ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(SUBJECT CODE: 203192109)

Mr. Abhishek D. Sharma, Assistant Professor
Department of Applied Sciences & Humanity, PIET.
 Chapter - 5
OPTOELECTRONICS DEVICES
 Aim of Optoelectronics Devices

Optoelectronic is the technology that

combines optics and electronics and the
devices based on this technology are
known as Optoelectronic Devices.
 Contents:
5.1 Brief View of Optoelectronics Devices
5.1.1) Definition
5.1.2) Optoelectronic materials
5.1.3) Basic Optoelectronic Interactions
5.1.4) Optical Absorption and Carrier generation in Semiconductor
5.1.5) Optical Emission and Carrier annihilation in Semiconductor
5.2 Photo-Detectors
5.2.1) Junction Photodiode (PN Diode, PIN Diode, Avalanche Diode)
5.2.2) Photoconductive Cell
5.2.3) Photo-voltic Cell
5.2.4) Photo Transistor
 Contents:
5.3 Photo-Emitters
5.3.1) Light Emitting Diode (LED)
5.3.2) Infra Red (IR) Emitter
5.4 Opto-Coupler
5.5 X-Ray Diffractometer
5.6 Quantum Devices and their Applications.
5.6.1) 2 D QD
5.6.2) 1 D QD
5.6.3) 0 D QD
 5.1.1 Introduction

Optoelectronics is the branch of science and technology concerned with the

combined use of electronics and light.

It can be defined as the study and application of electronic devices that act
as sources, detectors, and controllers of light.

Optoelectronics can be considered as the subfield of “PHOTONICS”.

Photonics includes generation, emission, transmission, modulation, signal

processing, amplification, detection, and sensing of light.
 5.1 Introduction
The basic working process of optoelectronics deals with the
optical interaction on the electronic responses in some
specific optically active semiconducting (SC) materials.

The semiconducting materials are preferred as the natural

choice, due to the variation in their electrical conductivity
over orders of magnitude by changing in temperature,
optical excitation and the presence of impurity content in
them.

The devices which support that type of interaction are

known as TRANSDUCERS, usually accompanied by energy
conversion from optical energy to electrical energy or vice
Fig 5.1-1 Energy conversion by using
versa, as shown in Fig. 5.1-1. optoelectronics devices
Classification of Optoelectronics Devices

Fig 5.1-2 Classification chart of OPDs

 5.1.2 Optoelectronic Materials
Elements of a Group- IV of the periodic table especially Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are
the two most common and well-studied semiconductors (SC) at an elemental level.

But they have very limited uses in optoelectronics due to some shortcomings or drawbacks.

Both Si & Ge are indirect Bandgap structures material. These material devices show poor
light emission as well as absorption properties.

Devices that are made from elemental SC’s are not good for energy production.

To overcome this problem, we have to dopped with such materials (i.e. to form compounds
or alloys made from different group elements like II-VI, IV- IV, III - V in form of binary,
ternary, quaternary composite semiconducting materials).
 5.1.2 Optoelectronic Materials
For example;

1). III-V GROUP COMPOUND MATERIALS:

a). Binary form: GaN, GaP, InSb, etc
b). Ternary form: AlGaAs, InGaP, InGaAs, etc
c). Quaternary form: AlGaInP

2). II-VI GROUP COMPOUND MATERIALS:

a). Binary form: ZnS, GdSe, PbTe, ZnO, CdS, etc
b). Ternary form: HgCdTe, GdZnS, etc
c). Quaternary form: ZnSnSiBr

3). IV-IV GROUP COMPOUND MATERIALS:

a). Binary form: SiC, SiGe etc.
 5.1.2 Optoelectronic Materials
For device efficiency:
The semiconducting (SC) materials enclose a wide range
of light spectrums. Starting from the infrared, visible, and
ultraviolet regions.
Therefore, it covers more degrees of the spectrum means
more energy conversion is done by the device.
For synthesizing material:
Modern semiconducting (SC) growth techniques like
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD) along with band gap engineering are
used to create various composite compounds or alloys.
It is possible to fabricate numerous solid-state devices
like LEDs, LASERs, Solar cells, and Photo-diodes which are
active in Visible, IR, and UV regions of the spectrum as
shown in fig-5.1.2-1.
Fig-5.1.2-1: EM Wave Spectrum for EDC.
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 5.1.3 Light-Material Interactions:
In all optoelectronic devices, the main manifestation is the interaction of optical radiations or
photons or electromagnetic waves with the semiconducting material. As shown in fig-5.1.3-1.

Generally, we see these types of interaction of lights with optoelectronics devices or

semiconducting materials are;
a). Reflection (A%)
b). Absorption (B%)
c). Transmission (C%)

The law of conservation of energy:

Incident light energy = Reflected energy (A%)
(100%) + Absorbed energy (B%)
+ Transmitted energy (C%)
Fig-5.1.3-1: Type of interactions of light with materials .
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5.1.4 Optical Absorption and charge carrier generation in SC material:
The excess charge carriers (i.e electron-hole in
pair form) are created in the device via the
absorption of suitable light energy.
Empty
The amount of light absorption determines the Conduction
Band
number of charge carrier generation rates and
device efficiency. Photons energy will
be absorbed by
valance electron
and become free.
This energy will be absorbed by the valence band
electron, then get excited goes into conduction INCIDENTP
HOTON
band while they leave a vacancy in valance band
is known as Hole as shown in figure-5.1.4-1. Filled Valance
Band
Since, during the light absorption process, both
energy and momentum are conserved.
Fig-5.1.4-1 EHPs Generation via absorbing Incident Light.
 5.1.5 Optical Emission and Carrier Recombination in SC material:
In the light emission process, the energy quanta or
Photon will be emitted by the SC material.
This energy is released when the excited state
electron from the conduction band goes to the Partially Filled
Conduction
valance band. It combines with a hole to fill the Band

vacancy in the valence band. So, in this process

recombination of the charge carrier will take place. Energy released
when free
During this process, electrical energy is converted electron
recombines with
into optical energy due to the electron-hole pair Hole
recombination process. It is most commonly Emitted
observed in optical sources like LED, LASER, etc. As Photons
shown in fig-5.1.5-1.
Partially Empty
Since, during the light emission process, both Valance Band

energy and momentum are conserved.

Fig-5.1.5-1 EHPs Recombination via Emitting Light (photons).
 5.2 Photo-detectors or Photo-sensors:
In optical communication systems, the photo-detectors or
INCIDENT
photo-sensors play a crucial role. PHOTON

Such as photo-conductors, photo-diodes photo-transistors, etc in

which energy conversion is typically achieved due to the
generation or annihilation of free electron-hole pairs (EPHs) by
the absorption of energetic photons ( i.e. changes optical energy
into electrical energy by the means of changing the electronic
properties of SC materials).
Due to EHPs generation, its drift motions within material create
photocurrent within the device under external applied Electric
force as shown in fig.-5.2-1. This is the basic physical mechanism
of photo-detectors or photo-sensor. Battery
Fig-5.2-1 EHP Generated is drifted in external
The creation of photocurrent in photoconductors cells or Electric field.
photovoltage in photovoltaic detectors.
 5.2 Photo-detectors or Photo-sensors:

The performance of these photodetectors depends upon the following points;

a). The magnitude of the optical absorption process.
b). The charge career transportation of these EHPs after generation depends upon the
material doping and designing of the detector.
c). The interaction with the main circuitry system.
 5.2 Photo-Detectors (PDs) or Photo-Sensors (PSs):
Various types of PDs:
1). Based on illumination type:
a. Horizontal illuminated (Edge illuminated detector)
b. Vertically illuminated (Planar or Surface
illuminated).

2). Based on Device Gain:

a. Without gain (PN Junction PD and PIN PD).
b. With gain (Avalanche PD and Phototransistor) a. Edge type b. Surface type
Fig-5.2-2 Based On Illumination type PDs.

3). Based on SC material type:

a. Intrinsic
b. Extrinsic
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5.2.1 Junction Photodiode (PN Diode, PIN Diode, Avalanche Diode)
Junction photodiode is also known as
Photodiodes (PD).
In this, light energy is converted to electrical
energy via using incident Photon.
Photodiodes always work in reverse biased
conditions (RBC).
To understand the working of the SC Junction
photodiode it is necessary to have a clear and
good prior knowledge of charge carrier
concentration in the SCR or Depletion region
(when we join two different metals or SC
materials) as shown in fig-5.2.1-1 & fig-5.2.2-2.
Fig- 5.2.1-1 Metallurgical junction formed when P & N type
SC material (a), Depletion Region and Electric field(b).

Optoelectronic and Photonics (Principle & Practice) by S. O. Kasap (Pearson)

 5.2.1 Junction Photodiode (PN-Junction, PIN, Avalanche)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig- 5.2.1-2 PN Junction diode with Zero Biasing (a), Reversed Biasing (b), and Forward Biasing (c). And their energy band diagram
variation with various biasing.
edimecinevery.tistory.com
 5.2.1 Junction Photodiode (PN Diode, PIN Diode, Avalanche Diode)
The important features are;
1). Boundaries of an n-type and p-type
material.
2). Width of the Depletion Region or Space
Charge Layer(SCL). Photodetection occurs
within this region of a device fig- 5.2.1-3.
3). Diffusion length
4). Doping and profile index of charge
carrier concentration.
(b)
5). Absorption Area(AA) or Exposure Area.
(a)

Fig- 5.2.1-3 PN junction structure (a), Electric field profile across the depth of the device in
which Depletion, Diffusion Length and Absorption Area as shown (b).

Handbook of OPD Modelling& Simulation (V-I) J. Piprek, CRC press.

 5.2.1.A Junction Photodiode (PN Junction Photodiode)
PN Junction Photodiode:

The simplest photodiode without internal gain is operated in

reverse biased condition as shown in the fig-5.2.1-4 in which
both depletion and diffusion regions are shown.
Symbol of PN Junction Photo-diode

The electric field profile along with mobile and immobile charge
carrier concentrations is shown in the fig-5.2.1-1.

EHPs are generated in both the depletion and diffusion regions.

It's with is made as large as possible by using less doping.

Due to the strong depletion region, electric field and external

applied electric field (i.e power supply) increase the drift of
velocity of the minority charge carriers generated in the
depletion region will cross the PN junction before they
recombine with atoms.
Fig-5.2.1-4 Cross sectional view of PN Junction Photodiode structure.

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 5.2.1.A Junction Photodiode (PN Junction Photodiode)
PN Junction Photodiode:

Due to the strong depletion region, electric field and Cathode

external applied electric field (i.e power supply)
increase the drift of velocity of the minority charge (a)
carriers generated in the depletion region will cross the
PN junction before they recombine with atoms.

When an external circuit is connected across the diode

terminal the minority carriers return to the original side
via the external circuit.
(b)
Thus the flow of minority carriers tends to reduce the
barrier potential.

Energy band diagram with the variation of depth of

charge carrier movement as shown in fig-5.2.1-5. Fig-5.2.1-5 PN Junction Photodiode, interaction with light (a)
and energy band diagram (b).
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 5.2.1.A Junction Photodiode (PN Junction Photodiode)
Drawback:

1). Depletion layer is very small.

2). The limiting factor for the bandwidth of PN

junction photodiodes is the presence of a diffusive
component in the photocurrent as shown in
fig-5.2.1.6.

Application:

Light detection circuits, demodulation, switching,

logic circuits that need stability and high speed,
character recognition, optical communication
equipment etc.
Fig-5.2.1-6 Diffusive length of photon of different wavelength
within PN junction photodiode.
 5.2.1.B Junction Photodiode (PIN Photo-Diode)
PIN Photo-diode:
It's developed from the PN junction photodiode to
improve its response time and bandwidth spectrum.
(a) Symbol of PIN Photodiode
For better functioning of PD, we have made small
changes in the normal PN junction photodiode.

In the construction of a PIN photodiode, an intrinsic

layer is placed between two different extrinsic (highly
doped) material layers as shown in fig-5.2.1-7.

This intrinsic layer is highly resistive and increases the

electric field strength within the device. It means the
width of the depletion region increased. As a result of it,
the device has high quantum efficiency.
(b) Cross Sectional View pf PIN Photodiode.
Fig-5.2.1-7 PIN photodiode.

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 5.2.1.B Junction Photodiode (PIN Photo-Diode)
When there is no bias applied to the diode, there
will be diffusion of charge due to concentration
gradient across the junction. Diffusion HOLES and
ELECTRONS across NI junction from very thin
depletion layer in I region and a relatively thicker
depletion layer in I region containing equal and
opposite fixed charges.

When a reverse bias is applied and gradually

increased, the thickness of the depletion layer
increases until the entire I-region is swept free of
mobile carriers. Thus, with a reverse bias applied
to the PIN photodiode, the space charge region (b)
(a)
extends completely through the I-region as shown
in fig-5.2.1-8. Fig- 5.2.1-8 PIN photodiode structure, Electric field profile across the
depth of the device in which Depletion (a), Diffusion Length and
Absorption Area as shown (b).
 5.2.1.B Junction Photodiode (PIN Photo-Diode)
Drawback:
The optimum value of width (W) depends on a compromise between speed and
sensitivity.
Advantage:
They are capable of processing very signals.
Inexpensive and ultrafast having a response time of nanosecond.
Generate very low noise and have broad spectral response.
Application:
Audio CD players, DVD drivers, nuclear radiation detectors, optical communication
equipment, demodulation etc.
 5.2.1.C Junction Photodiode (Avalanche Photo-Diode)
Avalanche Photodiode (APD):
APDs are based on Impact ionization to create an
internal current gain.
For avalanche effect, it requires high reverse biased (a) Symbol
condition for operation near applied reverse biased
voltage as shown in fig-5.2.1-9.
When Incident photon on material it generate EHP
which is known as Primary generate electron.
Under these conditions, an accelerating electron can
acquire sufficient K.E to generate new EHPs.
These generated charge carriers get sufficient K.E due
to the established Electric field in the SCL or Depletion
Region and External applied voltage. (b) Cross section view of Avalanche Photodiode
Fig- 5.2.1-9 Avalanche Photodiode
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 5.2.1.C Junction Photodiode (Avalanche Photo-Diode)
It act as solid state photomultiplier as shown in
fig-5.2.1-10.
When the bias is high enough to fully deplete the
junction, the following three factors contribute to the
response time:
1. Transit time of the carriers across the absorption
layer of width W.
2. The time taken by the carriers to create EHPs by
avalanche multiplication
3. The RC time constant, where R is the device and load
resistance and C is the junction capacitance.
These two limit the value of bandwidth.
When the gain is large, avalanche multiplication time
becomes dominant and the bandwidth is reduced.
APDs are therefore characterized by a constant gain
bandwidth product. Fig-5.2.1-10 Avalanche photodiode, Incident photon
Energy verse distance within the device.
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 5.2.1.C Junction Photodiode (Avalanche Photo-Diode)
Applications of avalanche photodiodes:

Receivers in optical fiber communications, range finding, image, high speed LASER scanners, LASER
microscopy, and optical-time domain reflectometers (OTDR).

Disadvantages:

Much higher operating voltage may be required.

Avalanche photodiode produces a much higher level of noise than a PN photodiode
Avalanche process means that the output is not linear.

Advantages:
High level of sensitivity as a result of avalanche gain
 5.2.2 Photo-Conductive Cell
The photoconductive cell (PC) is two terminal light sensitive SC
devices. It is also referred as a Light Dependent Resistor LDR) or
Photo-resistor.
Working principle based on the principle of photo conducting
effect that is a process in which the conductivity or resistivity of
a SC material changes as per the wavelength and intensity of
the radiation incident on it.
Construction:
Photoconductive detectors have a sample structure a. Top-view of
Photo-conductive cell.
schematically shown in figure-5.2.2-1.
The essential elements are the ceramic base, a layer of
photo conducting material, metallic electrodes to connect
the device into the main circuit and silica capsule for
enclosure as shown in fig-5.2.2-1.
Most frequently used include cadmium sulphide (CdS) and b. Front-View of c. Symbol of
cadmium selenide (CdSe) This material is arranged in the Photo-conductive cell. Photo-conductive cell.
Fig-5.2.2-1 Construction of Photoconductive.
form of a long strip side from across a disc shape like base.
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 5.2.2 Photo-Conductive Cell
Working:
In photo conductive SC material are connected with two
electrodes of a voltage V is applied across it which are
used to separate the EHPs generated by the absorption of
incident photon. Internal
E-field
As a result of it, conductivity of the SC material increases
and enhance/increase the external current in main circuit.
Generated EHPs are drift in opposite direction due
external and internal E-field.
Here electrons drift much faster as compared to holes due
to the mobility difference of these two charge carriers.
Sample will be neutral at any instant of time t (i.e the
number of is equal to number of electrons) as shown in
Fig-5.2.2-3.
Fig-5.2.2-3: Generation of charge carriers in PC cells.
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 5.2.2 Photo-Conductive Cell
1). At any time (t) the number of electrons concentration is n
(i.e photogenerated electron included) and the thermal
equilibrium electrons concentration is n0 (i.e in the dark), then
the excess electrons concentration is Δn = n – n0.

But photogenerated of EHPs, Δn = Δp

•For electrons, n = n0 + Δn Fig-5.2.2-3 EHP Generated is drifted in external E-field.

•For holes, p = p0 + Δp

2). In the Sample,

The rate of increase in the excess electron concentration
= Rate of photo generation of excess electrons

- Rate of recombination of excess electrons.

Fig-5.2.2-4: Generation of charge carriers in PC cells.
 5.2.2 Photo-Conductive Cell

Application:
It is inexpensive and simple type of detector which is widely used in OFF/ON circuits, light intensity
measurement and light detecting circuits etc.

Drawbacks:
Temperature variation causes substantial variation in resistance. This variation will enhance by the
light absorption. Material is not useful for analog application.
 5.2.3 Photo-Voltic Cell
Photo-Voltic Cell:
When PN junction photodiode is operated in Reversed
Biased condition then its known as PHOTOCONDUCTIVE
CELL or DEVICES.

PN Junction photodiode operated without any external (a)

power supply but connected in series with resistive load or
with power storge device, then its known as PHOTO-VOLTIC
CELL or DEVICES.

Incident photon illumination can generate EHPs in the SCL

that will generate photocurrent, in that circuit connect (b)
without bias as shown in fig-5.2.3-1.
Fig-5.2.3-1 Photo - Voltic cell: Energy band diagram
(a), Generation of EHPs in the SCL (b).
 5.2.3 Photo-Voltic Cell
Disadvantage of Photo-Voltic Cell:

Without gain, Less bandwidth, low response

time, temperature dependent efficiency,
conversion rate is low (Light energy to
Electrical energy).

Advantage of Photo-Voltic Cell:

Less complex circuit.

Application of Photo-Voltic Cell: Fig-5.2.3 Generation of charge carriers in SCL.

Its used in Solar panels.

 5.2.4 Phototransistor
Phototransistor:

A phototransistor is similar to a regular BJT in

that the base current is produced and C
controlled by incident light.
B
Which has 3 layers with a light-sensitive base
region and the other two are emitter and E
(a) Symbol
collector. There is no electrical connection to
the base as shown in the figure.

Here base current is produced when an

incident photon strikes the photosensitive SC
base region as shown in the fig-5.2.4-1.

It also offers a current gain. (b) Cross section view of Phototransistor

Fig- 5.2.4-1 NPN - Phototransistor

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 5.2.4 Phototransistor

Fig-5.2.4-2 Movements of charge carriers within the device. Fig-5.2.4-3 Output characteristics of NPN phototransistor.

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 5.2.3 Photo - Transistor

Advantages of Phototransistor:

It is more sensitive; it allows more current. So, it’s used in high power consumption applications,
Noise interference is more immune etc.

Disadvantages:
Output response is low, Operational speed is low, Dark current is high, It is not responsive more to
incident light, The High-frequency response of this PD gives poor results etc.
 5.3 Photo-Emitter Devices
• A photo-emitter device that emits noncoherent
optical radiation at photon energy close to the
bandgap of the junction.
• According to QM theory, light is a wave packet of
energy that is called photons. This energy depends
upon the frequency and the relation given by
E = hf = hv
whereas h is Planck's constant & f is the frequency.
• As per the above relation, photon energy is directly
proportional to the frequency. But frequency is
inversely proportional to the wavelength of photons.
Indirectly, talks about the range of the spectrum like
visible, IR, UV, X-ray region, etc.
• Various photo emitters are based on the light
emission range as shown in fig-5.3.1.
Fig-5.3.1 Spectrum of light for visible range of LED.
 5.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• The operation of LED is based on the phenomenon of electro
luminance, which is the emission of light from an SC under the
influence of an electrical field.
• The current is primarily electron flow and the main
recombination region is the edge of the depletion region on
the p-side. The optical output increases with forward-bias
diode current.
• These electrons give up energy in form of photons and
thermal energy. (a) (b)
Fig-5.3.4: White LED

• Generally, in a regular junction diode: recombination release energy thermal (heat) - Nonradiative
recombination but in LED: recombination releases the light (photons) radiative recombination. Both
types of recombination occur in a LED but a majority of combinations are radiative types.
• Energy band diagram for LED is shown in fig-5.3.6.
 5.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Fig-5.3.6: PN Junction Diode, (a) Energy Band formation when P and N-type join without
Fig-5.3.5 EHPs Recombination via Emitting Light (photons). applying any potential across the device and (b) Alteration of Energy band when it connected
with power supply in FB condition. When recombination of charge carriers across the SCL
region takes place it generates light with a particular wavelength.
Optoelectronic and Photonics (Principle & Practice) by S. O. Kasap (Pearson)
 5.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig-5.3.3: Types of LED based on light emission through the device, (a) Edge-Emitting LEDs, (b) Surface-Emitting LEDs, and (c) Cross-sectional view of
Surface-Emitting LEDs. Typically a p+n or n+p diode such that the main transitions occur on the n-side or p-side respectively of the depletion region.

Construction: The LED structures can be divided into two categories;

1. SURFACE-EMITTING LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the PN junction plane.
Recombination of charge carriers occurs in the P-region. So, this region is required to be kept at the top. This, the
P-region becomes the device's surface.
2. EDGE-EMITTING LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN junction plane.
 5.3.1 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Application: Emitting visible light is widely used in instrument display panels, panel indicators,
digital watches, calculators, telephone switchboards, etc.

Advantages: Small area, low power required, available in different colors, mainly smooth control of
the light intensity, operated over a wide range of temperatures, rugged in construction, etc.

Disadvantages: Get damaged by over-voltage or over-current, their temperature depends on the

radiant output power and wavelength.
 5.3.2 Infrared (IR) Diode
• Infrared emitting diodes are solid state device made of Gallium Arsenide that emits a beam of light
flux when forward biased.
• The basic construction of the IR emitter diode is similar to LED but the spectrum of light emitted will
be different due to the bandgap of the material is large.
• When the junction is forward biased, electrons from the N-type will reach P-type and recombine with
an excess hole of the P-type of a material.
• Its special design recombination region (i.e sandwiched in between N & P-type materials).

• Application: Burglar Alarm circuit, Card and paper-tape readers, shaft encoders, data-transmission
systems, high-density mounting application.
• Disadvantages: High energy loss, the range is limited, less data transmission, get damaged by
over-voltage or over-current.
 5.4 Opto-Couplers
• An optocoupler or an optoelectronic coupler is an Anode
Input Section Output Section
Cathode
interface between two circuits that operate at
different voltage levels.
• The most common industrial use of the optocouplers
or optically coupled isolators is as a signal converter Cathode Anode
between high voltage pilot devices or limit switches, LED PHOTODIODE
and low voltage solid state logic circuits as shown in (a)
fig-5.4-1.
Input Section Output Section
• Optical isolators can be employed in any situation 1 3
where a signal must be passed between two circuits
SECONDARY
that have no conductors in common is often PRIMARY
WINDINGS WINDINGS
necessary to prevent noise generated in one circuit
from being passed to the other circuit as shown in
2 4
fig-5.4.1-(a).
(b)
Fig-5.4.1 Optoelectronic coupler (LED & Photodiode) (a)
and electrical signal coupler - transformer (b)

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 5.4 Opto-Couplers
• Nowadays, optoelectronic couplers are
commonly used. In the input & Output
section, the electrical component may vary
due to application based as shown in
fig-5.4.2.
• The ideal isolation scheme should only allow
signal flow in 1-D, should respond to DC
levels, and should offer an extremely large
resistance between the inputs and output
circuits.
• They work on both AC and DC high voltage
signals. For this reason, signals converters
employing optical coupling are sometimes Fig-5.4.2- Optoelectronic coupler
referred to as the UNIVERSAL SIGNAL (LED and Phototransistor)

CONVERTERS.
• The information circuits are almost badly
exposed to noise sources and the logic circuits
cannot tolerate noise signals.

https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/electronic-components/datasheet/EL817--Everlig
ht
 5.4 Opto-Couplers
• Advantages:
It offers a very good response at lower frequencies.
Compact and cheaper optocoupler devices are available.
Less maintenance is required.
No moving part or mechanical part.
• Disadvantages:
Optocoupler needs external biasing voltage for its operation.
Higher frequency response is poor.
• Application:
Microprocessor input/output switching.
Pulse Code communications.
DC and AC power control and transmissions.
Signal isolation and power supply regulation suffer from current ground loops, etc.
 5.5 X-ray Diffractometer
• An X-ray diffractometer is a device for
analyzing and measuring the structure of
materials.
• X-rays have high energy and short
wavelength when compared to visible light
making them ideal for probing the
interplanar distances in crystalline
materials. An experimental setup is shown
in fig-5.5.1.
• X-rays are produced within an X-ray tube
1. Heated filament emits electrons by
thermionic emission.
2. Electrons are accelerated by a high voltage.
3. Electrons hit a metal target and produce
X-rays. Fig-5.5.1 Various parts of X-ray diffractometer for analysis of materials.

https://www.stresstech.com
 5.5 X-ray Diffractometer

Fig-5.5.2 X-ray Diffractometer: from the generation of an electron (1) to the creation of characteristics of X-ray (2)
and then incident on the target material (3) for analysis.
 5.5 X-ray Diffractometer
• Advantages:
Technique for identification of an unknown mineral
Minimal sample preparation is required
Data interpretation is relatively straightforward.

• Disadvantages:
Homogeneous and single-phase material is best for the identification of an unknown
For mixed materials, the detection limit is ~ 2% of the sample
Peak overlay may occur and worsens for high angle 'reflections’

• Application:
Characterization of crystalline materials
Determination of unit cell dimensions
Measurement of sample purity
Determining the thickness, roughness and density of the film using glancing incidence X-ray
reflectivity measurements
 Quantum Devices

5.6 Quantum Devices and their Applications.

5.6.1) 2 D QD
5.6.2) 1 D QD
5.6.3) 0 D QD
 Low dimensional materials

• When the size drops below 100 nm, Low-dimensional materials

new structure of the material is
formed called nanostructure. Zero-dimensional materials
• The quantum wells, quantum wires
and quantum dots are nothing but • Nano powders, Nano particles, precipitates, colloids and
nanostructures of the material. quantum dots
• These nanostructures are explained
One-Dimensional materials
through quantum mechanics so they
are called quantum wells, quantum
wires and quantum dots. • Nano wires, Nano fibers, Nano tubes, Nano rods
• They are different from classical
Two-dimensional materials
wells, wires and dots. They are also
called low-dimensional structures.
• Nano layers, thin films, platelets and surface coatings.
Low dimensional materials
Electron confinement and mobility
Density of states in different dimensions
Density of states in different dimensions
 5.6.2 Quantum Electronic Devices (QEDs)
The electronic devices that are capable to use these quantum phenomena are quantum electronic
devices.
Classification of Quantum Devices:
1. Quasi-Equilibrium Devices
2. Far Form Equilibrium Devices
List of QEDs:
1. Quantum Dot Transistor
2. Quantum LASER
3. Quantum Wires
4. SQUID
5. Quantum Computers Fig-5.6.2.2 QED in low dimensional form.
 5.6.2 Quantum Electronic Devices (QEDs)
Quantum Dot Transistor:

It’s also called the Single Electron Transistor.

Its main advantage it is that has a high device integration level and ultra-low power consumption.
In this, we use the Coulomb Blockade phenomenon.

Quantum LASERS:

This type of SC LASERS generally used Quantum Dots and Quantum Wells as an active laser
medium-sized for the emission of light.
It works in optical data transmission and metro access systems.
High operation rate.
 5.6.2 Quantum Electronic Devices (QEDs)
Quantum Wires:

An electrical conducting wire in which quantum effects are used to explain the transport properties.
These are known as Nano Wires.
These have high potential in density data storage.

SQUIDs:

It stands for “Superconducting Quantum Interface Devices”.

It is a very sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields based on
superconducting loops containing junctions.
Also used in cardiology for Magnetic field imaging (MFI).
 5.6.2 Quantum Electronic Devices (QEDs)
Quantum Computers:

A quantum computer is device for computation that makes direct use of the distinctively quantum
mechanical phenomenon.
It plays a vital role in quantum computing by using Q-bits.
It could handle problems more effectively than a classical computer using the SHORs algorithm.
Application QEDs:

1. Quantum computing
2. Cryptography
3. Imaging
4. Sensing
5. Metrology
 5.6.2 Quantum Electronic Devices (QEDs)
Advantages:

1. Higher performance.
2. Avoid experimental and uncertainty measurement errors.
3. Reduces the number of experimental iterations.
4. Solves higher integration density problems.
5. Improves performance and functionality of ICs.
Limitations:

1. Conventional electronic circuit architecture may not work.

2. Need new fabrication technologies.
3. Order of magnitude of circuit integration beyond the present scale.
 Reference Books
1). Handbook of Optoelectronics: Modelling & Simulation (Volume-1),
Joachim Piprek, CRC press (Taylors and Francis Group).
2). Handbook of Optoelectronics: Concept, Devices and Techniques (Volume-1),
John P Dakin, Robert G W Brown, CRC press (Taylors and Francis Group).
3). Optoelectronics And Photonics: Principle and Practices,
S O Kasap, Pearson.
4). LASER and Optoelectronics: Fundamental, Devices and Application,
Anil K Maini, Wiley.
5). Electronic Device and Circuit (EDC), Fourth Editions,
J. B. Gupta, S. K. Kataria & Sons.
6). Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, Fourth Editions,
A. K. SAWHNEY, Dhanpat Rai and Sons
 Reference Websites
• https://www.fiberoptics4sale.com/blogs/wave-optics/common-types-of-photodetectors
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/homojunction
• https://electronicscoach.com/photodiode
• https://instrumentationtools.com/phototransistor
• https://www.watelectronics.com/phototransistor
• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Working-principle-of-a-solar-cell_fig1_322628682
• https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/physics
• https://www.stresstech.com/X-RAY/diffactormeter
 Video Lectures
1. Online course: “Quantum electronic devices simulation” by K Thyagarajan on NPTEL.

2. Online course: “Semiconductor Optoelectronics” by M R Shenoy on NPTEL.

3. Online course: "Optoelectronic Materials and Devices" by Monica Katiyar and Deepak Gupta on
NPTEL.
www.paruluniversity.ac.in