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22EE601- POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
AND CONTROL

Department : EEE
Batch/Year :2022-2026/III
Created by: N M Jothi swaroopan
 1.TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.N
TITLE Page No
o
UNIT-III
1 Contents 05

2 07
Course Objectives

3 08
Pre Requisites (Course names with code)

4 09
Syllabus (with Subject code, Name LPTC details)

5 10
Course outcomes

6 11-12
CO- PO/PSO Mapping

7 13
Lecture Plan

8 14
Activity based learning

9 15-37
Lecture Notes, Quiz, Links to Videos, e-book reference

10 38
Assignments

11 39
Part A Question & Answers

12 43
Part B Questions

13 44
Supportive online Certification courses

14 Real time applications in day today life and to Industry 45

15 46
Additional topics
16 47
Assessment Schedule

17 48
Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

18 49
Mini Project Suggestions
 2. Course Objectives

S.No Course Objectives

1 Characteristics and functions of relays and protection schemes.

2 Functioning of circuit breaker

Real power-frequency interaction and design of power-frequency

3 controller

Reactive power-voltage interaction and the control actions to be

4 implemented for maintaining the voltage profile against varying

system load.

5 Economic operation of power system

 3. Pre Requisites

Subject code Subject Name

20EE202 Electric Circuit Analysis

20EE503 Transmission and Distribution

20EE602 Power System Analysis

 Syllabus
UNIT I PROTECTIVE SCHEMES AND RELAYS 9
Principles and need for protective schemes- Zones of protection and essential
qualities of protection- Operating principles of relays – Torque equation – R-X
diagram – Electromagnetic Relays – Over current, Directional, Distance,
Differential, Negative sequence and Under frequency relays- Introduction to
static and numerical relay .

UNIT II CIRCUIT BREAKERS 9

Physics of arcing phenomenon and arc interruption -– re-striking voltage and
recovery voltage - rate of rise of recovery voltage - resistance switching – current
chopping - interruption of capacitive current - Types of circuit breakers – air
blast, air break, oil, SF6, and vacuum circuit breakers .

UNIT III REAL POWER - FREQUENCY CONTROL 9

Basics of speed governing mechanisms and modeling - speed load characteristics
- regulation of two generators in parallel. Load Frequency Control (LFC) of single
area system-static and dynamic analysis of uncontrolled and controlled cases -
LFC of two area system - tie line modeling – block diagram representation of two
area system - static analysis .

UNIT IV REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE CONTROL 9

Generation and absorption of reactive power - basics of reactive power control –
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) – brushless AC excitation system – block
diagram representation of AVR loop – static and dynamic analysis – stability
compensation – voltage drop in transmission line - methods of reactive power
injection - tap changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and STATCOM for voltage
control.

UNIT V ECONOMIC OPERATION and COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER

SYSTEM 9
Statement of economic dispatch problem - input and output characteristics of
thermal plant – incremental cost curve - optimal operation of thermal units
without and with transmission losses (no derivation of transmission loss
coefficients- statement of unit commitment (UC) problem - constraints on UC
problem solution of UC problem using priority list- Energy Control centre –
SCADA- State Transition diagram

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
➢ CO1: Ability to analyze the characteristics and functions of relays
and protection schemes.
➢ CO2: Study about the apparatus protection, static and numerical
relays.
➢ CO3: Acquire knowledge on functioning of circuit breaker.
➢ CO4: Understand the significance of power system operation and
control.
➢ CO5: Acquire knowledge on real power-frequency interaction.
➢ CO6: Understand the reactive power-voltage interaction.

5.Course Outcomes
Semester: 06
Level of
Course Name: POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL
(22EE601) Knowledge

Year of study: 2024-25 (2022 Regulation)

CO1 Ability to analyze the characteristics and functions of relays and K2
protection schemes.
CO2 Study about the apparatus protection, static and numerical relays. K3

CO3 Acquire knowledge on functioning of circuit breaker. K3

CO4 Understand the significance of power system operation and control. K3

CO5 Acquire knowledge on real power-frequency interaction. K2

CO6 Understand the reactive power-voltage interaction. K3

CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Course Outcome mapping with POS/PSOs
Semester: 06
Course Name: POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL (22EE601)
Year of study: 2024-25 (2020 Regulation)
POs/PSO
s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4
COs
1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 2 1 1 -
C301.1 2
3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -
C301.2
2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -
C301.3 3
2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -
C301.4 3
3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -
C301.5
3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -
C301.6
 6. CO-PO/CO-PSO MAPPING

PO1 PO1
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10
1 2

CO1 2 1 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO2 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO3 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO4 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO5 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO6 3 2 1 1 - - - - 1 1 - -

CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO 4

2 -
CO1 1 1
3 -
CO2 1 1
3 -
CO3 1 1
3 -
CO4 1 1
3 -
CO5 1 1
3 -
CO6 1 1
 Lecture plan Unit III
Sl Topic No Prop Actu Pertaining Taxo Mode
No of osed al dt CO nom of
Peri dt y delive
ods level ry
1 Basics Of Speed Governing CO3 K2 Chak
Mechanisms And Modeling and
Talk
PPT
1
2 Speed Load Characteristics - CO3 K2 Chak
Regulation Of Two and
Generators In Parallel. 1 Talk
PPT
3 Load Frequency Control 1 CO3 K2 Chak
(LFC) Of Single Area System and
Talk
PPT
4 System-static And Dynamic 1 CO3 K2 Chak
Analysis Of Uncontrolled And and
Controlled Cases Talk
PPT
5 LFC Of Two Area System - 1 CO3 K2 Chak
Tie Line Modeling - Block and
Diagram Representation Of Talk
Two Area System PPT
6 LFC Of Two Area System - 1 CO3 K2 Chak
Tie Line Modeling - Block and
Diagram Representation Of Talk
Two Area System PPT
7 Static And Dynamic Analysis 1 CO3 K3 Chak
and
Talk
PPT
8 Tie Line With Frequency 1 CO3 K2 Chak
Bias Control and
Talk
PPT
9 Tie Line With Frequency 1 CO3 K2 Chak
Bias Control and
Talk
PPT
 Activity Based Learning

1. Plot and analyze the load characteristics for monthly and weekly for our college
campus.
2. Measuring the unit consumed per day ,month and annually in their house. With
raw data's, forecast the load using neutral network.
3. Analyze the automatic control of water flow in the water tank.
 Lecture notes

UNIT III REAL POWER - FREQUENCY CONTROL

Introduction:
A power system consists of several generating stations, where electrical
energy is generated, and several consumers for whose use the electrical energy is
generated. The objective of any power system is to generate electrical energy in
sufficient quantities at the best-suited locations and to transmit it to the various load
centres and then distribute it to the various consumers maintaining the quality and
reliability at an economic price. Quality implies that the frequency be maintained
constant at the specified value (50 Hz in our country; though 60-Hz systems are also
prevailing in some countries) and that the voltage be maintained constant at the
specified value.

Further, the interruptions to the supply of energy should be as minimum as

possible. One important characteristic of electric energy is that it should be used as it
is generated; otherwise it may be stated that the energy generated must be sufficient
to meet the requirements of the consumers at all times. Because of the diversified
nature of activities of the consumers (e.g., domestic, industrial, agricultural, etc.), the
load on the system varies from instant to instant. However, the generating station
must be in a ‘state of readiness’ to supply the load without any intimation from the
consumer. This ‘variable load problem’ is to be tackled effectively ever since the
inception of a power system. This necessitates a thorough understanding of the
nature of the load to be supplied, which can be readily obtained from the load curve.
Power scenario in Indian grid

Power Scenario In Indian Grid:

Total Installed Capacity - Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

Region Thermal Nuclea Hydro RES Grand

r (MNRE) Total
Northern 62108.57 1620 20333.77 20520.05 104582.39
Western 86698.58 1840 7562.5 30909.93 127011.01
Southern 55469.99 3320 11774.83 45224.64 115789.46
Eastern 27990.56 0 4752.12 1707.52 34450.20
North 2550.48 0 1944.00 482.57 4977.04
Eastern
Islands 40.05 0 0 38.01 78.06
All India 234858.22 6780 46367.22 98882.72 386888.15

All India Installed Capacity (in MW) of Power stations

Necessity of Voltage and Frequency Regulation

Constant Frequency
Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
➢ All the AC motors should require constant frequency supply so as to maintain
speed constant.
➢ In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
➢ For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it is
necessary to maintain frequency constant.
➢ Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through interconnecting lines.
➢ Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
➢ Speed of three phase ac motors proportional to the frequency.
(N=120f/p)
➢ The blades of turbines are designed to operate at a particular speed. Frequency
variation leads to speed variation and results in mechanical vibration
Constant Voltage
➢ Voltage Control Equipment needed to maintain Voltage at permissible limits
➢ Voltage below normal level Reduces the light Intensity and Voltage above the normal
level can reduce the life of the lamps
➢ Low voltage at motor terminal can draw more currents and cause overheat inside the
device
➢ Voltage deviation affects the performance of the device and drops the life time
➢ By adjusting the excitation of the generator at the sending end below the certain level
can cause instability problems and excitation above certain level will result in overheating
of rotor.

Real Power Vs Frequency And Reactive Power Vs Voltage Control Loops

P–f control
The Load Frequency Control (LFC), also known as generation control or P–f control, deals
with the control of loading of the generating units for the system at normal frequency. The
load in a power system is never constant and the system frequency remains at its nominal
value only when there is a match between the active power generation and the active power
demand. During the period of load change, the deviation from the nominal frequency, which
may be called frequency error (Δf), is an index of mismatch and can be used to send the
appropriate command to change the generation by adjusting the LFC system. It is basically
controlling the opening of the inlet valves of the prime movers according to the loading
condition of the system. In the case of a multi-area system, the LFC system also maintains
the specified power interchanges between the participating areas. In a smaller system, this
control is done manually, but in large systems automatic control devices are used in the
loop of the LFC system .

Q–V Control
In this control, the terminal voltage of the generator is sensed and converted into
proportionate DC signal and then compared to DC reference voltage. The error in between a
DC signal and a DC reference voltage, i.e., Δ |V | is taken as an input to the Q–V controller.
A control output ΔQ is applied to the exciter.
Generator Controllers (p–f and Q–V Controllers)
The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal angle δ and is
independent of the bus voltage magnitude |V|. The bus voltage is dependent on
machine excitation and hence on reactive power Q and is independent of the
machine angle δ. Change in the machine angle δ is caused by a momentary change
in the generator speed and hence the frequency. Therefore, the load frequency and
excitation voltage controls are non-interactive for small changes and can be modeled
and analyzed independently. Figure gives the schematic diagram of load frequency
(P–f) and excitation voltage (Q–V) regulators of a turbo-generator. The objective of
the MW frequency or the P–f control mechanism is to exert control of frequency and
simultaneously exchange of the realpower flows via interconnecting lines. In this
control, a frequency sensor senses the change in frequency and gives the signal Δf .
The P–f controller senses the change in frequency signal (Δ f) and the increments in
tie-line real powers (ΔP ), which will indirectly provide information about the
incremental state error (Δδ ). These sensor signals (Δf and ΔP ) are amplified, mixed,
and transformed into a real-power control signal ΔP . The valve control mechanism
takes ΔP as the input signal and provides the output signal, which will change the
position of the inlet valve of the prime mover. As a result, there will be a change in
the prime mover output and hence a change in real-power generation ΔP . This
entire P–f control can be yielded by automatic load frequency control (ALFC) loop.

The objective of the MVAr-voltage or Q–V control mechanism is to exert control of

the voltage state |Vi |. A voltage sensor senses the terminal voltage and converts it
into an equivalent proportionate DC voltage. This proportionate DC voltage is
compared with a reference voltage Viref by means of a comparator. The output
obtained from the comparator is error signal Δ|Vi | given as input to Q–V controller,
which transforms it to a reactive power signal command ΔQci and is fed to a
controllable excitation source. This results in a change in the rotor field current,
which in turn modifies the generator terminal voltage. This entire Q–V control can be
yielded by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop.
Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

Fig. Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

Basics of Speed Governing Mechanisms and Modelling

The speed governor is the main primary tool for the LFC, whether the machine is
used alone to feed a smaller system or whether it is a part of the most elaborate
arrangement. A schematic arrangement of the main features of a speed-governing
system of the kind used on steam turbines to control the output of the generator to
maintain constant frequency is as shown in Fig.

Its main parts or components are as follows:

(i)Fly Ball Speed Governor:

This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed (frequency).As the
speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism
moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases.

(ii) Hydraulic Amplifier:

It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low power level pilot valve
movement is converted into high power level piston valve movement. This is necessary in
order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.

(iii) Linkage Mechanism:

ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. This link
mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change in speed. It
also provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.

iv)Speed Changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine.
Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to
the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady power output). The reverse
happens for upward movement of speed changer.
A brief explanation of the diagram is as follows:
Steam enters into the turbine through a pipe that is partially obstructed by a
steam admission valve. In steady state the opening valve is determined by the position
of a device called the speed changer (upper left corner in Fig.1), fixes the position of
the steam valve through two rigid rods ABC and CDE. The reference value or set point
of the turbine power in steady state is called the reference power.

When the load on the bus suddenly changes, the shaft speed is modified, and a device
called speed regulator acts through the rigid rods to move the steam valve. A similar
effect could be produced by temporarily modifying the reference power (which justifies
the name speed changer). In practice, both control schemes are used simultaneously.
Amplifying stages (generally hydraulic) are introduced to magnify the output of the
controller and produced the forces necessary to actually move the steam valve.

Modelling of Speed Governor

In this section, we develop the mathematical model based on small deviations
around a nominal steady state. Let us assume that the steam is operating under
steady state and is delivering power P0G from the generator at nominal speed or
frequency fo. Under this condition, the prime mover valve has a constant setting χ0E,
the pilot valve is closed, and the linkage mechanism is stationary. Now, we will
increase the turbine power by ΔPC with the help of the speed changer. For this, the
movement of linkage point A moves downward by a small distance ΔxA .
 ΔxA = Kc ΔPC ……………..(1)

The link point ‘C’ will move upward because of linkage (A-B-C) action. Let it be
further, the link point ‘D’ moves the piston in pilot servo (V), resulting in higher
pressure oil flow in the upper part of the main piston. The piston moves
downward by an amount ΔXD and the steam valve opening increases. It
increases the torque developed by the turbine. This increased torque increases
the speed of generator, i.e., frequency (Δf). This change of speed results in the
outward movement of fly ball of the speed regulator. Thus the link ‘B’ moves
slightly downward a small distance ΔXB. Due to the movement of link point B,
the link point ‘C’ also moves downward by an amount ΔXC’’ which is also
proportional to Δf. Thus the net movement of link point C is

ΔXC’ = (-) Kc ΔPC K1

ΔXC’ = (-) K1 Kc ΔPC …………….. (4)

and ΔXC “ = K2 Δf

Thus the net movement of C is therefore

ΔXC = (-) K1 Kc ΔPC + K2 Δf ………………. (5)

ΔXD’ = K3 ΔXC ……………… (7)
 Fig. Model of speed governor

Steam turbine or hydro turbine act as a prime mover driving a generator unit. At
present, we can assume that the voltage level is constant and the torque variations
are small. Then an incremental analysis will give a relatively simple dynamic
relationship between ΔXE and ΔPG. Such an analysis reveals considerable difference,
not only between steam turbines and hydro- turbines, but also between various types
(reheat and non-reheat) of steam turbines. Therefore, the transfer function, relates
the change in the generated power output with respect to the change in the valve
position, varies with the type of the prime mover.

Fig Model of turbine

Fig. Generator load model
Speed – Load Characteristics (Load Sharing between Two Synchronous
Machines in Parallel)

Speed droop is a governor function which reduces the governor reference speed as fuel
position (load) increases. All engine controls use the principle of droop to provide stable
operation. The simpler mechanical governors have the droop function built into the
control system, and it cannot be changed.

Droop originates from the principle of power balance in synchronous generators. An

imbalance between the input mechanical power and the output electric power causes a
change in the rotor speed and electrical frequency. Similarly, variation in output reactive
power results in voltage magnitude deviation.

The ability to return to the original speed after a change in load is called
isochronous speed control.

All electronic controls have circuits which effectively provide a form of temporary droop
by adjusting the amount of actuator position change according to how much off speed is
sensed. Without some form of droop, engine-speed regulation would always be
unstable. A load increase would cause the engine to slow down. The governor would
respond by increasing the fuel position until the reference speed was attained. However,
the combined properties of inertia and power lag would cause the speed to recover to a
level greater than the reference.

Droop is a straight-line function, with a certain speed reference for every fuel position.
Normally, a droop governor lowers the speed reference from 3 to 5 percent of the
reference speed over the full range of the governor output. Thus a 3% droop governor
with a reference speed of 1854 rpm at no fuel would have a reference speed of 1800 rpm
at max fuel (61.8 Hz at no fuel and 60 Hz at max fuel).Most complex hydraulic governors
have adjustable droop. In these cases, droop may be set between 0% and 5%. Droop is
not adjustable in most mechanical governors.
Fig. Ideal steady state characteristics of a governor with speed droop

Fig. Speed-Load characteristics

Parallel operation of two alternators
Two different controls are carried out on the governor characteristics. The
parameter R is adjusted during off-line condition of the unit to ensure its proper
coordination with the other units, the second control shifts the straight line
characteristic parallel to itself to change the load distribution among the generators
connected in parallel as well as to maintain the system frequency.

The second control known as supplementary control. In Fig. the governor

characteristics of two generating units are shown. Supposing if two generator units
sharing the total load P ie. P =P1+P2 and at constant frequency f0. Now if the total
load increases by P’, the frequency reduces to f’0 then the two generator units
increases their output by supplying kinetic energy which in turn reduction in speed.
In order to maintain the system frequency, one of the generators or both the
generator increase their output which is shown in dotted lines of the figure. Now
the total load P’ is hared by both the generators with increased output i.e P’ =
P’1+P’2 .

It is to be noted that if the frequency of two areas are to be controlled, the static
frequency drop is 50% of the isolated operation of two systems. Also, if there is
change in load in any area, half of it shared by other area.

Fig. Parallel operation of two alternators

Example 1. Two generators rated 400MW and 700 MW are operated in parallel. The
droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and 4% respectively from no-load to
full –load. Assuming that the governors are operating in 50HZ at no load, how would a
load of 1000MW be shared between them?. What will be the system frequency at this
load? Assume linear governor operation; determine the full load speed for each
machine. (Nov-Dec 2018AU)

Fig. Two alternators in Parallel

 1000-X = 363.9956 (50-f)

1000-X = 18199.7816 – 363.9956 f ………… (2)

363.9956 f + 274.5367f = 18199.7816 + 13726.835 -1000

638.5323 f = 30926.6166

f = 48.4339 Hz

Substitute ‘f’ value in eq-1

X = 13726.835 – 274.5367 f ……………….(1)

X = 13726.835 – 274.5367 (48.4339)

X = 13726.835 – 13296.8831 X = 429.952 MW

1000-X = 1000 – 429.952 = 570.04807 MW

Result

Load shared by first Alternator-1 = 429.952 MW

Load shared by first Alternator-2 = 570.04807 MW

Full load speed of Alternator-1 = 48.543 Hz

Full load speed of Alternator-2 = 48.0769 Hz

Frequency of the new load = 48.4339 Hz

Example :2 Two turbo-alternators are rated at 25MW each. They are running in
parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines are such that the
frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50Hz on no load to 48Hz on full load,
and that of alternator 2 from 50Hz to 48.5 Hz.
a) How will the two machines share a load of 30MW and find the bus-bar frequency at
this load?
b) Compute the maximum load that these two units can deliver without overheating
either of them.

Fig. Two alternators in Parallel

 30-X = 25-16.67 h + 8.33 ……………… (2)

Substitute eq-1 in eq-2

30 – (25 – 12.5 h) = 25-16.67 h + 8.33

30 – 25 + 12.5 h = 25 – 16.67 h + 8.33

 12.5 h + 16.67 h = 25-5 +8.33

h = 0.9712

Substitute ‘h’ value in eq-1

X = 25 – 12.5 x (0.9712)

X = 12.85MW

30-X = 30 – 12.85 = 17.15 MW

System frequency = 48 + h = 48.9712 Hz

(b) Full load will first come on alternator 2

Full load at 25MW at 48.5HZ

Extend BC to B’F

From similar ∆AB’F and ∆ADE are similar

Maximum possible load = 25 + 18.75 = 43.75 MW

System frequency = 48.5Hz

 Load frequency control of Single Area

Prime movers driving the generators are fitted with governors, which are regarded as

primary control elements in the LFC system. Governors sense the change in a speed control
mechanism to adjust the opening of steam valves in the case of steam turbines

Need of Load Frequency Control

The active and reactive power demands are never steady and they continuously changes
with the rising or falling trend of load demand. There is a change in frequency with the
change in load which causes problems such as:

1. Most AC motors run at speeds that are directly related to frequency. The speed and
induced electro motive force (e.m.f) may vary because of the change of frequency of the
power circuit.

2. When operating at frequencies below 49.5 Hz; some types of steam turbines, certain
rotor states undergo excessive vibration.
3. The change in frequency can cause mal operation of power converters by producing
harmonics.

4. For power stations running in parallel it is necessary that frequency of the network
must remain constant for synchronization of generators.

Representation of Load Frequency Control of Single Area Power System:

A complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system comprising governor
, turbine, generator and load is easily obtained by combining the block diagrams of
individual components.

Previous chapter derived the modelling of speed governor, turbine, and generator load
model. Combining the governor model, turbine model and generator load model, we get
the complete block diagram representation of LFC of an isolated power system which is
shown in fig.10

Fig.1. Complete Model of LFC of Single Area

 Static Analysis or Steady state response of uncontrolled case

The basic objective of the primary ALFC loop is to maintain constant frequency in spite of
changing loads. The primary ALFC loop as shown in the fig. has one output and two
inputs. ΔPref(s) and ΔPD(s)

Consider the speed changer has a fixed setting. Under this condition ΔPC =0 and the load
demand changes. This is known s free governor operation. The block diagram is shown in
fig drawn from substituting ΔPC =0.

Fig.2

Fig.3
Static Analysis or Steady state response of controlled case

In this case, there is a step change ΔPC force for speed changer setting and the load demand
remains fixed i.e ΔPD =0.

Fig.5

Fig.6
Taking inverse Laplace transform for an expression ΔF(s) is tedious, because the
denominator will be third order. We can simplify the analysis by making the following
assumptions.
1. The action of speed governor and turbine is instantaneously compared with rest of the
power system.

2. The time constant of the power system

Tp=20 sec, Tg = 0.4sec. Tt = 0.5sec

Approximate Analysis : letting TG = Tt = 0 ; KG = Kt =1

The block diagram reduces as shown in fig.16

Fig.8
Fig.9. Dynamic response of primary ALFC loop to a step load change
 Dynamic Analysis of Controlled Case:

Important points for uncontrolled Single Area

1. By reducing value of R it is possible to increase AFRC. Hence static frequency error may be
reduced.

2. With smaller time constant Tg and Tt, the system response shows some oscillations before
settling down with a drop in frequency. But if these time constants are neglected, response is
purely exponential.

3. If the overall closed loop system time constant is calculated from the response curve, it is
found to be much smaller than the open loop time constant of the power system.

4. For the uncontrolled system there exists a steady state frequency error as a result of increase
in load demand, however small it may be.

5. When the load demand increases speed or frequency of the system drops though initially
kinetic energy of rotating inertia may be used to meet up the demand. Eventually it will be
balanced by an increase in system generation and decrease in load as associated with the
dropping frequency.
Problems in LFC single Area
Example 1: Find the static frequency drop if the load is suddenly increased by 25 MW on a
system having the following data:
Rated capacity Pr = 500 MW
Operating Load PD = 250 MW
Inertia constant H = 5 s
Governor regulation R = 2 Hz p.u. MW
Frequency f = 50 Hz
Also find the additional generation.
Example 2 : An Isolated power system has the following parameters:
Turbine Rated output Pr = 300 MW
Load Change = 60 MW
Inertia constant H = 5 s
Governor regulation R =0.05 p.u.
Nominal Frequency f = 50 Hz
Turbine time constant = 0.5 sec
Governor time constant = 0.2 sec

The load varies by 0.8 percent for a 1 percent change in frequency; determine the steady
state frequency deviation in Hz. (June 2016 AU)
LFC of two area system:

From a practical point of view the problem of frequency control of interconnected

areas or power pools are more important than of isolated area or single area power
system. An interconnected power system can be divided into number of LFC areas
which are interconnected by a tie lines. Such an operation is called pool operation.
When subject to disturbances in the interconnected power system like a small load
change all the generator - turbine units in a control area are swing together with the
other groups of the generator- turbine units in the other areas. Hence all the units in
a control area are represented by a single units and characterised by a single
frequency
Main advantages can be derived by from a pool operation are
• Under normal operating condition each area should have a capacity to meet out
the own demand from its own generating units, plus the scheduled interchange
between the neighbouring area which they are mutually agreed upon.
• Under emergency condition the energy generated can be drawn by the spinning
reserves of all the neighbouring areas immediately due to unanticipated loss of
generating outages
For analysing the dynamics of the LFC of an n-area power system, primarily consider
two-area systems.

Here, the control objective is to regulate the frequency of each area and
to simultaneously regulate the power flow through the tie line according to an inter
area power agreement.
Tie Line Modeling
In the case of an isolated control area, the zero steady state error in
frequency (i.e., Δf = 0) can be obtained by using a proportional plus integral
controller, whereas in two-control area case, proportional plus integral controller will
be installed to give zero steady state error in a tie-line power flow (i.e., ΔPTie = 0) in
addition to zero steady-state error in frequency.
For the sake of convenience, each area can be represented by an
equivalent turbine, generator, and governor system. In the case of a single control
area, the incremental power (ΔPG −ΔPD) was considered by the rate of increase of
stored KE and increase in area load caused by the increase in frequency. But as in
the case of a two-area, the tie-line power must be accounted for the incremental
power balance equation of each area, since there is power f low in or out of the area
through the tie line.
 Block diagram representation of two area system
By the combination of basic block diagrams of Load frequency control of
single area network along with single area tie line support (fig 2 ) and Tie Line
model (fig 3), the composite block diagram of a two-area system can be modelled as
shown in Fig.

Fig 14. Two area load frequency control – Block Diagram

Static Analysis of Two Area System (Uncontrolled
Case)
Fig.16. Dynamic response of two identical area
system
 Typically, the reset control is implemented by sampled data techniques. At
sampling intervals of say one second all tie line power data are fed into the central
energy control center where they added and compared with predetermined
contracted interchange megawatts. In this way is obtained the sum error of above
equation. This error is added to the biased frequency error and the ACE results. This
ACE is communicated with all area generators that are participating in the
interconnected network.
Problems on Two area LFC
Station Full Load Capacity Speed Regulation Station Load

A 10 MW 2.5 % 7 MW

B 2 MW 4% 2 MW
 Assignments

1. A single-area system has the following data: Speed regulation, R = 4 Hz/p.u. MW;
Damping coefficient, B = 0.1 p.u. MW/Hz; Power system time constant, Tp = 10 s;
Power system gain, Kp = 75 Hz/p.u. MW; When a 2% load change occurs,
determine the AFRC and the static frequency error. What is the value of the steady-
state frequency error if the governor is blocked?
(β = 0.35 MW/Hz ; ΔF = -0.571 Hz; β = 0.1 p.u MW/Hz ; ΔF = -0.2 Hz)

2. A 200-MVA synchronous generator is operated at 3,000 rpm, 50 Hz. A load of 40

MW is suddenly applied to the machine and the station valve to the turbine opens
only after 0.4 s due to the time lag in the generator action. Calculate the frequency
to which the generated voltage drops before the steam flow commences to increase
so as to meet the new load. Given that the valve of H of the generator is 5.5 kW-s
per kVA of the generator energy. (F = 49.635 Hz)

3. Two generating units having the capacities 600 and 900 MW and are operating at
a 50 Hz supply. The system load increases by 150 MW when both the generating
units are operating at about half of their capacity, which results in the frequency
falling by 0.5 Hz. If the generating units are to share the increased load in
proportion to their ratings, what should be the individual speed regulations? What
should the regulations be if expressed in p.u. Hz/p.u. MW?
(R1 = 0.1 p.u ; R2 =0.1 p.u Hz/ p.u MW)
 Part A (Q & A)

K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level

What is the objective of power system control?

The objective of power system control is to maintain a continuous
1 balance between electrical generation and varying load demand while K2 CO1
system frequency and voltage levels are maintained constant.

What is the need for voltage regulation in power system?

2 The need for voltage regulation in power system is to maintain the K1 CO1
voltage at the load terminals within prescribed limits under fluctuating
load conditions by employing suitable voltage control equi
What are the steps required for designing an optimum linear
regulator?
An optimum linear regulator can be designed using the following
steps:
1. Casting the system dynamic model in a state-variable form and
3 introducing appropriate control forces. K2 CO3
2. Choosing an integral-squared-error control index, the minimization
of which is the control goal.
3. Finding the structure of the optimal controller that will minimize the
chosen control index.

How and why do you approximate the system for the dynamic
response of the uncontrolled LFC of a single area?
The characteristic equation of the LFC of an isolated power system is
third order, dynamic response that can be obtained only for a specific
4 numerical case. K2 CO3
However, the characteristic equation can be approximated as first
order by examining the relative magnitudes of the different time
constants involved

What is the criterion used for obtaining optimum values for the
control parameters?
5 Integral of the sum of the squared error criterion is the required K2 CO3
criterion
S.No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
Explain the control area concept.
It is possible to divide a very large power system into sub-areas in
which all the generators are tightly coupled such that they swing in unison
with change in load or due to a speed-changer setting. Such an area, where
CO3
6 all the generators are running coherently, is termed the control area. In this K2
area, frequency may be same in Steady-state and dynamic conditions. For
developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a
single generator, a speed governor, and a load system.

What is meant by single-area power system?

A single area is a coherent area in which all the generators swing in unison to
the changes in load or speed-changer settings and in which the frequency is
7 assumed to be constant throughout both in static and dynamic conditions. K2 CO3
This single control area can be represented by an isolated power system
consisting of a turbine, its speed governor, generator, and load.

What is meant by dynamic response in LFC?

The meaning of dynamic response is how the frequency changes as a
8 function of time immediately after disturbance before it reaches the new K2 CO3
steady-state condition.
What is meant by uncontrolled case?
9 For uncontrolled case, ΔP = 0; i.e., constant speed-changer position with K2 CO3
variable load.
What is the need of a fly-ball speed governor?
10 This is the heart of the system, which controls the change in speed K2 CO3
(frequency).
What is the need of a speed changer?
It provides a steady-state power output setting for the turbines. Its upward
movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the
11 K2 CO3
turbine under steady conditions. This gives rise to higher steady-state power
output. The reverse happens for downward movement of the speed changer

What is meant by area control error?

The area control error (ACE) is the change in area frequency, which when
12 used in an integral-control loop forces the steady state frequency error to K2 CO3
zero
How and why do you approximate the system for the dynamic
response of the uncontrolled LFC of a single area?
The characteristic equation of the LFC of an isolated power system is third
order, dynamic response that can be obtained only for a specific numerical
13 case. K2 CO3
However, the characteristic equation can be approximated as first
order by examining the relative magnitudes of the different time constants
involved
S.N
Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
o
What are the basic requirements of a closed-loop control system
employed for obtaining the frequency constant?
The basic requirements are as follows:
1. Good stability;
14 2. Frequency error, accompanying a step-load change, returns to zero; K1 CO3
3. The magnitude of the transient frequency deviation should be
minimum;
4. The integral of the frequency error should not exceed a certain
maximum value.
What are the advantages of a pool operation?
The advantages of a pool operation (i.e., grid operation) are:
1. Half of the added load (in Area-2) is supplied by Area-1 through the
15 tie line. K1 CO3
2. The frequency drop would be only half of that which would occur if
the areas were operating without interconnection
Show how the system Without speed-changer position control, can
the static frequency
16 K1 CO3
deviation be zero?
No, the static frequency deviation cannot be zero.
What is the criterion used for obtaining optimum values for the
control parameters?
17 K1 CO3
Integral of the sum of the squared error criterion is the required
criterion.
What is the difference of ACE in single-area and two-area power
systems?
In a single-area case, ACE is the change in frequency. The steady state
error in frequency will become zero (i.e., Δf = 0) when ACE
is used in an integral-control loop.
18 In a two-area case, ACE is the linear combination of the change in K1 CO3
frequency and change in tie-line power. In this case to make the
steady-state tie-line power zero (i.e., ΔPTL = 0), another integral
control loop for each area must be introduced in addition to the
integral frequency loop to integrate the incremental tie-line power
signal and feed it back to the speed-changer
What is the main difference of load frequency and economic
dispatch controls?
The load frequency controller provides a fast-acting control and
19 regulates the system around an operating point, whereas the EDC K1 CO3
provides a slow-acting control, which adjusts the speed-changer
settings every minute in accordance with a command signal generated
by the CEDC.
 Part A (Q & A)

Sl No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs

What are the parts of speed governing mechanism?

The parts of speed governing mechanism

(i) Speed governor
20 K1 CO3
(ii) Linkage mechanism
(iii) Hydraulic amplifier
(iv) Speed changer

Write about hydraulic amplifier.

Hydraulic amplifier consists of main piston and pilot valve. Low

21 power level pilot valve movement is converted into high power level K1 CO3
piston valve movement which is necessary to open or close the steam
valve against high pressure steam.

How is the real power in a power system controlled?

22 The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling K1 CO3

the driving torque of the individual turbines of the system.

What is the need for large mechanical forces in speed-governing

system?
Very large mechanical fores are needed to position the main valve
23 against the high stream pressure and these forces are obtained via K1 CO3
several stages of hydraulic amplifiers.

What is the objective of power system control?

The objective of power system control is to maintain a continuous
24 balance between electrical generation and varying load demand while K1 CO3
system frequency and voltage levels are maintained constant.
 Part A (Q & A)

S.No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs

26 K1 CO3

Why should the system frequency be maintained constant?

Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following
functions:
1. All the AC motors should be given constant frequency supply so as
to maintain the speed constant.
27 K1 CO3
2. In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the
process itself.
3. For synchronous operation of various units in the power system
network, it is necessary to maintain the frequency constant.

How do load frequency characteristics change during on-line

Control?
28 By shifting the load frequency characteristics as a whole up or down K1 CO3
varying the inlet valve opening of the prime mover

How do load frequency characteristics change during off-line

control?
29 By changing the slope of the load characteristics by varying the lever K1 CO3
ratio of the speed governor

State why P–f and Q–V control loops can be treated as non-interactive?
The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal angle δ and is
independent of bus voltage magnitude |V|. The bus voltage
is dependent on machine excitation and hence on reactive power Q
and is independent of the machine angle δ. The change in the
30 machine angle δ is caused by a momentary change in the generator K1 CO3
speed and hence the frequency. Therefore, the load frequency and
excitation voltage controls are non-interactive for small changes and
can be modeled and analyzed independently.

Choose what condition will the model developed for a turbine be

valid?
31 The condition for the turbine is the first 20 s following the incremental K1 CO3
disturbance.
 Part B

S.No Part B K Level COs

With the block diagram of speed governing system, explain the
1 automatic load frequency control. Also derive necessary equations K2 CO3

Two generators rated 400MW and 700 MW are operated in parallel.

The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and 4%
respectively from no-load to full –load. Assuming that the governors
are operating in 50HZ at no load, how would a load of 1000MW be
2 shared between them?. What will be the system frequency at this K2 CO3
load? Assume linear governor operation; determine the full load
speed for each machine.

Two turbo-alternators are rated at 25MW each. They are running in

parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines are
such that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50Hz
on no load to 48Hz on full load, and that of alternator 2 from 50Hz
to 48.5 Hz.
3 a) How will the two machines share a load of 30MW and find the K2 CO3
bus-bar frequency at this load?
b) Compute the maximum load that these two units can deliver
without overheating either of them.

Why is the load on the power system is variable? What are the
4 K2 CO3
effects of variable load in power system?

Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities

are 700MW and 600MW. The droop characteristics of their governor
are 4% and 5% from NL to FL. Assuming that the generators are
operating at 50Hz at NL, how a load of 800MW would be shared
5 between them. What will be the system frequency at this load? K3 CO3
Assume free governor action.
 Part C

S.No Part C K Level COs

Two generators rated 500MW and 800 MW are operated in

parallel. The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and
4% respectively from no-load to full –load. Assuming that the
6 governors are operating in 50HZ at no load, how would a load of K3 CO3
1200MW be shared between them?. What will be the system
frequency at this load? Assume linear governor operation;
determine the full load speed for each machine.
Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their
capacities are 700MW and 600MW. The droop characteristics of
their governor are 4% and 5% from NL to FL. Assuming that the
7 generators are operating at 50Hz at NL, how a load of 800MW K3 CO3
would be shared between them. What will be the system
frequency at this load? Assume free governor action.
Identify the primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area having
the following data. Total rated area capacity Pr=2000MW. Normal
operating load Pd=1000MW. Inertia constant H=5.0 Regulation
8 R=2.40 Hz/pu MW (all area generators) CO3
We shall assume that the load frequency dependency as linear meaning
that the old load would increase 1% for 1% frequency increase

Explain in detail about the integration of economic dispatch with LFC

with help of a block diagram
9 CO3
 K
S.No Part B COs
Level
10 Develop the block diagram of the LFC of a single-area system K3 CO3

Illustrate in detail the dynamic response of single area system

11 K2 CO3
without integral control following a step load disturbance
Explain the steady state analysis of controlled and uncontrolled
12 K2 CO3
case of single area load frequency control
Develop the transfer function model of two area system and draw
13 K3 CO3
the block diagram

Explain the load sharing between two synchronous machines in

14 K2 CO3
parallel
Solve to find the frequency at which the generated voltage drops
before the steam flow commences to increase to meet the new
load. Given that the valve of H of the generator is 3.5 kW-s per
15 kVA of the generator energy and 250-MVA synchronous generator K3 CO3
is operating at 1,500 rpm, 50 Hz. A load of 50 MW is suddenly
applied to the machine and the station valve to the turbine opens
only after 0.35 s due to the time lag in the generator action.
Illustrate in detail about the step load change of demand in one
16 area and derive the expression about change in frequency and tie K2 CO3
line power
Explain the tie line bias of a two area system
17 K2 CO3

18 Develop the state variable model of a two area system. K3 CO3

Explain in detail about the integration of economic dispatch with
19 K2 CO3
LFC with help of a block diagram
Identify the primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area
having the following data. Total rated area capacity Pr=2000MW.
Normal operating load Pd=1000MW. Inertia constant H=5.0
20 Regulation R=2.40 Hz/pu MW (all area generators) K3 CO3
We shall assume that the load frequency dependency as linear
meaning that the old load would increase 1% for 1% frequency
increase
S.No Part B K Level COs

Solve to determine the change in frequency that occurs in this time for
100 MVA synchronous generator is running on full load at 50 Hz
21 frequency. A 40 MW Loads is suddenly removed. Due to lag in governor K3 CO3
system, the steam valve of the turbine begins to close after 0.5 sec..
Given H = 5 MW sec/ MVA of generator rating
Solve for steady-state change in frequency and tie-line power of 10 MW
change in load occurs in both areas where two control areas of 1,000 and
2,000 MW capacities are interconnected by a tie line. The speed regulations
22 of the two areas, respectively, are 4 Hz/p.u. MW and 2.5 Hz/p.u. MW.
K3 CO3
Consider a 2% change in load occurs for 2% change in frequency in each
area.
Solve to find power generation at each station and power transfer through
the line if the load on the bus of each station is 200 MW. And the two
generating stations A and B having capacities 500 and 800 MW, respectively,
are interconnected by a short line. The percentage speed regulations from
no-load to full load of the two stations are 2 and 3, respectively.
23 K3 CO3
S.No Part C K Level COs

Apply the load frequency dynamics of this area and determine the steady
state frequency deviation in Hz using Area frequency response
characteristics .The load frequency dynamics of a single area power
system whose data are given below.
Rated Capacity of area (Pr)= 1500 MW ;Nominal Operating Load = 750
1 MW ; Nominal Frequency = 50 Hz ;Inertia Constant = 5.0 K3 CO4
Speed Regulation = 3 % ;Governor time constant & Turbine constant = 0
Assume linear load frequency Characteristics which means the
connected system load is increases by 1 % if the system frequency
increases by 1 %. The area is subjected to a load increase of 30 MW.
Apply the load frequency dynamics of a single area power system whose
data are given below. Rated Capacity of area (Pr)= 1000 MW; Nominal
Operating Load = 500 MW; Inertia Constant = 5.0; Regulation = 5 Hz/ p.u
MW; Frequency = 50 Hz Load decrease by 1 % for a decrease in
frequency by 1 %
2 a. Find gain and time constant of a power system. If it is an K3 CO4
uncontrolled area then find out the change in frequency due to an
increase of load by 75 MW
b. Determine the steady state frequency by changing regulation = 4
Hz/ p.u MW nominal operating load is 750 MW and compare with
the results ‘a’
 Supportive Online Certification Courses

S.No Name of the Course Link of the course

Power Systems Operation and Control by https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/1

1 Dr.SN Singh , IIT Kanpur –Video Content 04/108104052/

Power Systems Operation and Control

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/1
2 Dr. A.M. Kulkarni IIT Bombay – Web
01/108101040/
Content
 Real time Applications

1. Collect the monthly power and energy consumed data's for three years. With
this data's forecast the future load with help of recent optimal techniques

2. Implementing real-time monitoring and control systems that use synchrophasor

data from across the power grid to maintain grid stability and control frequency
deviations.

3. Develop advanced LFC algorithms that use real-time data from smart grids to
adjust generation and maintain the balance between load and generation, ensuring
grid stability

4. Investigate grid frequency restoration techniques, including real-time control of

energy storage systems and distributed energy resources to quickly restore
frequency following disturbances.
 Additional Topics

With neat diagram, explain the Interconnected two area grid system with tie line control.
Compare and explain the performance of Electronic Speed Governor
Study the implementation of real-time frequency regulation markets that allow for
dynamic trading of regulation services to balance supply and demand.
Address the cybersecurity challenges associated with real-time control systems, ensuring the resilience and
security of power grids against cyber threats.
 Assessment Schedule

Si.No. Assessment Date of Assessment Exams

1 FIAT 28.01.2025 to 03.02.2025

2 SIAT 10.03.2025 to 15.03.2025

3 Model 03.04.2025 to 17.04.2025

4 Semester Exam 21.04.2025 to 28.04.2025

 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Olle.I.Elgerd, ‘Electric Energy Systems theory - An introduction’, McGraw Hill

Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 34th reprint, 2010.

2. Allen. J. Wood and Bruce F. Wollen berg, ‘Power Generation, Operation and
Control’, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.

3. Abhijit Chakrabarti and Sunita Halder, ‘Power System Analysis Operation and
Control’, PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Third Edition, 2010.

REFERENCES

1. Kothari D.P. and Nagrath I.J., ‘Power System Engineering’, Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, Second Edition, 2008.

2. Hadi Saadat, ‘Power System Analysis’, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 21st reprint, 2010.

3. Kundur P., ‘Power System Stability and Control, McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 10th reprint, 2010.
 Mini project suggestions

Power Meter billing Plus Load Control Using GSM

Monthly Electricity Billing Display With Bill SMS Feature
Load Control System Using DTMF

Lamp Illumination Control With Precision

Device Load Monitor With Programmable Meter For Energy Audit
 Thank you

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