.
Time(s) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Average Counts 96 72 55 45 36 26 20 15
Plot a suitable graph from the readings and obtain the half-life of Thoron – 220
Ans: [𝟓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔]
c) i) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
ii) Mention two uses of x-rays and briefly describe how they are applied.
2. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) When lithium is bombarded by Neutrons, a nuclear reaction occurs which is represented
by the following reaction.
6 3
3𝐿𝑖 + 10𝑛 1𝐻 +𝑃
Complete the equation and name P
c) i) Describe the application of radioactivity in determining the age of foils.
(ii) Give two harmful effects of radioactivity.
d) The half-life of Uranium is 24 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠. Calculate the mass of Uranium which remains
after 120 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 if the initial mass is 64𝑔
Ans: [𝟐𝒈]
e) State three differences between alpha particles and gamma rays
3. a) Draw a labeled diagram of x-ray tube.
b) i) Using the diagram in (a) above, explain how x-rays are produced
ii) What adjustments will you make while using the x-ray tube to obtain hard x-rays
instead of soft x-rays?
c) i) Explain the use of a cooling system in an x-ray tube
ii) What special property has a metal target in the x-ray tube and why
iii) Why are x-rays used in study of crystals?
iv) If x-rays have wave lengths ranging from 10−8 𝑚 and 10−10 𝑚. What is the
frequency of the hardest x-rays that can be obtained?
Ans: [𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝑯𝒛]
4. a) Give two methods of producing electrons from the metal surface.
b) State the effect of each of the following on a fine beam of electrons
i) Electric field
ii) Magnetic field
c) i) Explain briefly how x-rays are produced (diagram not necessary)
ii) Distinguish between soft x-rays and hard x-rays
iii) What precaution should be taken in order to minimize x-rays health hazards

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 32

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

5. a) Define radioactivity
b) i) Name any two particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) State the three differences between the two particles named in (b) (i) above
c) The table below gives the count produced by a radioactive isotope at different times
during an experiment
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0.0 1.0 1.8 2.5 3.0 3.8 4.5 5.5
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛−1) 1816 1376 1096 896 776 616 516 416
i) Given that a back-ground count of 16 counts per minute was recorded
throughout the experiment, plot a suitable graph and use it to determine the
half-life of the isotope
ii) What is the count rate after 9.6 hours?
Ans: i) [𝟐. 𝟔 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔] ii) [𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆]
6. The diagram in the figure below shows the main parts of a cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)
𝑨 𝑩

a) i) Name the parts labeled A, B and C

ii) Why is a C.R.O evacuated?
b) i) Describe briefly the principle of operation of C.R.O
ii) How is the bright spot formed on the screen of a C.R.O?
c) Use diagrams to show what is observed on the screen of a C.R.O when
i) The C.R.O is switched on and no signal is applied on the Y-plates
ii) The time base is switched on and no signal is applied to the Y-plates
iii) An alternating signal is applied to the Y-plates while the time base is switched off
d) Give two uses of C.R.O
7. a) i) State the necessary conditions for production of x-rays
ii) Distinguish between hard x-rays and soft x-rays
b) i) Draw a labeled diagram of an x-ray tube
ii) Describe how the penetration power of the x-rays produced by the tube may be
adjusted
iii) Mention two applications of x-rays
c) What is meant by the following?
i) Radioactivity
ii) Half-life
d) A radioactive substance is found to have a half-life of 5 days. If after 15 days, 125g
of it is remaining, what amount was present at the beginning?
Ans: [𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒈]
8. a) What are x-rays
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the structure and operation of x-ray tube
c) Explain briefly how each of the following can be increased in an x-ray tube
i) Intensity of x-rays
ii) Penetrating power of x-rays

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 33

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

d) State four ways in which x-rays are similar to gamma rays

e) Give two biological uses of x-rays
9. a) i) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) State one example where nuclear fusion occurs naturally
b) State one use of nuclear fission
c) The following nuclear reaction takes place when a neutron bombards a sulphur atom
34 𝑎
6𝑆 + 10𝑛 𝑏𝑌
i) Describe the composition of the nuclide, Y formed
ii) The nuclide, Y decays by emission of an 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 and a 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦. Find
the changes in mass number and atomic number of the nuclide, Y
iii) State two properties of 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
d) The half-life of the isotope, Cobalt-60, is 5 years. What fraction of the isotope remains
after 15 years?
𝟏
Ans: [ 𝟖 ]
e) State i) One medical use of radioisotopes
ii) Two ways of minimizing the hazardous effects of radiation from radioactive
materials
10. a) Define half-life of a radioactive substance
1 𝑡ℎ
b) The mass of a radioactive substance decays to of its original mass after 16 days.
16
What is
i) its half-life
ii) Fraction of the original mass will have decayed after 20 days
Ans: i) [𝟒 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
232 228 228 228
c) 90𝑋 88𝑌 89𝑍 89𝑍
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
i) Identify the particles or radiations A, B and C emitted in the decay process shown
above
ii) State two differences between radiations A and B
iii) Name two health hazards of radioactivity
d) What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
11. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number ii) Mass number iii) Isotopes
b) A radioactive nucleus decays by emission of alpha particles
i) What is an alpha particle?
ii) What changes occur in mass number and atomic number when an alpha particle
is emitted?
iii) State any three differences between alpha particles and beta particles
c) The table shows the count rates of a certain radioactive material
Time (ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) 0 1 3 4 7 9
−1
Counts rate (𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350
Plot a suitable graph and use it to find half-life of the material.
Ans: [𝟑. 𝟐 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 34

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

12. a) What is meant by the terms;

i) Isotopes
ii) Atomic number
b) i) Name and state the nature of emissions from radioactive nuclides
ii) What effect does each of the emissions have on the parent nuclide?
c) A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 × 103 years
i) What does the statement half-life of 3 × 103 years mean?
ii) How long does it take for three-quarters of the sample to decay?
Ans: ii) [𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔]
d) Give two uses of radioactivity.
13. a) A radioactive nuclide decays by emission of two alpha particles and two beta particles
to nuclide, Y
i) What is meant by radioactive nuclide?
ii) Give three differences between alpha and beta alpha particles
iii) State atomic number and mass number of Y
b) What precautions would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials?
c) A certain radioactive material contains 2.7 x 1024 atoms. How many atoms will have
decayed after 32000 years if the half- life of the material is 800years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity.
14. The figure below shows the main parts of an x-ray tube
𝑫
𝑪 𝑨 𝑩

a) Name the parts labeled A, B, C and D

b) List in order the energy changes which occur in the x-ray tube
c) Describe one industrial use of x-rays
d) i) What is meant by the half-life of a radioactive material
ii) The activity of a radioactive source decreases from 4000 counts per minute to
250 counts per minute in 40 minutes. What is the half-life of the source?
iii) A carbon source of half-life 6 days initially contains 8 × 106 atoms. Calculate the
time taken for 7.75 × 106 atoms to decay.
Ans: ii) [𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔] iii) [𝟑𝟎 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔]
15. a) Define the following terms as used in nuclear reactions
i) Fusion
ii) Fission
iii) Activity
b) Describe a simple model of an atom

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 35

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

c) Uranium, U has a mass number of 238 and atomic number of 92. It undergoes
radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle to form element X.
i) Write down a nuclear equation reaction that takes place
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of X
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
d) i) What is meant by half-life of radioactive substance
ii) The count rate of a radioactive isotope fall from 600 counts per second to 75
counts per second in 75 minutes. Calculate the half-life of the radioactive
isotope.
Ans: ii) [𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔]
16. a) A radioactive nuclide 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟗𝟐𝑼 decays by emission of two alpha particles and two
beta particles to a nuclide Y
i) What is meant by a radioactive nuclide?
ii) State the mass number and atomic number of Y
iii) Give four differences between alpha and beta particles
Ans: ii) [𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝟑𝟒, 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎]
b) State four precautions that would have to be taken when handling radioactive materials
c) A certain mass of radioactive material contains 2.4 × 1012 radioactive atoms. How
many atoms will have decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of the material is 800 years?
Ans: [𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔]
d) Explain briefly one industrial application of radioactivity
e) Briefly describe how full wave rectification can be achieved
17. a) i) What is meant by cathode rays
ii) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how cathode rays are produced by
thermionic effect
b) With reference to the cathode ray oscilloscope, describe
i) The function of the time base
ii) How the brightness is regulated
c) A cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) with time base switched on is connected across a
power supply. The waveform shown in the figure below is obtained

The distance between the lines is 1cm

i) Identify the voltage generated by the power supply
ii) Find the amplitude of the voltage generated if the voltage gain is 5𝑉𝑐𝑚−1
iii) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting
on the C.R.O is 5.0 × 10−3 𝑠𝑐𝑚−1
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟎𝑽] ii) [𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛]

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 36

 SSEKWE
𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔
ROBERT

18. a) Describe a simple model of the atom

b) Define the following
i) Isotopes of an element
ii) Atomic number
c) State two differences between an alpha particle and a beta particle
d) i) What is meant by nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
ii) Give one example of where each one occurs
e) The half-life of radioactive substance is 24 days. Calculate the mass of the substance
which has decayed after 72 days if the original mass is 0.64𝑔.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒈]
19. a) Define the following terms
i) Atomic number
ii) Mass number
b) A radioactive nuclide 𝟒𝟐 𝟏𝟗𝒀 decays by emission of both alpha & gamma radiations to a
nuclide X
i) Write a balanced equation for the nuclear reaction
ii) Give three differences between beta and alpha particles
c) State conditions required for each of the following to occur
i) Fission
ii) Fusion
20. a) i) Name the particles emitted by radioactive nuclides
ii) Give two properties common to the particles named in (i) above
b) A stream of particles from a radioactive source passes through a magnetic field
directed into the plane of the paper as show below

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

i) Identify the particles in the stream

ii) Sketch a diagram to show the path of the particles in an electric field

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍: 𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒌𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕@𝒈𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒍. 𝒄𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍: 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕 37