Chapter 5

Emergency Control and

Transient Stability
Analysis
 Emergency Control
• Depending upon condition, a power system may
be operated in several different states, as shown
in the transition diagram.
 Emergency Control
• More than 99% of time, a typical system is found in
its normal state. In this state, frequency and bus
voltages are kept at prescribed values by
appropriate schemes, i.e., maintaining balance
between real and reactive power demanded by
loads and those supplied by real and reactive
power sources.
• This match or equality between generation and
demand is a fundamental prerequisite for system
normalcy and is indicated by symbol E in transition
diagram.
 Emergency Control
• The second symbol ‘I’ indicates that certain
inequalities must also be observed in the normal
state. For example, the generator and transformer
loads must not exceed the rated values and the
transmission lines must not be loaded above their
thermal or static stability limits.
• The normal state must also be characterized by a
certain level of security which requires a certain
margin of generation in the form of spinning reserve.
• Should the generating margin fall below some
threshold or should a disturbance be deemed
imminent, then the security level is reduced and
the system enters the alert state.
 Emergency Control
• However, all equalities (E) and inequalities (I) are
still valid and the system still operates fully
synchronized and may continue to do so for any
length of time (with luck !). However, one would now
initiate Preventive control actions to restore proper
generation margin and/or eliminate disturbances so
as to return the system to the normal state.
• If preventive control fails or if a sufficiently severe
disturbance occurs, the system on occasion will
enter the emergency state. This state may be
reached either directly from the normal state or via
the alert state.
 Emergency Control
• In emergency, the generation still tracks the load
and the system is still synchronized. But one or
several components are now overloaded  I  and
as these components eventually fail, the system
will start to disintegrate.

• Hence, it is most urgent that system be returned to

normal (or alert) state by emergency control
actions, i.e., disconnection of faulted section,
rerouting of power, if everything else fails, load
shedding.
 Emergency Control
• If emergency control actions fails, the system will
go to extremis state, i.e., disintegrating into
sections or islands. Some of these islands may
contain sufficient generation to meet the load.
Typically, however, the generators will be strained
beyond their capacities (both E and I ).
• Generator overload is never tolerated. Thus,
considerable generator tripping will occur, may be
to the point of total blackout.
• The chain of events that will transfer the system from
normal to extremis may last from a few seconds to
several minutes.
 Emergency Control
• To bring it back to normal, i.e., going through the
restorative state, is a much slower process, lasting
hours, sometimes days. A large steam turbine that
has been shut down requires many hours to restart.
Lost loads can be picked up only gradually.

Reliability, Security and Transient Stability:

• Reliability and security are two concepts by which

the robustness of a power system against
disturbances can be assessed.
 Emergency Control
• Reliability is a probabilistic index exemplified by
loss-of-load probability (LOLP) defined as the
long-term average number of days on which daily
peak load exceeds the available generating
capacity. Determining the reliability is a problem
of computing the probability for generated
power to reach the load in a given system.

• Thus, in this sense, reliability will not change with

time and to achieve a certain level of reliability is a
system planning problem.
 Emergency Control
• Security is an operational problem that will change
with operating conditions. It depends not only upon
the reserve capacity available in a given situation
but also in contingent probability of disturbances.
By “reserve”, it means not only unused
generators but also number of parallel lines.
• Reliability can be given a precise mathematical
definition in terms of probabilities. It is generally
difficult to associate numerical indices to security.
• Transient stability is another concept often used in
assessing system robustness. A system is said
to be “transient stable” if all its generators are
kept operating in a parallel synchronous
mode.
 Emergency Control
• Under emergency, control actions may be initiated
from the Central Control Center either automatically
or by operator intervention.
Protective Relaying :
• When abnormal system conditions occur, three
basic objectives must be met.
(a) All endangered equipment must be protected
from damage.
(b) The faulted components must be isolated and, if
not damaged, reenergized as rapidly as possible.
(c) Service interruption should be minimized.
 Emergency Control
• Most fault protection jobs are performed by protective
relays that base their operation on measurement of
system variables such as voltage, current, frequency
etc.
• The relays constitute the brains in all protective
schemes. They continuously monitor various
electrical variables. When any variable falls outside
certain threshold values, the relay initiates control
action, for example, by energizing the trip coil of a
circuit breaker.
 Emergency Control
• The two overriding relay requirements are
reliability and selectivity. Relays may be called
upon to do their assigned duty after long periods of
idleness. Malfunctioning relays have been partly
responsible for some blackouts.

• Selectivity is the ability to function only for the

intended fault situation. A relay must never be
triggered by normal power flows, expected
switching transitions, transformer inrush current
etc.
 Emergency Control
• Some of the important relays are :
(1) Overcurrent relay
(2) Impedance (distance) relay
(3) Under – and overvoltage relays
(4) Under frequency relay

Line Reclosure :
• Lightning strike initiates the majority of faults on
transmission level, but in most instances, the line
insulation sustains no permanent damage. Following
the dissipation of electric charges to ground and de-
energization of the line, the insulation returns to
normal.
 Emergency Control
• In case of distribution lines small tree branches and
animals are the most common causes of line
faults. By letting the arc burn for a few moments,
the shorted object will ionize.

• In all these cases where the line insulation is self-

healing, the line can be rapidly reenergized. This
procedure is called as reclosure and is performed
automatically on command from timer-controlled
relays. Typically the line will be disconnected for a
period not longer than one second.
 Emergency Control
• Reclosure, if delayed too long, will cause a shock to
the system that may not be tolerated by its
generators.
• One bright example is that of a two-area system
discussed in the previous chapter. Assume that
power flows in direction 1 2 on the tie-line. The
prefault voltage phasors V10 and V20 are separated
by power angle 0 (as shown).
• Assume that a fault results in tripping of the tie-line.
In the post fault state, area 1 finds itself with a
power surplus and area 2 with an equal power
deficiency.
 Emergency Control

TIE-LINE TRIP CAUSES ACCELERATED

SEPARATION OF END-POINT VOLTAGE PHASORS
 Emergency Control
• Area 1 generators will experience acceleration
whereas those in area 2 will decelerate. The two
voltages would therefore move apart (shown as
dashed phasors)
• Phasor difference V1 - V2 is the jIXl drop across the
line reactance Xl. The length of this phasor is thus a
measure of the line current.

• If the two voltages are permitted too apart, the line

current following reclosure - the so-called returning
current – can be very high. The accompanying
returning power will also be large.
 Emergency Control
• This sudden returning power surge would be
accompanied by an equally large torque in the
synchronous generators in both areas. This torque
jolt may give rise to two separate phenomena :

(1) If the generator is of turbo type with long shaft

and several turbine sections, the turbine-generator
may be excited into subharmonic resonance. The
frequency of such oscillations would lie in the range
of 10 - 40 Hz and the oscillations may last for 5 –
10 seconds. The torque amplitudes could be large
enough to threaten the integrity of the shaft.
 Emergency Control
(2) As the returning power would flow in
direction 1  2 and be larger than prefault tie-line
power, it would tend to decelerate the generators
in area 1 and accelerate those in area 2.
Immediately before reclosure, the power angle 
was growing at an accelerated rate. Following the
reclosure, due to its momentum,  will continue to
grow but at a decelerating rate. Two end results
are possible :
(a)  will reach a maximum and then start to
decrease, eventually reaching its prefault value
after a few damped swings.
 Emergency Control
(b) Gained momentum would be too large and
although  growth would decelerate for a few
moments, the angle would grow beyond  - 0, thus
making tie-line power too small for resynchronization.
This would cause a further accelerating surge in 
resulting in eventual splitting of the two-area system.

In case (a), the system is transient – stable.

In case (b), the system is transient – unstable.
 Transient Stability Analysis

MECHANICAL ANALOG
OF POWER SYSTEM
TRANSIENT STABILITY

• A number of masses representing the generators in

electric system, are suspended from a network of
elastic springs (representing the transmission lines).
The system is in steady state with each string loaded
below its break point. This corresponds to each
transmission line operating below its stability limit.
 Transient Stability Analysis
• Now, one of the strings is suddenly cut (corresponding
to sudden loss of an electric line). The masses will go
through transient coupled motions and the forces in
strings will fluctuate. It may cause one of the effects :

(1) The system will settle down to a new

equilibrium state with a new set of string forces,
i.e., line powers in electric system.

(2) Due to transient forces, one additional string

will break, causing a more weaker network
resulting in a chain reaction of broken strings and
eventual total system collapse.
 Transient Stability Analysis
• If the system has inherent strength to survive the
disturbance and settle in a new steady state, it is
transient-stable for the specific fault. But it may not
be stable for another fault.
• A transient stability study of an electric energy
system proceeds as follows :
i. Following the disturbance, rotor angles will go
through transient deviations. Since the fault is
assumed to be large, the swings will be also
large.
ii. If the analysis can ascertain that all the individual
rotor angles will reach a new post-fault steady
state value, then the system is stable (transient).
 Transient Stability Analysis
• Thus, the key issue is the accuracy with which
post-fault rotor swings can be predicted. That is
related to dynamic model accuracy.
Basic Model Assumptions :
• All faults are symmetrical. These represent the
most severe contingencies.
• In the previous load-frequency analysis, all
generators in a control area are controlled in
unison. This coherency may not apply here.
Some generates may swing faster / slower.
• Individual power-angle dynamics of each generator
follows the 2nd order differential swing equation.
 Transient Stability Analysis
• Due to high machine inertia, the individual rotor
velocity deviations (with respect to nominal
frequency) are very small. For all practical purposes,
the static portion of the network (lines and
transformers) is assumed to be in steady state
(nominal frequency).
• All voltages, currents and powers can be
computed from algebraic power flow equations.
• Thus, the individual generators are described by
differential equations (swing equations) which are
mutually coupled via algebraic equations (power
flow equations) describing the lines and
transformers.
 Transient Stability Analysis
Rotor Dynamics & Swing Equation:
d 2m
J 2  Ta  Tm  Te N-m
dt
J = total moment of inertia of rotor masses (kg – m2)
m = angular displacement of rotor with respect to a
stationary axis (mechanical radians)
Tm = mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime
mover (N–m)
Te = net electrical or electromagnetic torque (N–m)
Ta = net accelerating torque (N–m)
 Transient Stability Analysis
 Tm and Te are considered positive for synchronous
generator. Under steady state, Tm = Te and the
resultant constant speed is the synchronous speed.

 Governors do not act until after a change in

speed is sensed and so are not considered effective
during the time period in which rotor dynamics are of
interest in transient stability studies.
 Transient Stability Analysis
 As m is measured with respect to a stationary
reference axis on the stator, it is an absolute measure
of rotor angle. Consequently, it continuously increases
with time even at constant synchronous speed.
 Since the rotor speed relative to synchronous
speed is of interest, it is appropriate to measure the
rotor angular position with respect to a reference axis
which rotates at synchronous speed.
So, it is defined that : m = ωsmt + m
ωsm = synchronous speed (mech. rads/sec.)
m = angular displacement of rotor from the
synchronously rotating reference axis (mech. rad.)
 Transient Stability Analysis
d m d m d 2m d 2 m
So,  sm   2  2
dt dt dt dt
 So, rotor angular velocity is constant and equals the
synchronous speed only when
d m
 0.
d m dt
Thus, dt represents deviation of rotor speed from
synchronism.
d 2 m
So, J 2  Ta  Tm  Te (N – m)
dt
d m
Let m 
dt
 Transient Stability Analysis
d 2 m
 Jm 2
 Pa  Pm  Pe (W)
dt

Jωm = angular momentum of the rotor

= it is denoted as M at synchronous speed ωsm
and called the inertia constant of the machine.
d 2 m
 M 2  Pm  Pe
dt
{M is strictly not a constant as ωm is not equal to ωsm
under all conditions. However, ωm doesn’t differ
significantly from ωsm under stable conditions.}
 Transient Stability Analysis
H constant :
Stored kinetic energy in megajoules at sync. speed
H
machine rating in MVA
1
Msm
1/ 2J2
 sm
 2 MJ / MVA
Smach Smach
Smach = three-phase rating of the machine
2H
M Smach
sm
2H d 2 m Pa Pm  Pe
Thus,  
sm dt 2
Smach Smach
2H d 2
  Pm  Pe p.u.
s dt 2
 Transient Stability Analysis
So,  and ωs have consistent units which may be
mechanical or electrical.
ωs = sync. speed in electrical units
H d 2
  Pm  Pe ( in elect. rad.)
f dt 2

H d 2
 180f dt 2  Pm  Pe ( in elect. deg.)
• This is the Swing Equation.
Swing Eq. as two first-order Eqs. :
2H d d
 Pm  Pe and    s
s dt dt
 Transient Stability Analysis
 In a power system, it is necessary to convert H
constant for each machine based on its own individual
rating, to a value determined by the system base,
Ssystem .
Smach
Hsystem  Hmach
Ssystem

In a power plant, the machines within the plant can

be combined to a single equivalent machine just as if
their rotors were mechanically coupled and only one
swing equation can be written for them.
Ex: Take the case of two generators connected to the
same bus. The swing equations on the common
system base are :
 Transient Stability Analysis
2H1 d 2 1 2H 2 d 22
 Pm1  Pe1  Pm2  Pe2
s dt 2
s dt 2

 Adding the two equations and assuming that the

rotors swing together (1=2=)
2H d 
2
 Pm  Pe
s dt 2

where H = H1 + H2, Pm  Pm  Pm , Pe  Pe  Pe
1 2 1 2

 Machines which swing together are called

coherent machines.
 Transient Stability Analysis
Two Non-coherent Machines :
d 2 1 d 2 2 s  Pm1  Pe1 Pm2  Pe2 
2
 2    
dt dt 2  H1 H2 
H1H 2
Multiplying both sides by H1  H 2

2 H1H 2 d  1  2  Pm H 2  Pm H1 Pe1H 2  Pe H1
2

   1 2 2

s H1  H 2 dt 2 H1  H 2 H1  H 2

2H12 d12
 s dt 2
 Pm12  Pe12

H1H 2 Pm1 H 2  Pm2 H1 Pe1 H 2  Pe2 H1

H12  , Pm12  , Pe12 
H1  H 2 H1  H 2 H1  H2
 Transient Stability Analysis
Power – Angle Equation :
 In the swing equation, Pm is assumed to be
constant because conditions in electrical network can
be expected to change before the governor control
can cause the turbine to react.
 Changes in Pe thus determines the acceleration and
deceleration of rotor.

 Pe is determined by conditions in the transmission

and distribution networks and the loads on the
system.
 Transient Stability Analysis
 Assumption : Effect of machine speed variations
on the generated voltage is negligible so that the
manner by which Pe changes is determined by load
flow equations applied to the state of electrical
network and the synchronous generator model.
Machine Model for Transient Stability Study :

I
 Transient Stability Analysis

E1  transient internal voltage of generator at bus 1.

Transient reactance is included in the network.
E2  infinite bus
 Y11 Y12 
Ybus  
 21
Y Y22 
N

Load Flow : Pk  jQ k  V *
k Y
n 1
kn Vn

So, taking k= 1 and N = 2,

P1  jQ1  E1  Y11E1   E1  Y12E2 
* *
 Transient Stability Analysis
 E1  E1 1 , E2  E2  2 Y12 = |Y12| 12
Y11 = G11 + jB11
2 Y12 cos  1  2  12 
' 2
 1
P  E G111 E1
'
E '

Q1   E1 B11  E1 E2 Y12 sin  1  2  12 

2

Let  = 1 – 2 and   12   / 2

P1  E1 G11  E1 E2 Y12 sin     
2

Q1   E1 B11  E1 E2 Y12 cos     

2

 Pe = PC + Pmax sin ( – γ)
PC  E1 G11, Pmax  E1 E2 Y12
2
where
 Transient Stability Analysis
• This is the Power-Angle Equation.

 If network is lossless (conductance is neglected), all

the elements of Ybus are susceptances.

So, G11 = 0 and   0

 Pe = Pmax sin 
E1 E2
Pmax 
X
where X is the transfer reactance between E1 and E2
Example:

H = 5 MJ/MVA

The machine is delivering 1.0 p.u. power. Both the

terminal voltage and infinite bus voltage are 1.0 p.u.
Derive the swing equations for the following cases:
(1) For the power system operating as shown.
(2) A three-phase fault occurs at line midpoint P.
(3) After the faulted line is removed.
Case 1 : Power – Angle Eq.:

Total series reactance between Vt and infinite bus

= X = 0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3 p.u.

Infinite bus voltage = V

 Vt V 1 1
sin   sin   1
X 0.3

   17.4580

Vt  117.4580  0.954  j0.3p.u.

117.4580  100
I  1  j0.1535  1.0128.7290 p.u.
j0.3

E   0.954  j0.3   j0.2 1  j0.1535   1.0528.44 0 p.u.

Total reactance between E and infinite bus = 0.5 p.u.

1.05  1.0
Pe  sin   2.1sin  p.u.
0.5
 = machine rotor angle w.r.t. infinite bus

0 = 28.440
H d 2
Thus, Swing Eq : 2
 1.0  2.1sin  p.u.
180f dt
Case 2 : A three-phase fault occurs at point P.
  3.333 0 3.333 
Ybus  j  0 7.5 2.5 
 3.333 2.5 10.833

Bus 3 has no external sources; so it can be removed

by node elimination procedure.
 Y11 Y12   2.308 0.769 
Reduced Ybus     j 
 21 22  
Y Y 0.769 6.923 
Transfer admittance = 0.769
Pmax  E1 E2 Y12  1.05 1.0  0.769  0.808p.u.

 Pe = 0.808 sin  p.u.

5 d 2
Swing Eq : 2
 1.0  0.808sin 
180f dt
 Because of inertia, rotor cannot change position
instantly upon occurrence of the fault. Thus, initially  =
28.440 and initial power = 0.808 sin 28.440 = 0.385

 Initial accelerating power = Pa = 1.0 – 0.385 =

0.615 p.u.
d 2 180f
 2   0.615  22.14f elect. deg / s2
dt 5
• The line-relaying scheme will sense the fault on
the line and will act to clear the fault by
simultaneous opening of the line-end breakers.
• When this happens, another power-angle equation
applies as the network has changed. (Case 3)
Case 3 :
Upon removal of the faulted line, the net transfer
admittance (it can now easily be treated as a 2-bus
system): 1
 y12    j1.429 p.u.
j 0.2  0.1  0.4 

 Y12 = j 1.429 (in the Ybus)

Thus now, Pe = 1.05  1.0  1.429 sin  = 1.5 sin 

5 d 2
Swing Eq. :  2
 1.0  1.5sin 
180f dt
 Acceleration at the instant of clearing the fault
depends on the angular position of the rotor at that
time.
 Transient Stability Analysis
Synchronizing Power Coefficient :

Requirement : An acceptable operating point is that

the generator shall not lose synchronism when small
temporary changes occur in the electrical power
output from the machine.
 Transient Stability Analysis
Pm  Cons tan t  Pe0  PmaxSin0
Let   0   , Pe  Pe0  Pe

So, Pe  Pe  Pmax sin  0     Pmax  sin 0 cos    cos 0 sin   

0

For small , sin   and cos   1

Thus, Pe  Pe  Pmax sin 0   Pmax cos 0   
0

 
 Pm  Pe0  Pe    Pmax cos 0  

Swing Eq. :
2H d  0   
2

s dt 2 
 Pm  Pe0  Pe 
 Transient Stability Analysis
2H d 2
   Pmax cos 0    0
s dt 2

• Pmax cos 0 = slope of the power-angle curve at

the angle 0 = SP
dPe
SP   Pmax cos 0 = synchronizing power coefficient
d 0

So,   sSP   0
2
d
dt 2 2H
 When SP is positive,  (t) exhibits simple
harmonic motion.
When SP < 0, (t) increases exponentially without
limit.
 Transient Stability Analysis
 Thus, 1 is a point of stable equilibrium in the sense
that the rotor angle swing is bounded following a
small perturbation.

• Practically, damping will restore the rotor angle to 1

following a temporary electrical perturbation.

 But, 2 is a point of unstable equilibrium. So this

point is not a valid operating point.
 Transient Stability Analysis
 The solution to the swing equation governing the
incremental rotor angle deviations represents
sinusoidal oscillations provided the synchronizing
power coefficient SP is positive.

ωn = angular frequency of undamped oscillations

sSP
 elect. rad / s
2H
1 sSP
 fn  Hz
2 2H
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability

 Initially, circuit breaker A is closed but the circuit

breaker B at the opposite end of the short line is open.
 At point P close to the bus, a 3-phase fault occurs
and is cleared by circuit breaker A after a short time.
Thus, the effective transmission system is unchanged
except while the fault is on.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 The short circuit caused by the fault is effectively at
the bus. So the electric power output from generator Pe
= 0 until the fault is cleared.
Initial Operating Point :  = 0, Pm = Pe (Point a)
Fault occurs at t = 0. So, Pe = 0, but Pm is unchanged.

• This difference in power must be accounted for by a

rate of change of stored kinetic energy of the rotor
masses. Thus, speed increases due to the constant
accelerating power.
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability

 tc = time to clear the fault

d  s
2
So, t < tc : 2
 Pm
dt 2H
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
• While the fault is on, the velocity increases above
synchronous speed as :
d t  s s Pm 2
 s
Pm dt  Pm t    t  0
dt 0 2H 2H 4H
So,   c ( goes from point b to c)
d s Pm s Pm 2
 tc    t  t t  t c  0
dt t  t c 2H c 4H

 Fault is cleared at c . Pe abruptly increases to a value

corresponding to point d, where Pe > Pm.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
• Thus, the rotor slows down as Pe goes from d to e.
• At e, the rotor speed is again synchronous although
the rotor angle has advanced to x.
x is determined such that A1 = A2.

 Accelerating power at e is still negative. So, the rotor

cannot remain at synchronous speed but must continue
to slow down. The relative velocity is negative and the
rotor angle moves back from x at e to point a at which
the rotor speed is less than synchronous speed.
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 From a to f, Pm > Pe. Thus, the rotor increases speed
again until it reaches synchronism at f, where  = y.
y is determined such that A3 = A4.
 Without damping, the rotor would continue to
oscillate in the sequence f-a-e, e-a-f, etc. with
synchronous speed occurring at e and f.
Derivation of Equal Area Condition :
2H d 2
 Pm  Pe
s dt 2

d
Relative velocity of rotor  r     s
dt
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
2H dr
  Pm  Pe
s dt
H  r
 2
H dr d d d
2r   Pm  Pe     Pm  Pe 
s dt dt s dt dt

 
H 2
 r2  r1    Pm  Pe  d
2 2

s 1

1  r1 and  2  r2

If the rotor speed is synchronous at 1 and 2, then

r1  r2  0.
2
Under this condition,  P
1 m  Pe  d  0
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 This Eq. applies to any two points on the power-
angle curve provided they are the points at which the
rotor speed is synchronous.
Points a and e :
c x
 P
0 m  Pe  d  
c
 Pm  Pe  d  0
c x

0
 Pm  Pe  d    Pe  Pm  d
c

 Area A1 = Area A2

 Similar case is also for areas A3 and A4.

Equal Area Criterion for Stability
• Areas A1 and A4 are directly proportional to the
increase in kinetic energy of the rotor while it is
accelerating.
• Areas A2 and A3 are proportional to the decrease in
kinetic energy of the rotor while it is decelerating.
 Thus, the equal area criterion states the following :
Whatever kinetic energy is added to the rotor following
a fault must be removed after the fault to restore the
rotor to synchronous speed.
 Area A1 depends on the time taken to clear the
fault. Delay in clearing increases c, area A1 and area
A2. As a result x also increases.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
• If x > max, the rotor speed is above the synchronous
speed when positive accelerating power is again
encountered. As a result  will increase without limit and
instability results.
 Thus, there is a critical angle for clearance of fault
in order to satisfy the equal-area criterion for stability.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
• Correspondingly, there is a critical clearing time tcr.
cr
A1   Pmd  Pm  cr  0 
0

max
A2  
cr
 Pmax sin   Pm  d
 Pmax  cos cr  cos  max   Pm   max  cr 

A1 = A2
Pm
 cos cr   max  0   cos max
Pmax
But max =  – 0 and Pm = Pmax sin 0
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 cr  cos 1    20  sin 0  cos 0 

4H  cr  0 
 t cr 
s Pm

• Equal-area criterion can be applied only for the case

of two machines or one machine and an infinite bus.
• Digital computer is the only way to determine the
stability of a large system.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
Case Study :
 Generator is supplying power to an infinite bus over
two parallel lines. If a 3-phase short circuit occurs at
some point on one of the lines, there is some impedance
between the paralleling buses and fault. Thus some
power is transmitted while the fault is still on the system.
(Such an example was discussed earlier).

 In such a case, the application of equal-area criterion

is as shown below.
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
Equal Area Criterion for Stability
Pmaxsin = Power transmitted before fault
r1 Pmax sin = Power transmitted during fault
r2 Pmax sin = Power transmitted after the fault is
cleared at  = cr
 Regardless of location, short-circuit faults not
involving all three phases allow the transmission of
some power as they are represented by connecting
some impedance.
 Amount of power transmitted during fault affects the
value of A1 for any given clearing angle. Thus, smaller
values of r1 mean greater disturbance in the system
resulting in lower power transmission. This also means
larger A1.
 Equal Area Criterion for Stability
 In order of increasing severity (decreasing r1), the
various faults are :
1. Single line-to-ground fault
2. Line-to-line fault
3. Double line-to-ground fault
4. Three-phase fault

 For complete reliability, a system should be

designed for transient stability for 3-phase faults at the
worst locations.