SUMMARY OF COURSE FORMULAS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

μ (centipoise)
𝜈 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 =
ρ (grams per cm3 )
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

WEIGHT DENSITY OF LIQUIDS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

WEIGHT DENSITY

The weight density or specific weight of a substance is its weight per unit volume

𝑚 (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝜌 (𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) =
V (volume)

POUNDS / CUBIC FOOT

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC VOLUME

The specific volume is the reciprocal of the weight density

1
𝑉 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) =
ρ (weight density)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

WEIGHT DENSITY OF GASES AND VAPORS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

IDEAL GASES ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

(PSIA)

144 x P
ρ (weight density) =
RxT

INDIVIDUAL GAS CONSTANT ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

(RANKINE °R)

1545.35
R= GAS MOLECULAR WEIGHT
MW (GRAM/MOL)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity is a relative measure of the weight density

ρ(liquid at specified temperature)

S=
ρ(water at 60°F)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

141.5
API scale Oils S (60°F) =
131.5 + Deg API
140
BAUME scale Heavier than water S (60°F) =
130 + Deg BAUME
145
BAUME scale Lighter than water S (60°F) =
145 − Deg BAUME
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY GASES

MW (gas)
S=
MW (air)
 NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE :
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

VELOCITY = 0

LAMINAR
MAX VELOCITY
FLOW
VELOCITY = 0

TURBULENT
FLOW
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

MEAN VELOCITY OF FLOW

NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

VELOCITY

MEAN

AVERAGE VELOCITY

AT A GIVEN CROSS SECTION

Rate of flow (ft 3 /s)

Velocity (ft/s) =
Cross sectional area (ft 2 )
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

VELOCITY

MEAN

AVERAGE VELOCITY

AT A GIVEN CROSS SECTION

3
Rate of flow (ft
Rate /s)of flow (lb/s)
Velocity (ft/s) =
Cross sectional area (ftft2 ) x weight density (lb/ft 3 )
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

REASONABLE VELOCITY FOR THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH PIPE

SERVICE CONDITION REASONABLE VELOCITY (ft/s)

Boiler feed 8 to 15
Pump suction 4 to 7
General services 4 to 10
City up to 7
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

REASONABLE VELOCITY FOR THE FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH PIPE

REASONABLE
CONDITION PRESSURE
SERVICE VELOCITY
OF STEAM (psig)
(ft/min)
0 to 25 Heating 4000 to 6000
Saturated
25 and up Process piping 6000 to 10000
Boiler and turbine
Superheated 200 and up 7000 to 20000
leads
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

REYNOLDS NUMBER
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

DENSITY VISCOSITY VELOCITY

LAMINAR
DIAMETER
FLOW

TURBULEN
DIAMETER T
FLOW

OSBORNE REYNOLDS
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

Dvρ
Re =
μ

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

μ : Absolute viscosity (lb/ft.s)

OSBORNE REYNOLDS
NATURE OF FLOW IN PIPE

LAMINAR
Re < 2000

TURBULENT
Re > 4000
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

The Bernoulli theorem is a means of expressing

the application of the law of conservation of
energy to the flow of fluids in a conduit

DANIEL BERNOULLI
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

144 P1 v12 144 P2 v22

Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hL
ρ 2g ρ 2g

H : Total head or fluid energy (ft)

hL Z : Potential head or Elevation above reference level (ft)

P : Gauge pressure (psig)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Above Atmospheric Pressure

pressure
Gauge
Gauge + Barometric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
14.7 psia Sea level

Vacuum

Barometric pressure
Below Atmospheric Pressure

Absolute Zero Pressure – Perfect Vacuum

0 psia
P1 P1 > P2 P2

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP

FLOW

L
THROUGH PIPE
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

L v2 L : Length of pipe (ft)

hL = f
D 2g D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

HENRY DARCY
g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

ρ L v2 L : Length of pipe (ft)

∆P = f
144 D 2g D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

HENRY DARCY
g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

ρ L v2
∆P = f
144 D 2g

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

Pipe of constant diameter
ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) Carrying fluids of constant weight density

L : Length of pipe (ft)
In straight pipe Horizontal
D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)
Vertical
v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2 Sloping

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

FRICTION FACTOR
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

ρ L v2
∆P = f
144 D 2g

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

L : Length of pipe (ft)

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

HENRY DARCY
g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

LAMINAR
Re < 2000
f ~ Re

TURBULENT
Re > 4000
f ~ Re + pipe wall
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

ρ L v2 LAMINAR
∆P = f
144 D 2g Re < 2000

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

64 64μ
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) f= =
Re 124dvρ
L : Length of pipe (ft)

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s) μ : Absolute viscosity (cP)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2 d : Internal diameter (in)

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

−4
μLv LAMINAR
∆P = 6.68 x 10
d2 Re < 2000

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

μ : Absolute viscosity (cP)

L : Length of pipe (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

d : Internal diameter (in)

POISEUILLE
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

ρ L v2 TURBULENT
∆P = f
144 D 2g Re > 4000

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

ε
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) Relative roughness =
D
L : Length of pipe (ft)

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s) ε : Roughness of the pipe walls (ft)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2 D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

FRICTION FACTOR :
COLEBROOK EQUATION
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

1 ε 2.51
= −2log +
f 3.7D Re f

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

ε : Roughness of the pipe walls (ft)

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

Re : Reynolds number (unitless)

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

APPROXIMATIONS OF COLEBROOK
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

COLEBROOK EQUATION SERGHIDE EQUATION

1 ε 2.51 −2
= −2log + B−A 2
3.7D f= A−
f Re f C − 2B + A
Where :
ε 12
A = −2log +
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) 3.7D Re
ε 2.51A
ε : Roughness of the pipe walls (ft) B = −2log +
3.7D Re
D : Pipe internal diameter (ft) ε 2.51B
C = −2log +
Re : Reynolds number (unitless)
3.7D Re
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

SWAMEE-JAIN EQUATION

0.25
f= 2
ε 5.74
log⁡
( + 0.9 )
3.7D Re

ε : Roughness of the pipe walls (ft)

D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
FOR FLOW OF WATER
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA

Q1.85
∆P𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 4.52 1.85 4.87
C d

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

Q : Rate of flow (gpm)

Fully turbulent flow
C : Hazen-Williams factor
Fluids similar to 60°F water
d : Internal diameter (in)
HEAD LOSS AND PRESSURE DROP THROUGH PIPE

HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA

Q1.85
∆P𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 4.52 1.85 4.87
C d

PIPE OF TUBE HAZEN-WILLIAMS C VALUE

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
Unlined cast or ductile iron 100
Q : Rate of flow (gpm) Galvanized steel 120

C : Hazen-Williams factor Plastic 150

Cement lined cast 140

d : Internal diameter (in)
Copper tube or stainless steel 150
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2
PRESSURE

FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

SPECIFIC VOLUME
L

POLYTROPIC
P : Absolute pressure (psia)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

n
PV = C
n : Constant

C : Constant
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2
PRESSURE

FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

SPECIFIC VOLUME
L

ADIABATIC
P : Absolute pressure (psia)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

n
PV = C
n : Constant

C : Constant
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2
PRESSURE

FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

SPECIFIC VOLUME
L

ADIABATIC
P : Absolute pressure (psia)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

k
PV = C Cp : Specific heat at constant pressure
k : ratio Cp/Cv
Cv : Specific heat at constant volume
C : Constant
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2
PRESSURE

FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

SPECIFIC VOLUME
L

ISOTHERMAL
P : Absolute pressure (psia)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

n
PV = C
n : Constant

C : Constant
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2
PRESSURE

FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

SPECIFIC VOLUME
L

ISOTHERMAL
P : Absolute pressure (psia)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

n
PV = C
n : Constant = 1

C : Constant
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

DEFINITION OF A PERFECT GAS

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

PERFECT GAS

P : Absolute pressure (atm) H2

PV = nRT V : Volume of fluid (L)
O2
n : Number of moles (moles)

R : Constant = 0.08206 N2
Constant specific heat ratio k = Cp/Cv T : Temperature (°K)
CO

k = Cp/Cv varies only with temperature k = 1.4

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

SPEED OF SOUND
PERFECT
GAS
It is the speed at which the pressure wave is transmitted

c : Speed of sound in a fluid (ft/s)

c= kgRT k : Specific heat ratio = Cp/Cv

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

R : Individual gas constant = 1545.35/MW

MW : Gas molecular weight

T : Absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

MACH NUMBER

A dimensionless ratio of the velocity of the fluid to the speed of sound in the fluid
at local conditions

v M : Mach number (unitless)

M=
c v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

c : Speed of sound in a fluid (ft/s)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

COMPLETE ISOTHERMAL EQUATION

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

ISOTHERMAL
144gA 2
P12 − P22
w2 =
L P P1
V1 f + 2ln 1
D P2

w : Rate of flow (lb/s)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
ASSUMPTIONS
A : Cross section area (ft2)
V1 : Specific volume of fluid upstream (ft3/lb)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia) No mechanical work Constant friction factor
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline
L : Length of pipe (ft)
D : Pipe internal diameter (ft) Perfect gas law
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

SIMPLIFIED ISOTHERMAL
GAS PIPELINE EQUATION
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE
2 2 2
144gDA P1 − P2
w2 =
V1 fL P1

w : Rate of flow (lb/s)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
ASSUMPTIONS
A : Cross section area (ft2)
V1 : Specific volume of fluid upstream (ft3/lb)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
No mechanical work Constant friction factor P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline
L : Length of pipe (ft)
Perfect gas law Long pipeline to neglect acceleration D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE
0.5
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 3.2308 d2.5
Pb fLm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
ASSUMPTIONS Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)

No mechanical work Constant friction factor f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
Perfect gas law Long pipeline to neglect acceleration
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

OTHER COMMONLY USED EQUATIONS

FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
IN LONG PIPELINES
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE WEYMOUTH FULLY TURBULENT FLOW

0.5
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 18.062 d2.667
Pb Lm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
ASSUMPTIONS Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)

No mechanical work Constant friction factor Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)

Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
Perfect gas law Long pipeline to neglect acceleration
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE PANHANDLE A PARTIALLY TURBULENT FLOW

1.0788 0.5394
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 18.161E 0.8539 d2.6182
Pb Lm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
ASSUMPTIONS Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)

No mechanical work Constant friction factor Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)

Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
Perfect gas law Long pipeline to neglect acceleration
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE PANHANDLE B FULLY TURBULENT FLOW

1.02 0.510
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 30.708E 0.961 d2.53
Pb Lm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
ASSUMPTIONS Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Isothermal flow Average velocity
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)

No mechanical work Constant friction factor Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)

Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Steady flow Straight horizontal pipeline Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
Perfect gas law Long pipeline to neglect acceleration
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE
0.5
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 3.2308 d2.5
Pb fLm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
Partially Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Fully turbulent flow
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)
Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)
1 Re f
= 2Ff log Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
f 2.825 Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
Ff = 0.9 ~ 0.99
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE
0.5
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 3.2308 d2.5
Pb fLm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R
Partially Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
Fully turbulent flow
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)
f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)
Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)
1 3.7D Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
= 2log
f ε Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

MODIFICATIONS TO THE ISOTHERMAL

FLOW EQUATION
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

Accounts for real gas behavior that deviates from the ideal gas equation

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Accounts for elevation changes

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

GAS PIPELINE
WEYMOUTH
0.5
Tb P12 − P22
qs = 18.062 d2.667
Pb Lm Tavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh)

Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R ~35 - 100
Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia
psig
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia)
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia)
Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29 ~1000 - 3200
d : Pipe internal diameter (in) psig
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

PV
Z=
RT

Z : Compressibility factor (unitless)

P : Absolute pressure in lb/ft2 (psfa)

V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)

R : Individual gas constant = 1545.35/MW

T : Absolute temperature (°R)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR

Evaluated at average conditions of the flowing gas

Tavg : average temperature of the flowing gas

Pavg : arithmetic mean of the upstream and downstream pressures ∆P < 0.2%

∆P > 0.2%
3 3
2 P1 − P2 P1 : Absolute upstream pressure in lb/in2 (psia)
Pavg = 2− P 2
3 P1 2 P2 : Absolute downstream pressure in lb/in2 (psia)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Accounts for elevation changes

Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29

2 ∆z : Elevation above reference level (ft)

Sg ∆z Pavg
φ = 0.0375 Pavg : Average absolute pressure in lb/in2 (psia)
Tavg Zavg
Zavg : Average Compressibility factor (unitless)

Tavg : Average absolute temperature (°R)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

0.5
Tb P1 2 − P2 2 − φ
qs = 3.2308 d2.5
Pb fLm Tavg Zavg Sg

qs : Rate of flow at standard conditions (ft3/h) (scfh) Lm : Length of pipe in miles (ml)
Tb : Absolute temperature at standard conditions = 520 °R Tavg : Average temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
Pb : Absolute pressure at standard conditions = 14.7 psia Zavg : Average Compressibility factor (unitless)
P1 : Absolute pressure upstream (psia) Sg : Specific gravity of gas relative to air = MW(gas)/29
P2 : Absolute pressure downstream (psia) d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
φ : Potential energy to account for elevation changes
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

LIMITING FLOW OF GASES AND VAPORS

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

CHOKED FLOW

The mass flow rate of a compressible fluid in a pipe, with a given upstream pressure will
approach a certain maximum which it cannot exceed no matter how much the
downstream pressure is reduced

The maximum velocity of a compressible fluid in a pipe is limited by the speed of sound
in the fluid

P1 ∆P ↑↑ P2

SONIC
FLOW
VELOCITY
+ TURBULENCE
L
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

SONIC VELOCITY
c : Speed of sound in a fluid (ft/s)

k : Specific heat ratio = Cp/Cv

vs = c = kgRT g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

R : Individual gas constant = 1545.35/MW

T : Absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)

P1 ∆P ↑↑ P2

SONIC
FLOW
VELOCITY
+ TURBULENCE
L
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPE

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW

w : Rate of flow (lb/s)

Y : Net expansion factor for compressible flow (unitless)

2
∆P d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
w = 0.525Yd ∆P : Gauge pressure (psig)
KV
K : Resistance coefficient (unitless)
V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH
VALVES AND FITTINGS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

PRESSURE DROP ATTRIBUTED TO

VALVES AND FITTINGS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW FLOW

Any impediment in the pipe which changes the direction of the whole stream or even part
of it, will :

alter the characteristic flow pattern

create turbulence

cause an energy loss greater than normally accompanying flow in straight pipe
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW FLOW

P1 > P3 P2 > P3
P1 P3

FLOW FLOW

Valve ∆P
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

P1 > P3
The loss of pressure
produced by a valve P1 P3
or fitting consists of :

FLOW FLOW
The pressure drop within
the valve itself
∆P
SMALL

The pressure drop in the upstream piping in excess of that which would normally
Valve
occur if there were no valve in the line
LARGE

The pressure drop in the downstream piping in excess of that which would normally
occur if there were no valve in the line
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

P1
∆P1 P3

FLOW FLOW

a d b
∆P1 > ∆P2
P1 ∆P2 P2

FLOW d FLOW

C
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

P1
∆P1 P3

FLOW FLOW

a d b

Valve loss = ∆P1 − Pipe section "a + b" loss

Resistance coefficient “K”
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

RELATIONSHIP OF PRESSURE DROP

TO VELOCITY OF FLOW
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

valves
Head loss ( ) ≈ Velocity𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
fittings

TURBULENT
~1.8 – 2.1
Re > 4000
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

valves
Head loss ( ) ≈ Velocity𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
fittings

TURBULENT
=2
Re > 4000
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

valves
Head loss ( ) ≈ Velocity2
fittings

VALID FOR CHECK VALVES

Only if there is sufficient flow to hold the

disc in a wide open position

Wide open position

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT “K”

FOR PIPELINES, VALVES AND FITTINGS
IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS SERIES
P1
∆P or HEAD LOSS P2

HEAD LOSS
ELBOW #1

FLOW ELBOW #1
HEAD LOSS
PIPE #3
PIPE #1 BALL VALVE PIPE #2 HEAD LOSS
PIPE #3
HEAD LOSS HEAD LOSS HEAD LOSS CONTRAC.
PIPE #1 VALVE PIPE #2
SUDDEN CONTRACTION
ELBOW #2
FLOW
HEAD LOSS
ELBOW #2
Components in series PIPE #4 PIPE #5
HEAD LOSS HEAD LOSS
PIPE #4 PIPE #5

K total = K1 + K 2 + K 3 + ⋯ + K n
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS PARALLEL
P1
∆P or HEAD LOSS P2

PIPE #3 PIPE #4 PIPE #5

ELBOW #1 ELBOW #3
SUDDEN CONTRACTION SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT
BALL VALVE #1
FLOW
PIPE #1

PIPE #6

FLOW BALL VALVE #2

PIPE #2

ELBOW #2 ELBOW #4

1 1 1 1 1
Components in parallel = + + + ⋯+
K total K1 K2 K3 Kn
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

FLOW COEFFICIENT “Cv”

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

Express the valve capacity and the valve flow

characteristics in terms of the flow coefficient Cv

Kv is the metric equivalent of Cv

K v = 0.865Cv

Cv is also used to characterize the hydraulic

performance of other components
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

SIMPLE DEFINITION OF “Cv”

Amount of water flow

At 60°F

In gallons per minute (gpm)

At a pressure drop of 1 pound per square inch (1 psi)

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

SIMPLE DEFINITION OF “Cv”

For fluids other than water :

Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components

Q : Rate of flow (gpm)

S
Cv = Q S : Specific gravity of liquids at specified temperature
∆P relative to water at 60°F and 14.7 psia

∆P : Pressure differential in lb/in2 (psi)

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

RELATION BETWEEN “Cv” AND “K”

Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components

d2 d : Pipe internal diameter (in)

Cv = 29.84 K : Resistance coefficient (unitless)
K
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

v2 K : Resistance coefficient (unitless)

hL = K
2g v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components

Q : Rate of flow (gpm)

S S : Specific gravity of liquids at specified temperature
Cv = Q relative to water at 60°F and 14.7 psia
∆P
∆P : Pressure differential in lb/in2 (psi)
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

FLOW COEFFICIENT “Cv”

FOR PIPELINES, VALVES AND FITTINGS
IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

SERIES

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
Cv 2total Cv 12 Cv 22 Cv 23 Cv 2n

PARALLEL

Cv total = Cv 1 + Cv 2 + Cv 3 + ⋯ + Cv n
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

LAMINAR FLOW CONDITIONS

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

LAMINAR
Re < 2000

TURBULENT
Re > 4000
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

ALL FLOWS
HEAD LOSS EQUATION
LAMINAR

64 L v2
f= hL = f
Re D 2g

POISEUILLE f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) μ : Absolute viscosity (cP)

L : Length of pipe (ft) d : Internal diameter (in)
D : Pipe internal diameter (ft) ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)
μLϑ
hL = 0.0962 2 v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s) g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
d ρ Re : Reynolds number (unitless)
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS ALL FLOWS

HEAD LOSS EQUATION

Dvρ
Re =
μ
L v2 L
hL = f K=f
D 2g D

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless) μ : Absolute viscosity (cP)

L : Length of pipe (ft) d : Internal diameter (in)
D : Pipe internal diameter (ft) ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)
v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s) g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2
Re : Reynolds number (unitless)
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

CONTRACTION AND ENLARGEMENT

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS SUDDEN

ENLARGEMENT CONTRACTION

2 2
d1 d1 2
K1 = 1 − K1 = 0.5 1 −
d2 2
d2 2

FLOW d1 d2 FLOW FLOW d2 d1 FLOW

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS SUDDEN

ENLARGEMENT CONTRACTION

K1 = 1 − β2 2 K1 = 0.5 1 − β2

FLOW d1 d2 FLOW FLOW d2 d1 FLOW

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

RESISTANCE OF BENDS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

S SECONDARY FLOW
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

RESISTANCE OF BENDS TO FLOW

Loss due to curvature “hc”

Excess loss in the downstream tangent “hp”

Loss due to pipe length “hL”

VELOCITY HEAD
htotal = hc + hp + hL v2
hb = K b
hb 2g
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

d
r/d K r/d K
r
1 20 fT 8 24 fT
1.5 14 fT 10 30 fT
2 12 fT 12 34 fT
3 12 fT 14 38 fT
VELOCITY HEAD
4 14 fT 16 42 fT
v2
6 17 fT 20 50 fT hb = K b
2g
90° PIPE BENDS AND FLANGED
OR BUTT-WELDING 90° ELBOWS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

d
r/d K r/d K
r
1 20 fT 8 24 fT
1.5 14 fT 10 30 fT
n : Number of 90° bends
2 12 fT 12 34 fT
K : Resistance coefficient for 90° bend
3 12 fT 14 38 fT
4 14 fT 16 42 fT
6 17 fT 20 50 fT r
Kb = n − 1 0.25πfT + 0.5K + K
d
90° PIPE BENDS AND FLANGED
OR BUTT-WELDING 90° ELBOWS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

α K
0° 2 fT
15° 4 fT
30° 8 fT
α
45° 15 fT
60° 25 fT
75° 40 fT
90° 60 fT

MITRE BENDS
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE
OF TEES AND WYES
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS COMBINE FLOWS

FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2

FLOW 2

TEES WYES
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS DIVIDE FLOW

FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2

FLOW 2

TEES WYES
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS
COMBINE FLOWS

FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2

STRAIGHT COMBINED STRAIGHT COMBINED

FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2

BRANCH BRANCH
FLOW 2
DIVIDE FLOW

FLOW 2
DIVIDE FLOW
TEES WYES
FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2
TEES WYES
COMBINED STRAIGHT COMBINED STRAIGHT
FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2 FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2

BRANCH BRANCH
FLOW 2

FLOW 2
TEES WYES
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

Krun

FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2

STRAIGHT COMBINED
Kbranch
BRANCH
FLOW 2
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

Krun
Krun AND Kbranch DEPEND ON :
FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2

STRAIGHT COMBINED
Cross sectional area ratios of the legs Kbranch
BRANCH
The angle between the legs FLOW 2

The ratio of the flow rates

Abranch dbranch 2 dbranch 2

Converging or diverging ? = 2 = = β2
Acombined dcombined dcombined
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE
OF TEES AND WYES
1. CONVERGING FLOW
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS
Krun
Kbranch Krun
FLOW 1 FLOW 1 + 2
Angle C D E F C D E F
STRAIGHT COMBINED
30 1 2 1.74 1 0 1 1.74 Kbranch
See BRANCH
45 green 1 2 1.74 1 0 1 1.74
FLOW 2
60 table 1 2 1 1 0 1 1
 Qbranch / Qcomb
90 1 2 0 Use equation in green box ≤ 0.4 > 0.4

> 0.35 ≤ 0.35

2 C= 1
Qbranch Qbranch

β2branch
K run ≈ 1.55 − Qbranch
Qcomb Qcomb C = 0.9 1 −
Qcomb C = 0.55

2 2 2
Qbranch 1 Qbranch 1 Qbranch
K branch or K run =C 1+D 2 −E 1− −F 2
Qcomb βbranch Qcomb βbranch Qcomb
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE
OF TEES AND WYES
2. DIVERGING FLOW
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS
Krun

BRANCH FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2

COMBINED STRAIGHT
Kbranch
α G H J BRANCH
FLOW 2
0 – 60° See green table  1 2
Qbranch / Qcomb

≤ 0.4 > 0.4

α = 90° at βbranch ≤ 2/3 1 1 2
Qbranch

≤ 0.35
2 G = 1.1 − 0.7 G = 0.85
Qbranch Qcomb
α = 90° at βbranch =1 0.3 0

β2branch
G = 1 + 0.3
Qcomb
Qbranch

> 0.35
G = 1 − 0.6 G = 0.6
Qcomb

2
Qbranch 1 Qbranch 1
K branch =G 1+H 2 −J 2 cos α
Qcomb βbranch Qcomb βbranch
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS
Krun

RUN FLOW 1 FLOW 1 - 2

COMBINED STRAIGHT
Kbranch
2
Qbranch BRANCH
K run =M FLOW 2
Qcomb

Qbranch / Qcomb

≤ 0.5 > 0.5

≤ 0.4

M = 0.4
β2branch

Qbranch Qbranch
> 0.4

M=2 2 −1 M = 0.3 2 −1
Qcomb Qcomb
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS

DISCHARGE OF FLUIDS THROUGH

VALVES, FITTINGS AND PIPE
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS LIQUID FLOW

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

f : Darcy friction factor (unitless)

2
ρ L v L : Length of pipe (ft)
∆P = f
144 D 2g D : Pipe internal diameter (ft)

v : Mean velocity of flow (ft/s)

HENRY DARCY

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS LIQUID FLOW

KQ2
hL = 0.002593 2
d hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

K : Resistance coefficient (unitless)

Q : Rate of fluid flow (gpm)

d : Internal diameter (in)

2
hL
Q = 19.64 d
K K : Sum of all the resistances
in the piping system
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

P1 P1 > P2 P2

FLOW

w : Rate of flow (lb/s)

Y : Net expansion factor for compressible flow (unitless)

2
∆P d : Pipe internal diameter (in)
w = 0.525 Y d ∆P : Gauge pressure (psig)
KV1
K : Resistance coefficient (unitless)
V : Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)
 REGULATING FLOW
WITH CONTROL VALVES
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

INHERENT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

INHERENT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Plot of the valve position vs flow coefficient Cv

Flow rate in gpm of 60°F

At various position of valve travel

With fixed ∆P = 1 psi

Cv : Valve flow coefficient

Q Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
Cv =
∆P Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
Fp ∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
S
S : Specific gravity of liquid
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

INHERENT CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

100

Quick opening
80

% OF MAXIMUM Cv
60
Linear
40

Equal percentage 20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
VALVE OPENING (%)
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

INSTALLED CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Plot of the valve position vs % maximum flow rate

Installed curve # Inherent curve

Installed curve shifted UP and to the LEFT

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

FCV

225 100

SUPPLY
MAX 80

Cv
TANK

% OF MAXIMUM Cv
60
PRODUCT
TANK
40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
VALVE OPENING (%)

PUMP
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

PRESSURE, VELOCITY AND ENERGY PROFILES

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

1 INLET P1 − P2
2 VENA CONTRACTA FL =
P1 − Pvc
3 OUTLET

INLET OUTLET

VELOCITY
PRESSURE

P1

P2

Pvc

1 2 3
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

CAVITATION, CHOCKED FLOW AND FLASHING

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

1 INLET
2 VENA CONTRACTA
3 OUTLET
Q
INLET OUTLET VELOCITY Cv =
PRESSURE
∆P
VAPOR PRESSURE
Fp
S

VAPOR
PRESSURE
1 2 3 Cv : Valve flow coefficient
Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE
S : Specific gravity of liquid

FLOW RATE
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

1 INLET
2 VENA CONTRACTA
3 OUTLET Qmax

Q : Volumetric flow rate

INLET OUTLET VELOCITY
PRESSURE Fully Flashing
VAPOR PRESSURE Onset of chocked P < Vapor P
incipient
cavitation
Cv = Q/ ∆P/S
VAPOR
PRESSURE
1 2 3

√∆P/S

Severe erosion and damage to the valve

CAVITATION
Increased noise levels & vibration

Flow rate deviates from that predicted by Cv

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

SIZING FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW

Cv : Valve flow coefficient

Q Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
 NON CHOCKED Cv =
∆P Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
Fp ∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
S
 TURBULENT FLOW S : Specific gravity of liquid

 WITH OR WITHOUT 2D 6D
FITTINGS

FLOW FLOW

BALL VALVE
Nominal pipe diamter (D)
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
1
Fp =
2 Cv : Valve flow coefficient
K Cv Q
1+ Cv = Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
890 dnom ,v 2 Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
∆P
Fp ∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
S
S : Specific gravity of liquid
∑K = K1 + K2 + KB1 - KB2
K1 : Upstream fittings resistance coefficient
K2 : Downstream fittings resistance coefficient
2D 6D
KB1 : Inlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 1)4
KB2 : Outlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 2)4
dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in) FLOW FLOW
dnom, 1 : Nominal pipe size upstream (in)
BALL VALVE
dnom, 2 : Nominal pipe size downstream (in)
Nominal pipe diamter (D)
Cv : Flow coefficient of assumed valve size at 100% open
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
1
Fp =
2 Cv : Valve flow coefficient
K Cv Q
1+ Cv = Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
890 dnom ,v 2 Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
∆P
Fp ∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
S
S : Specific gravity of liquid
∑K = K1 + K2 + KB1 - KB2
K1 : Upstream fittings resistance coefficient
K2 : Downstream fittings resistance coefficient
2D 6D
KB1 : Inlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 1)4
KB2 : Outlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 2)4
dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in) FLOW FLOW
dnom, 1 : Nominal pipe size upstream (in)
BALL VALVE
dnom, 2 : Nominal pipe size downstream (in)
Nominal pipe diamter (D)
REDUCER
Cv : Flow coefficient of assumed valve size at 100% open
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
Nominal pipe diamter (D) 2D 6D

REDUCER

FLOW FLOW

BALL VALVE

2 2
dnom ,v
K inlet
reducer = 0.5 1 −
dnom ,1 dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in)
dnom, 1 : Nominal pipe size upstream (in)
2 2 dnom, 2 : Nominal pipe size downstream (in)
dnom ,v
K out let
reducer =1 1−
dnom ,2
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
Nominal pipe diamter (D) 2D 6D

REDUCER

FLOW FLOW

BALL VALVE

2 2 4
dnom ,v dnom ,v
K inlet
reducer = 0.5 1 − K B1 =1−
dnom ,1 dnom ,1

2 2 4
dnom ,v dnom ,v
K out let
reducer =1 1− K B2 =1−
dnom ,2 dnom ,2
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
Nominal pipe diamter (D) 2D 6D

REDUCER

FLOW FLOW

BALL VALVE

2 2
dnom ,v dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in)
K = 1.5 1 − dnom : Nominal pipe size (in)
dnom
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
1
Fp =
2 Cv : Valve flow coefficient
K Cv Q
1+ Cv = Q : Rate of flow (gpm)
890 dnom ,v 2 Fp : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
∆P
Fp ∆P : Pressure differential (psi)
S
S : Specific gravity of liquids
∑K = K1 + K2 + KB1 - KB2
K1 : Upstream fittings resistance coefficient
K2 : Downstream fittings resistance coefficient
2D 6D
KB1 : Inlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 1)4
KB2 : Outlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 2)4
dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in) FLOW FLOW
dnom, 1 : Nominal pipe size upstream (in)
BALL VALVE
dnom, 2 : Nominal pipe size downstream (in)
Nominal pipe diamter (D)
Cv : Flow coefficient of assumed valve size at 100% open
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
MAXIMUM FLOW
RATE at which choking occurs
FL : Liquid pressure recovery factor (unitless)
Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components
P1 : Absolute upstream pressure (psia)
P1 − FF Pv
Qmax = FL Cv FF : Liquid critical pressure ratio factor (unitless)
S Pv : Absolute fluid vapor pressure (psia)
S : Specific gravity of liquids
FLP : Combined piping geometry and liquid pressure
MAXIMUM recovery factor (unitless)
∆P at which choking occurs FP : Piping geometry factor (unitless)

2
FLP
∆Pmax = FL 2 P1 − FF Pv ∆Pmax = P1 − FF Pv
FP
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
FF : Liquid critical pressure ratio factor

Pv
FF = 0.96 − 0.28
Pc

Pv : Absolute fluid vapor pressure (psia)

Pc : Fluid critical pressure (psia)
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
FLP : Combined piping geometry and liquid
pressure recovery factor

FL : Liquid pressure recovery factor (unitless)

FL FP : Piping geometry factor (unitless)
FLP = Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components
2
dnom, v : Nominal valve size (in)
2 Ki Cv
1 + FL ∑ Ki = K1 + KB1
890 dnom ,v 2
K1 : Upstream fittings resistance coefficient
KB1 : Inlet Bernoulli coefficient = 1 – (dnom, v / dnom, 1)4
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

SIZING FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

 REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
SIZING AND SELECTION

x
0.667 ≤ Y = 1 − ≤1
3Fk xT
COMPRESSIBILITY
∆P  Expansion factor “Y”
x=
P1
Cp APPLICABLE ONLY TO
Cv  Single phase gases or vapors
Fk = 1.4
xT ∶ Critical pressure drop factor for a valve without fittings
e drop factor for a valve without fittings
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
SIZING AND SELECTION
WITH
FITTINGS
x
Y=1−
3Fk xTP
COMPRESSIBILITY
xT /Fp 2  Expansion factor “Y”
xTP = 2
1 + xT
Ki Cv APPLICABLE ONLY TO
1000 dnom ,v 2
 Single phase gases or vapors
Cp
∆P
x= Cv
P1 Fk = 1.4
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
MASS FLOW
RATE
Cv : Flow coefficient for valves or piping components
W : Rate of flow (lb/h)
W
Cv = Y : Expansion factor (unitless)
63.3FP Y xP1 ρ1 x : Pressure drop ratio (unitless)

P1 : Absolute upstream pressure (psia)

ρ1 : Weight density of fluid upstream (lb/ft3)

VOLUMETRIC
qh : Rate of flow at standard conditions (scfh)
FLOW RATE
Sg : Specific gravity of a gas relative to air
T1 : Absolute upstream temperature (°Rankine)
qh
Cv = Zf : Compressibility factor (unitless)
x
1360FP P1 Y
Sg T1 Z
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

CONVERSION OF Cv TO Kv
REGULATING FLOW WITH CONTROL VALVES

CONVERSION OF Cv TO Kv

K v = 0.865Cv
 MEASURING FLOW WITH
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE OF ORIFICE PLATES

MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE

CORNER OR 1D – ½ D TAPS
d1 ≥ 0.5 inch
2 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 40 inch
0.10 ≤ β ≤ 0.75
Re ≥ 5000 for 0.10 ≤ β ≤ 0.56
FLANGE TAPS
1” upstream Re ≥ 16000β2 for β > 0.56
1” downstream
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE

FLANGE TAPS
d1 ≥ 0.5 inch
2 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 40 inch
0.10 ≤ β ≤ 0.75
Re ≥ 5000 and Re > 4.318β2 d2
FLANGE TAPS
1” upstream
1” downstream
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE

GASES
P2
0.8 < < 1
P1

PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL
FLANGE TAPS
1” upstream ∆P ≤ 36.31 psi
1” downstream
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE

STRAIGHT LENGTHS OF PIPE

ASME MFC-3M
STANDARD

FLANGE TAPS
1” upstream
1” downstream
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE OF FLOW NOZZLES

MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LONG RADIUS NOZZLE

LIMITS OF USE

LONG RADIUS NOZZLES

2 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 25 inch
0.20 ≤ β ≤ 0.80
104 ≤ Re ≤ 107
ε/d2 ≤ 3.2 x 10−4
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

ISA 1932 NOZZLE

LIMITS OF USE

ISA 1932 NOZZLE

2 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 20 inch
0.30 ≤ β ≤ 0.80
7 x 104 ≤ Re ≤ 107 for 0.30 ≤ β ≤ 0.44
2 x 104 ≤ Re ≤ 107 for 0.44 ≤ β ≤ 0.80
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

VENTURI NOZZLE
LIMITS OF USE

VENTURI NOZZLE

2.5 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 20 inch

d1 ≥ 2 inch
0.316 ≤ β ≤ 0.775
1.5 x 105 ≤ Re ≤ 2 x 106
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

Sensitive to flow conditions

NOZZLE

High temperature

High velocity

Sensitive to flow conditions ORIFICE

MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LONG RADIUS NOZZLE ISA 1932 NOZZLE VENTURI NOZZLE

STRAIGHT LENGTHS OF PIPE

ASME MFC-3M
STANDARD
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

LIMITS OF USE OF VENTURI METERS

MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

“AS CAST”
LIMITS OF USE

“AS CAST” CONVERGENT SECTION

FLOW

4 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 48 inch
0.30 ≤ β ≤ 0.75
2 x 105 ≤ Re ≤ 6 x 106
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

MACHINED
LIMITS OF USE

MACHINED CONVERGENT SECTION

FLOW

2 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 10 inch
0.30 ≤ β ≤ 0.75
2 x 105 ≤ Re ≤ 6 x 106
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

ROUGH-WELDED
LIMITS OF USE

ROUGH-WELDED CONVERGENT
SECTION
FLOW

4 inch ≤ d2 ≤ 48 inch
0.30 ≤ β ≤ 0.75
2 x 105 ≤ Re ≤ 6 x 106
MEASURING FLOW WITH DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METERS

ALL VENTURI
LIMITS OF USE

High flow rates

FLOW

High pressure recovery

High energy recovery

Unrecovered pressure < 10% ∆P

 LIQUID FLOW THROUGH
ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
AND PRESSURE LOSS
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

1 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (∆P or Dp) 2 PRESSURE LOSS (NRPD)

The difference between the absolute The permanent pressure loss or non-
pressures at the upstream and downstream recoverable pressure drop (NRPD) which is
taps, referred to as : the difference in static pressure between the
pressure measured on upstream side of the
primary device and that measured on the
dP or ∆P downstream side
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

ISA 1932 NOZZLE

2 PRESSURE LOSS (NRPD)
LONG RADIUS NOZZLE

The permanent pressure loss or non-

recoverable pressure drop (NRPD) which is
the difference in static pressure between the 1 − β4 1 − Cd 2 − Cd β2
pressure measured on upstream side of the NRPD = ∆P
primary device and that measured on the
downstream side 1 − β4 1 − Cd 2 + Cd β2

Cd : Discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VENTURI NOZZLES

2 PRESSURE LOSS (NRPD)

FLOW

The permanent pressure loss or non-

recoverable pressure drop (NRPD) which is
the difference in static pressure between the
pressure measured on upstream side of the
primary device and that measured on the
α2 ≤ 15°
downstream side

NRPD ≈ 5% − 20% ∆P
+∆Pstraight pipe
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

PRESSURE LOSS COEFFICIENT

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

ISA 1932 NOZZLE

PRESSURE LOSS COEFFICIENT
LONG RADIUS NOZZLE

2
1 − β4 1 − Cd 2
K= −1
Cd β2

Cd : Discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

RATE OF FLOW
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
RATE OF FLOW
MASS FLOW

q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

q = Cd A 2ghL
Cd : Discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles

A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

Cd A hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

q= 2ghL
1 − β4 β : Ratio of small to large diameter (Unitless)
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
FLOW COEFFICIENT “C”
MASS FLOW

Cd
C=
1 − β4

Cd : Discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles

β : Ratio of small to large diameter (Unitless)

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
RATE OF FLOW
MASS FLOW

q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

Cd : Discharge coefficient for orifices and nozzles

Cd A A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

q= 2ghL
1− β4 g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

β : Ratio of small to large diameter (Unitless)

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
RATE OF FLOW
MASS FLOW

q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

C : Flow coefficient

A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

q = CA 2ghL
g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

hL : Loss of static pressure head due to fluid flow (ft)

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
RATE OF FLOW
MASS FLOW

q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

C : Flow coefficient

2 x 144 g ∆P A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

q = CA
ρ g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VELOCITY

VOLUMETRIC FLOW
RATE OF FLOW
MASS FLOW
Incompressible fluids

Discharging to atmosphere q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

C : Flow coefficient

2 x 144 g ∆P A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

q = CA
ρ g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT “Cd”

ORIFICE PLATES
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES
ASME MFC-3M
Reader-Harris / Gallagher equation STANDARD

0.7 0.8 0.3

2
106 β
8
19000β 3.5
106
Cd = 0.5961 + 0.0261β − 0.216β + 0.000521 + 0.0188 + 0.0063 β
Re Re Re
0.8
19000β β4
+ 0.043 + 0.08e −10L 1
− 0.123e −7L 1
1 − 0.11 4
− 0.031(M2 − 0.8M2 1.1 )β1.3
Re 1−β

β : diameter ratio = d1/d2

2L2
Re : Pipe Reynolds number
M2 =
1−β
L1 : Ratio of the distance of the upstream tap from the
upstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter If d2 < 2.8 inch
L2 : Ratio of the distance of the downstream tap from the + 0.011(0.75 − β)(2.8 − d2 )
downstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

CORNER TAPS

L1 = L2 = 0
L1 : Ratio of the distance of the upstream tap from the
upstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter

L2 : Ratio of the distance of the downstream tap from the

downstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter

ASME MFC-3M
STANDARD
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

1D – ½ D TAPS

L1 = 1 L2 = 0.47
L1 : Ratio of the distance of the upstream tap from the
upstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter

L2 : Ratio of the distance of the downstream tap from the

downstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter

ASME MFC-3M
STANDARD
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

FLANGE TAPS
1
L1 = L2 =
d2
L1 : Ratio of the distance of the upstream tap from the
upstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter

L2 : Ratio of the distance of the downstream tap from the

downstream face of the plate and the pipe diameter
FLANGE TAPS

ASME MFC-3M
STANDARD
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT “Cd”

FLOW NOZZLES
 LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI FLOW NOZZLES

LONG RADIUS NOZZLE ISA 1932 NOZZLE VENTURI NOZZLE LONG RADIUS NOZZLE ISA 1932 NOZZLE VENTURI NOZZLE

0.5
106
Cd = 0.9965 − 0.00653β 0.5 Cd = 0.9858 − 0.196β4.5
Re

E ISA 1932 NOZZLE VENTURI NOZZLE

1.15
4.1 2 4.15
106
Cd = 0.99 − 0.2262β − (0.00175β − 0.0033β ) β : diameter ratio = d1/d2
Re
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT “Cd”

VENTURI METERS
LIQUID FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VENTURI METERS

“AS CAST” Cd = 0.984 FLOW

MACHINED Cd = 0.995 VENTURI

ASME MFC-3M
ROUGH-WELDED
STANDARD
Cd = 0.985
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH
ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

FLOW OF GASES
AND NET EXPANSIBILITY FACTOR “Y”
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

FLOW OF GASES AND VAPORS

q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

Y : Net expansibility factor (Unitless)

C : Flow coefficient
2 x 144 g ∆P
q = 𝐘CA A : Cross sectional area (ft2)
ρ
g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI

NET EXPANSIBILITY FACTOR “Y”

2 x 144 g ∆P
q = 𝐘CA
The specific heat ratio “k” ρ

The ratio β of orifice diameter to inlet diameter q : Rate of flow at flowing conditions (ft3/s)

Y : Net expansibility factor (Unitless)

Ratio of downstream to upstream absolute C : Flow coefficient
pressures
A : Cross sectional area (ft2)

g : Gravitational acceleration = 32.174 ft/s 2

∆P : Pressure differential (psi)

ρ : Weight density of fluid (lb/ft3)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI ORIFICE PLATES

NET EXPANSIBILITY FACTOR “Y”

1
P2 k
Y = 1 − (0.351 + 0.256β4 + 0.93β8 ) 1 −
P1

β : Ratio of orifice diameter to inlet diameter

P1 : Upstream absolute pressure (psia)

P2 : Downstream absolute pressure (psia)

k : Specific heat ratio

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND VENTURI VENTURI NOZZLES

ISA 1932 NOZZLE

NET EXPANSIBILITY FACTOR “Y”
LONG RADIUS NOZZLE

2 k−1 0.5
P2 k P2 k
k 1−
P1 1−β 4 P1
Y= 2
k−1 P2
P k 1−
1− β4 2 P1
P1

β : Ratio of orifice diameter to inlet diameter P1 : Upstream absolute pressure (psia)

k : Specific heat ratio P2 : Downstream absolute pressure (psia)