MAT 125: DISCRETE MATHEMATICS II LECTURE NOTES

METHODS OF PROOF
By Dr. Runji Flora
Definition: A definition is an exact, unambiguous explanation of
the meaning of a mathematical word or phrase.
Even Integer: An integer n is even if, and only if, n equals twice
some integer. Symbolically, if n is an integer, then
n is even ⇔ ∃an integer k such that n = 2k.
Odd Integer: An integer n is odd if, and only if, n equals twice
some integer plus 1. Symbolically, if n is an integer, then
n is odd ⇔ ∃an integer k such that n = 2k + 1.
Consecutive Integers: Two integers a and b are consecutive if
and only if
b=a+1
Prime Integer: An integer n is prime if, and only if, n>1 and for
all positive integers r and s, if n=rs, then either r or s equals n. In
symbols:
n is prime ⇔ ∀positive integers r and s, if n = rs
then either r = 1 and s = n or r = n and s = 1.

Composite Integer: An integer n is composite if, and only if, n>1

and n=rs for some integers r and s with 1<r<n and 1<s<n.
In symbols: n is composite ⇔ ∃positive integers r and s such that
n = rs
and 1 < r < n and 1 < s < n.

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Perfect Square: An integer a is a perfect square if there is an
2
integer b such that a=b .
Parity: Two integers have the same parity if they are both even
or they are both odd. Otherwise they have opposite parity.
Rational Numbers: A real number x is defined to be a rational
number provided that there exist
m
x=
integers m and n with n≠0 such that n A real number that is

not a rational number is called an irrational number.

Divisors: Suppose a and b are integers. We say that a divides b,
written a|b, if b = ac for some c ∈ Z. In this case we also say that
a is a divisor of b, and that b is a multiple of a.
For example, 5 divides 15 because 15 = 5 · 3. We write this as 5|
15. Similarly, 8|32 because 32 = 8 · 4, and −6|6 because 6 = −6.
−1.
However, 6 does not divide 9 because there is no integer c for
which
9 = 6 · c. We express this as 6∤9, which we read as “6 does not
divide 9.”

Theorems: A theorem is a mathematical statement that is true

and can be (and has been) verified as true.
In mathematical writing, the term theorem is usually reserved for
a statement that is considered at least somewhat important.
Theorems can also be referred to as facts or results.

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A theorem may be the universal quantification of a conditional
statement
with one or more premises and a conclusion. However, it may be
some other type of logical statement. We demonstrate that a
theorem is true with a proof.

Propositions: A proposition is a theorem of lesser generality or

of lesser importance.
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
theorem. The statements used in a proof can include axioms (or
postulates), which are statements we assume to be, the
premises, if any, of the theorem, and previously proven theorems.
Axioms may be stated using primitive terms that do not require
definition, but all other terms used in theorems and their proofs
must be defined. Rules of inference, together with definitions of
terms, are used to draw conclusions from other assertions, tying
together the steps of a proof. In practice, the final step of a proof
is usually just the conclusion of the theorem.
Lemma: A lemma is a theorem whose main purpose is to help
prove another theorem.
Corollary: A corollary is a consequence of a theorem, usually one
whose proof is much easier than that of the theorem itself.
A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be a true
statement, usually on the basis of some partial evidence, a
heuristic argument, or the intuition of an expert. When a proof of
a conjecture is found, the conjecture becomes a theorem. Many

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times conjectures are shown to be false, so they are not
theorems.

Trivial Proof:
If we know q is true then p → q is true regardless of the truth
value of p.
Example: Prove the statement: If there are 100 students enrolled
2
in this course this semester, then 6 =36 .
Proof. The assertion is trivially true, since the conclusion is true,
independent of the hypothesis (which, may or may not be true
depending on the enrollment).
Vacuous Proof:
If p is a conjunction of other hypotheses and we know one or
more of these hypotheses is false, then p is false and so p → q is
vacuously true regardless of the truth value of q.
2
Example: Prove the statement. If 6 is a prime number, then 6 =30
Proof. The hypothesis is false, therefore the statement is
vacuously true (even though the conclusion is also false).
Direct Proof (Proof by Construction)
A direct proof of a conditional statement p → q is constructed
when the first step is the assumption that p is true; subsequent
steps are constructed using rules of inference, with the final step
showing that q must also be true.
A direct proof uses rules of inference to derive the conclusion
from the premises.
There are only two steps to a direct:

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1. Assume that P is true.
2. Use P to show that Q must be true.
Example: Prove the statement: For all integers m and n, if
m and n are odd integers, then m + n is an even integer.
Proof. Assume m and n are arbitrary odd integers. Then m and n
can be written in the form m = 2a + 1 and n = 2b + 1,
where a and b are also integers.
Then m + n = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) (substitution)
= 2a + 2b + 2 (associative and commutative laws of
addition)
= 2(a + b + 1) (distributive law)
Since m+n is twice another integer, namely, a+b+1, m+n is an
even integer. ♦
Example: Theorem: The sum of two even numbers x and y
is even.
Proof: Assume there are two even numbers x and y , then show
that their sum x + y is even.
Let m and n be integers so that x=2 m and y=2n (by defn of
“even”).
Then x + y=2 m+2 n (by substitution).
=2 (m+ n) (by left distribution)

which is even, by the definition of evenness. ♦

Example: Show that the square of an odd integer is odd.
Proof: Let n be an odd integer.
Then n=2t +1 for some integer t , and
n2 =( 2 t+1 )2=4 t 2 +4 t+1=2 ( 2 t 2 +2 t )+1

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 2 2
Where 2 t +2t is an integer. Hence, n is odd. ♦
Example: Show that the product of two odd integers is odd.
Proof: Let m and n be two odd integers.
Then m=2 a+1, n=2 b+1 for some integers a , b
This implies
mn=( 2 a+1 )( 2 b+1 )
=4 ab+2 a+2 b+1
=2 ( 2 ab+a+b )+1
2 ab+ a+b is an integer and thus mn is an odd number. ♦
Example: Give a direct proof that if m and n are both perfect
squares, then nm is also a perfect square.
Proof: Assume that m and n are both perfect squares. By the
definition of a perfect square, it follows that there are integers s
2
and t such that m=s and
n=t 2 . We show that mn must also be a perfect square when m and

n are;
mn=s 2 . t 2=( st )2 . By the definition of perfect square, it follows that

mn is also
a perfect square, because it is the square of st, which is an
integer.

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Proof by Contraposition
Direct proofs lead from the premises of a theorem to the
conclusion. They begin with the premises, continue with a
sequence of deductions, and end with the conclusion. However,
we will see that attempts at direct proofs often reach dead ends.
We need other methods of proving theorems of the form
∀x(P(x) → Q(x)). Proofs of theorems of this type that are not direct
proofs, that is, that do not start with the premises and end with
the conclusion, are called indirect proofs.
An extremely useful type of indirect proof is known as proof by
contraposition. Proofs by contraposition make use of the fact
that the conditional statement p → q is equivalent to its
contrapositive, ￢q →￢p. This means that the conditional statement
p → q can be proved by showing that its contrapositive, ￢q →￢p, is
true.
In a proof by contraposition of p → q, we take ￢q as a premise,
and using axioms, definitions, and previously proven theorems,
together with rules of inference, we show that ￢p must follow.

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Example: Prove the statement: For all integers m and n, if the
product of m and n is even, then m is even or n is even.
Proof: We prove the contrapositive of the statement: If m and n
are both odd integers, then mn is odd.
Proof. Suppose that m and n are arbitrary odd integers.
Then m = 2a + 1 and n = 2b + 1, where a and b are integers.
Then mn = (2a + 1)(2b + 1) (substitution)
= 4ab + 2a + 2b + 1 (associative, commutative, and
distributive laws)
= 2(2ab + a + b) + 1 (distributive law)
Since mn is twice an integer (namely, 2ab + a + b) plus 1, mn is
odd.
Proposition: Let a,b and c be integers. If a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proof. Suppose a | b and b | c.
By Definition, a|b means there is an integer d with b = ad.
Likewise, b|c means there is an integer e for which c = be.
Thus c = be = (ad)e = a(de), so c = ax for the integer x = de.
Therefore, a | c.
■
Proposition: If x is an even integer, then x2 −6x+5 is odd.
Proof: Suppose x is an even integer. Then x = 2a for some a ∈
ℤ, by definition of an even integer.
So x2−6x+5 = (2a)2 - 6(2a) +5
= 4a2 - 12a+5
= 4a2 -12a+4+1
= 2(2a2 - 6a+2) +1.

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Therefore, we have x 2
- 6x+5 = 2b +1, where b = 2a2 −6a+2 ∈
ℤ. Consequently, x2 - 6x+5 is odd, by definition of an odd number.
■

Proof by Cases
In proving a statement is true, we sometimes have to examine
multiple cases before showing the statement is true in all possible
scenarios.

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Example: Show that if an integer n is not divisible by 3, then n2 -
1 must be a multiple of 3.
Proof: Let n be an integer that is not divisible by 3.
When it is divided by 3, the remainder is 1 or 2.
Hence, n=3q+1 or n=3q+2 some integer q.
Case 1: If n=3q+1 for some integer q, then

Case 2: If n=3q+2 for some integer q, then

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Treating Similar Cases
Occasionally two or more cases in a proof will be so similar that
writing them separately seems tedious or unnecessary. Here is an
example.
Proposition: If two integers have opposite parity, then their sum
is odd.
Proof: Suppose m and n are two integers with opposite parity.
We need to show that m+ n is odd.
This is done in two cases, as follows.
Case 1. Suppose m is even and n is odd.
Thus m = 2a and n = 2b +1 for some integers a and b.
Therefore m+ n = 2a+2b +1 = 2(a+ b)+1, which is
Case 2. Suppose m is odd and n is even.
Thus m = 2a +1 and n = 2b for some integers a and b.
Therefore m+ n = 2a+1+2b = 2(a+ b)+1, which is odd.
In either case, m+ n is odd.
■
The two cases in this proof are entirely alike except for the order
in which the even and odd terms occur. It is entirely appropriate
to just do one case and indicate that the other case is nearly

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identical. The phrase “Without loss of generality...” is a common
way of signaling that the proof is treating just one of several
nearly identical cases.
Here is a second version of the above example.
Proposition: If two integers have opposite parity, then their sum
is odd.
Proof: Suppose m and n are two integers with opposite parity.
We need to show that m+ n is odd. Without loss of generality,
suppose m is even and n is odd. Thus m = 2a and n = 2b +1 for
some integers a and b.
Therefore m+n = 2a+2b+1 = 2(a+b)+1, which is odd.
■

Exercise:

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Proof by Contradiction
The proof by contradiction is grounded in the fact that any
proposition must be either true or false, but not both true and
false at the same time.
We arrive at a contradiction when we are able to demonstrate
that a statement is both simultaneously true and false, showing
that our assumptions are inconsistent. We can use this to
demonstrate P ⇒ Q by assuming both P and ¬Q are
simultaneously true and deriving a contradiction. When we derive
this contradiction it means that one of our assumptions was
untenable. Presumably we have either assumed or already proved

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P to be true so that finding a contradiction implies that ¬Q must
be false.
The method of proof by contradiction.
1. Assume that P is true.
2. Assume that ¬Q is true.
3. Use P and ¬Q to demonstrate a contradiction.
Theorem: If a and b are consecutive integers, then the sum a + b
is odd.
Proof. Assume that a and b are consecutive integers.
Assume also that the sum a + b is not odd.
Because the sum a + b is not odd, there exists no number k such
that a + b = 2k + 1.
However, the integers a and b are consecutive, so we may write
the sum a + b as 2a + 1. Thus, we have derived that a + b 6≠2k
+ 1 for any integer k and also that a + b = 2a + 1. This is a
contradiction. If we hold that a and b are consecutive then we
know that the sum a + b must be odd.
Example: Prove the statement is true: Let x and y be real
numbers. If 5x + 25y = 1723, then x or y is not an integer.
Proof: Assume x and y are real numbers such that 5x+25y =
1723, and assume that both x and y are integers. By the
distributive law, 5(x + 5y) = 1723. Since x and y are integers, this
implies 1723 is divisible by 5. The integer 1723, however, is
clearly not divisible by 5. This contradiction establishes the result.
Example: Prove that√2 is irrational by giving a proof by
contradiction

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Proof by Mathematical Induction

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 Mathematical Induction is a mathematical technique which is
used to
prove a statement, a formula or a theorem is true for every
natural
number.

The principle of mathematical induction

Let P(n) be a given statement involving the natural number n
such
that
(i) The statement is true for n = 1, i.e., P(1) is true (or true
for any
fixed natural number) and
(ii) If the statement is true for n = k (where k is a particular
but
arbitrary natural number), then the statement is also
true for
n = k + 1, i.e, truth of P(k) implies the truth of P(k + 1).
Then P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

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 Example: Prove statements in the examples below, by using
the Principle of Mathematical Induction for all n ∈ N :

Example: The sum of the first n odd numbers is equal to the

nth
square. i.e.

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Example: Show that if n is a positive integer, then

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Example: Use mathematical induction to show that

for all nonnegative integers n.

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Example: Use mathematical induction to show that

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Example: Prove using mathematical induction that for all n ≥ 1,

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Example: Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to verify
that, for n any positive integer, 6n - 1 is divisible by 5.

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Example: The sum of n consecutive cubes is equal to the square
of the sum of the first n numbers. i.e.

3 3 3 3 2 n2 ( n+1 )2
1 + 2 +3 +. . . + n =( 1+2+3+. . . +n ) =
4

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Example: Prove by mathematical induction:

Proof:

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Therefore the formular is true for all natural numbers.

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