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DEVELOPMENT OF A ROBOT ARM: A REVIEW

Conference Paper · January 2018

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The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

DEVELOPMENT OF A ROBOT ARM: A REVIEW

*Ibrahim Sulaiman, 1 Engr. Salam M. O. and 1 Yamajin Tanimu

*, 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal Polytechnic PMB 55 Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.

*[email protected] ; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The use of robots in the world is continuously increasing each year because global competition in the market requires
continuous automation and modernization of production processes, especially in the automotive industry. Robots are
employed in medicine, security and even for social use. This paper reviews the fundamental requirements necessary for
the development of robotic arms. Published literature have been reviewed, briefly detailing the important definitions,
analyses of the robot manipulator mechanical structure, its modelling, planning and control. The techniques require
indebt mathematical modelling and simulation, and have briefly been presented in this paper.

Keywords: Manipulator, model, robot, robotic arm, simulation.

1.1 ROBOT ARM

1 INTRODUCTION
The mechanical structure of a robot manipulator
The use of robots in the world is continuously increasing consists of a sequence of links interconnected by means of
each year, because global competition in the market joints to form a kinematic chain (Spong et al., 2005). The
requires continuous automation and modernization of manipulator, a robot arm, (according to Park and Lynch,
production processes especially in the automotive industry (2016)), has an arm that ensures mobility, a wrist that
(Karabegović, 2016). Robots are also employed in confers dexterity, and an end-effector that performs the task
medicine, security and even for social use (Weir, 2018). required of the robot (Figure 1). A further categorisation of
The International Federation of Robotics (IFR) estimates the manipulator is given by the Occupational Safety and
that over 2.5 million industrial robots will be at work in Health and Administration (OSHA) technical manual
2019. The growing demand for technological innovation to based on the type and sequence of the arm’s degree of
enable empowerment of developing communities requires freedom (DOF), starting from the base joint. The categories
new and creative educational initiatives (Dias, Mills- are Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, Selective Compliance
Tettey, and Nanayakkara, 2005). This paper aims at the Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA), and articulated.
describing the basics for the development of a robotic arm.
This is aimed at raising awareness and interest in the field
so that the benefits can be gained both locally and globally.
The word “Robot” has been defined differently by various
sources, but in essence it means any machine, typically
guided by a computer programme or electric circuitry that
is capable of carrying out automated series of complex
actions (Siciliano, et al., 2005). Rajgure, et al. (2018)
simply defined it as a mechanical device that performs
predefined automated tasks and movements under human
supervision. Robot is derived from a Czech word which Figure 1: Robot arm anatomy (Source:
means “compulsory labour” (Siciliano et al., 2009). The http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/computing/ind_com_apps/autom
design of a robot is not necessarily humanoid as ated_systems/revision/3/)
erroneously assumed by a lot of people but takes the form
that best suits the primary functionality of the robot. 1.2 EVOLUTION OF ROBOT ARM
Agrawal (2016) stated that mechanical, electrical and
computer engineering are the three basic branches Robotic arm developers are constantly moving towards
necessary for the development of robots. These three more dexterous devices, with more DOF, and capabilities
branches of engineering (and others) constitute robotics, even beyond the human arm (Moran, 2007). Moran (2007)
which is the branch of technology that deals with the stated that the first sophisticated robotic arm was designed
design, construction, operation, and application of robots. by da Vinci in 1495 with four DOF and an analog on-board
Siciliano, et al. (2009) classified the most common robots controller supplying power and programmability. von
based on their mechanical structures. They are robot Kemplen’s chess-playing automaton left arm was also
manipulators (those with a fixed base) and mobile robots quite sophisticated. The first “position controlling
(with a movable base). apparatus” was patented in 1938 by Willard Pollard
(according to Moran, 2007). This was a spray finishing
The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

robotic arm that had five DOF and an electrical control

y
system. Although Pollard never built his arm, his design
and interest in an industrial application for automated p(x,y,𝜽) 𝜽
robotic arms would spur on the ingenuity of others.
𝒍𝟐
Unimate introduced the first industrial robotic arm in 1961, 𝜽𝟐
it has subsequently evolved into the PUMA arm (Moran,
2007). In 1963 the Rancho arm was designed; Minsky’s
Tentacle arm appeared in 1968, Scheinman’s Stanford arm 𝒍𝟏
in 1969, and MIT’s Silver arm in 1974. Aird became the
𝜽𝟏
first cyborg human with a robotic arm in 1993 (Moran,
x
2007). In 2000 Miguel Nicolalis redefined possible man–
Figure 2: Forward kinematic; geometry of two link planar robot
machine capacity in his work on cerebral implantation in Figure 2 shows the forward kinematic geometry of a typical
owl-monkeys directly interfacing with robotic arms both two link planar robot, Goto (2011) used the vector algebra
locally and at a distance. These days Neuro-enhanced solution to analyse the geometry of the two link planar
prosthetics such as cochlear implants, retinal implants, and robot and derived Equations 1, Equation 2 and Equation 3.
highly dexterous limb prosthetics are heavily researched The Denavid-Hartenberg (DH) convention is also used to
and already available (Moran, 2007). According to Moran determine the desired coordinate position (Chen and Chen,
(2007) direct neural control would produce hybrid devices 2018).
with the reliability and control of robotic arms and a x = l1 cos(θ1 ) + l2 cos(θ1 +θ2 ) (1)
completely natural interface via the individual’s own y = l1 sin(θ1 ) + l2 sin(θ1 +θ2 ) (2)
neocortex.
θ = θ1 +θ2 (3)
Inverse kinematics on the other hand deals with the
2 MECHANICAL ROBOT ARM problem of finding the appropriated joint angles to get a
MODELLING, PLANNING AND CONTROL certain desired position and orientation of the end-effector
(Siciliano, et al., 2009).
Executing the functional task of a robotic arm requires
predetermined sets of motions by the arm. The control y
system must be fed the accurate distances and coordinates
so that such information will be relayed to the system 𝜽𝟐 𝒍𝟐
p(x,y,𝜽)
actuators to give the desired motion. The information can
be obtained by analysis of the robotic arm’s mechanical
structure, actuators and sensors. The analysis will yield 𝒍𝟏 𝜸
mathematical models describing the input/output
relationship characterising the robot arm components 𝜷
(Siciliano, et al., 2009). Modelling a robot arm is therefore 𝜶
𝜽𝟐
a necessary step to finding motion control strategies.
x
Figure 3: Inverse kinematic; geometry of two link planar robot
2.1 ROBOT ARM MODELLING Goto (2011) obtained the appropriate joint angles from
Figure 3 (the same two link planar robot) as Equation 4 and
Kinematics is the study of motion while neglecting the Equation 7.
x2 +y2 −l2 2
1 −l2
forces that cause it (Craig, 2005). It is a statement form, θ2 = cos −1 [ ] (4)
2l1 l2
describing the geometric structure of a robot arm (Goto,
−1 l2 sin(θ2 )
2011). Kinematics defines the position of a frame relative β= sin [ 2 2 ] (5)
√x +y
to its original coordinates. Using kinematics model, as −1 y
explained by Goto (2011), a designer can determine the α = tan [ ] (6)
x
configuration of input reference that should be fed to every −1 l2 sin(θ2 ) y
θ1 = sin [ 2 2 ] + tan−1 [ ] (7)
actuator so that a robot can move all joints with specified √x +y x

coordinates to reach the desired position. Common The Jacobean defines the transformation between the
kinematic analyses carried out for the arm are the forward, robot hand (linear and angular) velocity and the joint
inverse kinematics and the Jacobean (differential velocity, and it is represented by a kinematic differential
kinematics). Forward kinematics is used to find the matrix (Craig, 2005).
position and orientation of a robot end-effector as a The Jacobean for the two link planar robot is derived as
function of its joint angles. Equation 11 (Asada, 2005; Dahdouh, 2017).
 The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

given tasks. This specification of the robot position as a

𝒙𝒆
y [𝒚 ] function of time is called a trajectory (Park and Lynch,
𝒆
2005). A trajectory is a path on which a timing law is
𝒍𝟐 specified and the path is a geometric description of motion.
𝜽𝟐 Siciliano, et al. (2005) stated two principal techniques for
trajectory planning.
𝒍𝟏 i. Point-to-point motion when the initial and final point
of the path are assigned.
𝜽𝟏 Suppose at initial time to joint variables satisfy q(to) = qo
and q̇ (to) = vo and final values desired at tf are q(tf) = qf and
x q̇ (tf) = vf Equation 13 has a unique solution for the
execution of trajectory. Cubic polynomial method is used
Figure 4: Two link planar arm to obtain this (Spong, et al., 2005). Figure 5 describes the
graph of coordinate against time for a typical trajectory
The kinematic equations relating the end-effecter planning sequence.
coordinates xe and ye as illustrated in Figure 4, to the joint 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜2 𝑡𝑜3 𝑎
0 𝑞𝑜
displacements θ1 and θ2 are given by Equation 8 and 0 1 2𝑡𝑜 3𝑡𝑜2 𝑎1 𝑣𝑜
Equation 9. 2 3 [ 𝑎 ] = [𝑞 ] (13)
1 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓 2 𝑓
2 𝑎 𝑣𝑓
xe (θ1 , θ2 )= l1 cosθ1 + l2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) (8) [0 1 2𝑡𝑓 3𝑡𝑓 ] 3

ye (θ1 , θ2 )= l1 sinθ1 + l2 sin(θ1 + θ2 ) (9)

The differential relationship between the joint and the qf 40

end-effecter motion is given by J, which is the Jacobean
(Dahdough, 2017).
𝛉 (degree)

∂xe (θ1 ,θ2 ) ∂xe (θ1 ,θ2 )

∂θ ∂θ2
20
J= (∂y (θ 1,θ ) ∂ye (θ1 ,θ2 )
) (10)
e 1 2
∂θ1 ∂θ2 qo 10

Therefore Equation 8 and Equation 9 become Equation 11. 2 4

Time (sec)
−l sinθ1 − l2 sin(θ1 + θ2 ) −l2 sin(θ1 + θ2 ) Figure 5: A typical joint space trajectory
J= ( 1 )
l1 cosθ1 + l2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) l2 cos(θ1 + θ2 )
ii. Motion through a sequence of points when a finite
(11) sequence of points are assigned along the path
The main aim of the trajectory planning is to generate the
T
For joint velocities denoted as q̇ = (θ̇1 , θ̇2 ) and end reference inputs for the arm control system and to find the
effector velocity vectors as ve= (ẋ e , ẏ e )T , the Jacobian minimum execution time, minimum energy requirement or
relates them in Equation 12 (Asada, 2005). actuator effort and minimum jerk to avoid wear of
component parts (Gasparetto, et al., 2012).
dxe dq
=J or ve = J. q̇ (12)
dt dt 2.3 ROBOT ARM CONTROL
The dynamics of the robot arm is also studied. The forces A robot controller converts the task data specified to
and moments acting on the arm are used to derive suitable forces and torques at the actuators. Most notable control
equations of motion for the arm (Spong, et al., 2005). The strategies are motion control, force control, hybrid motion-
dynamic model is used to design the mechanical structure, force control, and impedance control (Park and Lynch,
select appropriate actuators, determine the most suitable 2016).
control strategies, and provide accurate data for computer
simulation (Siciliano, et al., 2005).
2.2 ROBOT ARM TRAJECTORY
PLANNING
The robot arm is constantly provided with desired positions
and velocities to track, to enable successful completion of
 The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

Forces
Low High
and
Desired power power
torques
behaviour controls controls Dynamics of
Actuators and
Controller Amplifiers arm and
transmissions
Local environment
feedback
Motions
and forces
Sensors

Figure 7: A typical robot control system.

An inner control loop is used to help the amplifier and actuator achieve
the desired force or torque.
3.2 POWER AMPLIFIER
3 ACTUATING SYSTEM
The power amplifier modulates the action of a control
3.1 POWER SUPPLY signal, the power flow which is provided by the primary
supply and has to be delivered to the actuators for the
Power is supplied is to the amplifier for operating the execution of the desired motion. It does this by taking a
actuating system via an electric or hydraulic servomotor fraction of the power available then transmits same to the
(Siciliano, et al., 2005). Most of robotic systems today are motor in terms of most suitable force and flow quantities.
powered by electric motors (Asada, 2005). Sawicz (2012) DC-to-DC converter (amplifiers) otherwise known as
defined a servomotor as an actuator (rotary or linear) that choppers are used to control permanent-magnet DC
allows for precise control of angular or linear position, servomotors, whereas DC-to-AC or inverters are used to
velocity and acceleration. Figure 8 gives the detailed control brushless DC servomotor (Siciliano, et al., 2005).
anatomy for a typical servomotor. Servo motors are
categorised into three.
3.3 TRANSMISSION
i. Pneumatic motors which utilize the pneumatic energy
The movement of the robot arm joint requires low
provided by a compressor and transform it into
speeds but high torques, which is why gears are essential
mechanical energy by means of pistons or turbines.
since servomotors typically provide high speeds with low
ii. Hydraulic motors which transform the hydraulic
torques in optimal operating conditions. A Transmission
energy stored in a reservoir into mechanical energy
(gear) optimizes the transfer of mechanical power from the
by means of suitable pumps.
motor to the joint (Siciliano, et al., 2005).
iii. Electric motors whose primary supply is the electric
The following transmissions are typically used for
energy available from the electric distribution system.
industrial robots:
i. Spur gears that modify the characteristics of the
rotational motion of the motor by changing the axis of
rotation and/or by translating the application point.
ii. Lead screws that convert rotational motion of the
motor into translational motion, as needed for
actuation of prismatic joints; in order to reduce
friction, ball screws are usually employed that are
preloaded so as to increase stiffness and decrease
backlash.
iii. Timing belts and chains which are equivalent from a
kinematic viewpoint and are employed to locate the
motor remotely from the axis of the actuated joint.
The stress on timing belts may cause strain, and then
these are used in applications requiring high speeds
Figure 8: servo motor anatomy (Source: and low forces. On the other hand, chains are used in
https://www.quora.com/How-does-a-servo-motor-work) applications requiring low speeds, since their large
mass may induce vibration at high speeds.
The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

4 CONCLUSION
The growing demands for technological innovation to Karabegović, I. (2016). The role of industrial robots in the
enable empowerment of developing nations such as development of automotive industry in China.
Nigeria require new and creative educational initiatives. International Journal of Engineering Works. 3(12), 92-
This paper reviews the fundamental requirements 97.
necessary for the development of robotic arms. Published
literature have been reviewed, briefly detailing the Moran, M. E. (2007). Journal of Robotic Surgery.
important definitions, analyses of the robot manipulator 1(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11701-006-
mechanical structure, its modelling, planning and control. 0002-x
An overview of robot arm evolution has also been
presented. Occupational Safety and Health and Administration
(OSHA). Industrial robots and robot system safety.
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 The Federal Polytechnic Bida, School of Engineering Technology, 8th National Engineering Conference 2018

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