Chapter 6.

Vectors and vector functions

Vectors and vector functions

Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions

Youngrok Lee

Calculus I (Sessions 11, 12)

Sogang University

Spring semester 2022

Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vectors

Vectors
We denote by Vn the set of all n-dimensional vectors. An n-dimensional
vector is an ordered n-tuple:

a = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) ,

where a1 , a2 , · · · , an ∈ R that are called the components of a. We will focus

mainly on three-dimensional vectors.
Especially, i = (1, 0, 0) , j = (0, 1, 0) , k = (0, 0, 1) are called the standard
basis vectors in V3 .
Note: Similarly, i = (1, 0) , j = (0, 1) are called the standard basis vectors in
V2 .
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), then we can write

a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.

A vector of magnitude 1 is called a unit vector. For instance, i, j and k are all
unit vectors. In general, if a , 0, then the unit vector has the same direction
as a is
a
u= .
|a|
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vectors

Vectors

Example
Find the unit vector in the direction of 2i − j − 2k.
√
Solution. Since |2i − j − 2k| = 4 + 1 + 4 = 3,
2 1 2
u= i − j − k.
3 3 3
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The dot product

The dot product

Definition (The dot product)
The dot producta of a and b is defined as

a · b = |a| |b| cos θ,

where θ ∈ [0, π] is the angle between a and b.

a
It is also called the inner product or scalar product.

Theorem
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), then

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

Remark
If θ is the angle between a and b (a, b , 0), then

a·b
cos θ = .
|a| |b|
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The dot product

Scalar projection and vector projection

Definition (The scalar projection)

The scalar projection of b onto aa is defined as

a·b
compa b = .
|a|
a
It is also called the component of b along a.

Definition (The vector projection)

The vector projection of b onto a is defined as

a·b a a·b
proja b = = a.
|a| |a| |a|2
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The dot product

Scalar projection and vector projection

Example
Find the scalar projection and vector projection of b = (1, 1, 2) onto
a = (−2, 3, 1).
√ √
Solution. Since |a| = 4+9+1= 14,
(−2) · 1 + 3 · 1 + 1 · 2 3
compa b = √ = √
14 14
and !
3 3 9 3
proja b = (−2, 3, 1) = − , , .
14 7 14 14
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Definition (The cross product)

The cross producta of a and b is defined as

a × b = |a| |b| sin θn,

where θ ∈ [0, π] is the angle between a and b. Also, n denotes the unit
vector orthogonal to a and b.
a
It is also called the vector product.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Theorem
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), then

i j k
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) .
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Example
If a = (1, 3, 4) and b = (2, 7, −5), then find a × b.

Solution.

i j k
a×b= 1 3 4
2 7 −5
3 4 1 4 1 3
= i− j+ k
7 −5 2 −5 2 7
= (−43, 13, 1) .
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Example
Show that a × a = 0 for any a in V3 .

Solution. For any a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ),

i j k
a × a = a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= i− j+ k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= (0, 0, 0) = 0.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Theorem
a × b is orthogonal to both a and b.

Theorem
If θ is the angle between a and b, then

|a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ.

Corollary
a and b (a, b , 0) are parallel iff a × b = 0.

Remark
The magnitude of a × b is equal to the area of the parallelogram
determined by a and b.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Remark
(1)
i × j = − (j × i) = k.
(2)
j × k = − (k × j) = i.
(3)
k × i = − (i × k) = j.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
The cross product

The cross product

Theorem
Suppose that a, b and c are vectors and k is a scalar. Then
(1)
a × b = −b × a.
(2)
(ka) × b = k (a × b) = a × (kb).
(3)
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c.
(4)
(a + b) × c = a × c + b × c.
(5)
a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c.
(6)
a × (b × c) = (a · c) b − (a · b) c.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vector functions

Vector functions

A vector function (or vector-valued function) is simply a function

whose domain is R and whose range is a set of vectors.
We are most interested in vector functions whose values are
three-dimensional vectors. If r is a vector function in V3 , then we can
write
r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)) = f (t) i + g (t) j + h (t) k,
where f , g and h are real-valued functions called the component
functions of r.
The domain of r consists of all values of t for which its components
are defined.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vector functions

Vector functions

Definition (The limit of a vector function)

Let r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)) be a vector function with domain D, and let L
be a vector. Then we say that the limit of r (t) as t approaches a is L, and
we write
lim r (t) = L
t→a

if for any  > 0, there is δ > 0 such that

|r (t) − L| < 

whenever 0 < |t − a| < δ.

If r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)), then

 
lim r (t) = lim f (t), lim g (t), lim h (t) ,
t→a t→a t→a t→a

provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vector functions

Vector functions

Example
 
Find lim r (t), where r (t) = 1 + t3 i + te−t j + sin t
t k.
t→0

Solution.
!
     sin t
lim r (t) = lim 1 + t3 i + lim te−t j + lim k = i + k.
t→0 t→0 t→0 t→0 t
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Vector functions

Vector functions

Definition (The continuity of a vector function)

A vector function r is continuous at a if

lim r (t) = r (a) .

t→a

Remark
r is continuous at a iff its component functions are continuous at a.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of a vector functions

Definition (The derivative of a vector function)

The derivative r0 (t) of a vector function r is defined by

dr r (t + ∆t) − r (t)
r0 (t) = = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
if this limit exists.

r0 (t) is also called the tangent vector to the curve defined by r if r0 (t)
exists and r0 (t) , 0.
r0 (t)
Moreover, T (t) = |r0 (t)| is called the unit tangent vector.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of vector functions

Theorem
If r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)), where f , g and h are differentiable functions,
then
r0 (t) = f 0 (t) , g0 (t) , h0 (t) .

Proof.
r (t + ∆t) − r (t)
r0 (t) = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
( f (t + ∆t) , g (t + ∆t) , h (t + ∆t)) − ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t))
= lim
∆t→0 ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g (t + ∆t) − g (t) h (t + ∆t) − h (t)
!
= lim , ,
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t ∆t
f (t + ∆t) − f (t) g (t + ∆t) − g (t) h (t + ∆t) − h (t)
!
= lim , lim , lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
= f (t) , g (t) , h (t) .
0 0 0

Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of vector functions

Example
 
(a)
Find the derivative of r (t) = 1 + t3 i + te−t j + sin 2tk.
(b)
Find the unit tangent vector at the point where t = 0.

Solution.
(a)

r0 (t) = 3t2 i + (1 − t) e−t j + 2 cos 2tk.

(b)
Since r (0) = i and r0 (0) = j + 2k, the unit tangent vector at (1, 0, 0) is

r0 (0) j + 2k 1 2
T (0) = = √ = √ j + √ k.
|r0 (0)| 1+4 5 5
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of vector functions

Example
√
For the curve r (t) = ti + (2 − t) j, find r0 (t) and sketch the position
vector r (1) and r0 (1).

Solution. Since r0 (t) = 1√

2 t√
i− j, we have r0 (1) = 21 i − j. From the
parametric equations x = t, y = 2 − t, we have y = 2 − x2 , x ≥ 0. Thus,
we sketch the position vector r (1) = i + j and r0 (1) = 21 i − j as follows:
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of vector functions

Theorem
Suppose that u and v are vectors, k is a scalar and f is a real-valued
function. Then
(1) d
dt {u
(t) ± v (t)} = u0 (t) ± v0 (t).
(2) d
dt ku
(t) = ku0 (t).
(3) d
dt f
(t) u (t) = f 0 (t) u (t) + f (t) u0 (t).
(4) d
dt {u
(t) · v (t)} = u0 (t) · v (t) + u (t) · v0 (t).
(5) d
dt {u
(t) × v (t)} = u0 (t) × v (t) + u (t) × v0 (t).
(6) d
( (t)) = f 0 (t) u0 ( f (t)).
dt u f
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Derivatives of vector functions

Example
Show that if |r (t)| = k (a constant), then r0 (t) is orthogonal to r (t) for all t.

Solution. Note that r (t) · r (t) = |r (t)|2 = k2 is a constant. Differentiating on

both sides,
r0 (t) · r (t) + r (t) · r0 (t) = 2r0 (t) · r (t) = 0.
Thus, r0 (t) · r (t) = 0, which means that r0 (t) is orthogonal to r (t) for all t.
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Integrals of vector functions

Theorem
If r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)), where f , g and h are integrable functions on
[a, b], then
Z b Z b Z b Z b !
r (t)dt = f (t)dt, g (t)dt, h (t)dt .
a a a a
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Integrals of vector functions

We can extend the fundamental theorem of calculus to continuous

vector functions as follows:
Z b
r (t)dt = [R (t)]ba = R (b) − R (a) ,
a

where R is an antiderivative of r, i.e., R0 (t) = r (t).

We use the notation r (t)dt = R (t) + C for an indefinite integral of r,
R

where C is an integral constant vector.

Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Derivatives and integrals of vector functions

Integrals of vector functions

Example
If r (t) = 2 cos ti + sin tj + 2tk, then
Z Z Z Z
r (t)dt = 2 cos tdti + sin tdtj + 2tdtk

= 2 sin ti − cos tj + t2 k + C

and π
iπ π2
Z
2 h
r (t)dt = 2 sin ti − cos tj + t2 k 2 = 2i + j + k.
0
0 4
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Arc length

Arc length

Theorem
Suppose that the curve has r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)), a ≤ t ≤ b, where f 0 ,
g0 and h0 are continuous functions. If the curve is traversed exactly once
as t increases from a to b, then its length is
Z b Z b q
L= r (t) dt =
0
f 0 (t)2 + g0 (t)2 + h0 (t)2 dt.
a a
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Arc length

Arc length

Example
Find the length of r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + tka from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2π).
a
The curve is called a helix.

Solution. Since r0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + k, we have

q √
r0 (t) = (− sin t)2 + cos2 t + 1 = 2.

Thus, Z 2π Z 2π √ √
L= r0 (t) dt = 2dt = 2 2π.
0 0
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Arc length

The arc length function

Now, suppose that C is a curve given by r (t) = ( f (t) , g (t) , h (t)),

a ≤ t ≤ b, where r0 is continuous and C is traversed exactly once as
t increases from a to b.
We define its arc length function s by
Z t Z t q
s (t) = r (u) du =
0
f 0 (u)2 + g0 (u)2 + h0 (u)2 du.
a a

Note that
ds
= r0 (t) .
dt
Chapter 6. Vectors and vector functions
Vectors and vector functions
Arc length

The arc length function

Example
Find the arc length function of r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk measured from
(1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.

Solution. Since
ds √
= r0 (t) = 2,
dt
we have Z t Z t √ √
s (t) = r0 (u) du = 2du = 2t.
0 0