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Optimization Modelling A Practical Approach 1st Edition
Ruhul Amin Sarker Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Ruhul Amin Sarker, Charles S. Newton
ISBN(s): 9781420043105, 1420043102
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.97 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Sarker/Optimization Modelling: A Practical Approach 43102_C000 Final Proof page i 1.9.2007 11:49am Compositor Name: BMani

Optimization
Modelling
A Practical Approach
Sarker/Optimization Modelling: A Practical Approach 43102_C000 Final Proof page ii 1.9.2007 11:49am Compositor Name: BMani
Sarker/Optimization Modelling: A Practical Approach 43102_C000 Final Proof page iii 1.9.2007 11:49am Compositor Name: BMani

Optimization
Modelling
A Practical Approach

Ruhul A. Sarker
Charles S. Newton

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Sarker/Optimization Modelling: A Practical Approach 43102_C000 Final Proof page iv 1.9.2007 11:49am Compositor Name: BMani

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sarker, Ruhul A.
Optimization modelling : a practical introduction / Ruhul A. Sarker and
Charles S. Newton.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-4310-5 (alk. paper)
1. Mathematical models. 2. Mathematical optimization. I. Newton, Charles S.
(Charles Sinclair), 1942- II. Title.

QA401.S266 2007
658.4’0352--dc22 2007013747

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Table of Contents

List of Figures ...................................................................................................... xv

List of Tables ...................................................................................................... xxi

List of Mathematical Notations .................................................................... xxiv

Preface ................................................................................................................. xxv

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................... xxix

Authors............................................................................................................... xxxi

Section I Introduction to Optimization and Modelling

1 Introduction ......................................................................................................3
1.1 General Introduction .............................................................................3
1.2 History of Optimization .......................................................................4
1.3 Optimization Problems .........................................................................5
1.4 Mathematical Model..............................................................................6
1.4.1 Characteristics and Assumptions ........................................... 6
1.5 Concept of Optimization ......................................................................8
1.6 Classification of Optimization Problems .........................................11
1.7 Organization of the Book ...................................................................13
Exercises ...........................................................................................................14
References ........................................................................................................15

2 The Process of Optimization.......................................................................17

2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................17
2.2 Decision Process...................................................................................17
2.3 Problem Identification and Clarification .........................................19
2.4 Problem Definition ..............................................................................20
2.5 Development of a Mathematical Model ..........................................21
2.5.1 Measure of Effectiveness........................................................ 23
2.6 Deriving a Solution..............................................................................25
2.7 Sensitivity Analysis .............................................................................26
2.8 Testing the Solution.............................................................................26
2.9 Implementation ....................................................................................27

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2.10 Summary ...............................................................................................28

Exercises ...........................................................................................................29

3 Introduction to Modelling ...........................................................................31

3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................31
3.2 Components of a Mathematical Model............................................31
3.2.1 Decision Variables ................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Objective Function................................................................... 32
3.2.3 Constraints................................................................................ 32
3.3 Simple Examples..................................................................................32
3.4 Analyzing a Problem...........................................................................34
3.4.1 A Nonmathematical Programming Problem...................... 35
3.5 Modelling a Simple Problem .............................................................36
3.5.1 Defining the Variables ............................................................ 37
3.5.2 Objective Function................................................................... 37
3.5.3 Constraints................................................................................ 37
3.6 Linear Programming Model ..............................................................39
3.7 More Mathematical Models ...............................................................39
3.8 Integer Programming ..........................................................................42
3.9 Multi-Objective Problem.....................................................................45
3.9.1 Objective versus Goal ............................................................. 47
3.10 Goal Programming ..............................................................................47
3.11 Nonlinear Programming.....................................................................49
3.12 Summary ...............................................................................................52
Exercises ...........................................................................................................52

Section II Modelling Techniques

4 Simple Modelling Techniques I ................................................................59
4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................59
4.2 Use of Subscripts in Variables ...........................................................59
4.3 Simple Modelling Techniques ...........................................................60
4.3.1 Additional Work Requirement in the Formulation........... 61
4.3.2 Variables as Fractions of Other Variables ........................... 64
4.3.3 Maintaining Certain Ratios among Different Variables .... 68
4.3.4 One Constraint Is a Fraction of Another Constraint ......... 70
4.3.5 Maxi–Min or Mini–Max Objective Function....................... 75
4.3.6 Multi-Period Modelling.......................................................... 77
4.3.7 Transforming Infeasible Solutions to Satisfactory
Solutions.................................................................................... 79
4.3.8 Single to Multiple Objectives ................................................ 81
4.4 Special Types of Linear Programming.............................................82
4.4.1 Transportation Problem ......................................................... 83
4.4.2 Assignment Problem .............................................................. 86
4.4.3 Transshipment Problem ......................................................... 88
4.4.4 Project Management Problem ............................................... 91
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4.5 Summary ...............................................................................................98

Exercises ...........................................................................................................98
Bibliography ..................................................................................................102

5 Simple Modelling Techniques II .............................................................103

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................103
5.2 Precedence Constraints.....................................................................103
5.3 Either–or Constraints ........................................................................104
5.4 K out of N Constraints Must Hold .................................................105
5.5 Yes-or-No Decisions ..........................................................................106
5.6 Functions with N Possible Values...................................................108
5.7 Mutually Exclusive Alternatives and Contingent Decisions......109
5.8 Linking Constraints with the Objective Function ........................111
5.9 Piecewise Linear Functions ..............................................................113
5.10 Nonlinear to Approximate Functions ............................................116
5.11 Deterministic Models with Probability Terms..............................118
5.12 Alternate Objective Functions .........................................................121
5.13 Constrained to Unconstrained Problem ........................................122
5.14 Simplifying Cross Product of Binary Variables............................124
5.15 Fractional Programming...................................................................126
5.16 Unrestricted Variables.......................................................................128
5.17 Changing Constraint and Objective Type .....................................129
5.17.1 From
to ¼ Constraints..................................................... 129
5.17.2 From  to ¼ Constraints..................................................... 130
5.17.3 From  to
Constraints.................................................... 130
5.17.4 From
to  Constraints.................................................... 130
5.17.5 From ¼ Constraint to  and
Constraints.................... 130
5.17.6 Changing Objective Type................................................... 131
5.18 Conditional Constraints....................................................................132
5.19 Dual Formulation...............................................................................133
5.20 Regression Model ..............................................................................136
5.21 Stochastic Programming ...................................................................137
5.22 Constraint Programming..................................................................137
5.23 Summary .............................................................................................138
Exercises .........................................................................................................138
Bibliography ..................................................................................................142
References ......................................................................................................143

6 Modelling Large-Scale and Well-Known Problems I..........................145

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................145
6.2 Use of the Summation (S) Sign .......................................................145
6.3 Use of the Subset (2) Sign ................................................................147
6.4 Network Flow Problems...................................................................149
6.4.1 Shortest Path Problem ........................................................ 149
6.4.2 Maximum Flow Problem ................................................... 150
6.4.3 Multi-Commodity Flow Problem ..................................... 152
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6.5 Knapsack Problem ...............................................................................154

6.5.1 Capital Budgeting Problem................................................... 154
6.5.2 Bin Packing Problem .............................................................. 155
6.5.3 Cutting Stock Problem ........................................................... 157
6.6 Facility Location and Layout .............................................................159
6.6.1 Facility Location Problem...................................................... 159
6.6.2 Facility Layout Problem......................................................... 161
6.7 Production Planning and Scheduling ..............................................164
6.7.1 Relevant Literature ................................................................. 165
6.8 Logistics and Transportation .............................................................167
6.8.1 Airlift Problem ........................................................................ 167
6.8.2 Relevant Literature ................................................................. 168
6.9 Summary ...............................................................................................170
Exercises .........................................................................................................170
References ......................................................................................................172

7 Modelling Well-Known Problems II.......................................................177

7.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................177
7.2 Job and Machine Scheduling .............................................................177
7.2.1 Relevant Literature ................................................................. 179
7.3 Assignment and Routing....................................................................180
7.3.1 Generalized Assignment Problem ....................................... 180
7.3.2 Traveling Salesperson Problem ............................................ 181
7.3.3 Relevant Literature on Traveling Salesperson
Problem..................................................................................... 184
7.3.4 Vehicle Routing Problem....................................................... 185
7.3.5 Relevant Literature on Vehicle Routing Problem ............. 188
7.4 Staff Rostering and Scheduling .........................................................189
7.4.1 Staff Scheduling: A Weekly Problem .................................. 189
7.4.2 Daily Rostering Problem ....................................................... 191
7.4.3 Relevant Literature on General Staff Scheduling .............. 192
7.4.4 Crew Planning=Scheduling Problem................................... 193
7.5 Scheduling and Timetabling Problem..............................................194
7.5.1 School Timetabling Problem ................................................. 194
7.5.2 University Timetabling .......................................................... 196
7.5.3 Relevant Literature ................................................................. 197
7.6 Summary ...............................................................................................199
Exercises .........................................................................................................199
References ......................................................................................................201

8 Alternative Modelling ................................................................................205

8.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................205
8.2 Modelling under Different Assumptions ........................................205
8.2.1 A Coal Blending Problem...................................................... 205
8.2.2 First Alternative Blending Model ........................................ 207
8.2.3 Second Alternative Blending Model.................................... 209
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8.2.4 Comparing the Two Simple Alternative Models ........... 210

8.2.5 A Crop Planning Problem.................................................. 211
8.2.6 Crop Planning Model 1 ...................................................... 212
8.2.7 Crop Planning Model 2 ...................................................... 213
8.3 Hierarchical Modelling: An Introduction.....................................214
8.3.1 Hierarchical Modelling in a Manufacturing Context .... 215
8.3.2 Aggregate Model ................................................................. 216
8.3.3 Family Scheduling Model .................................................. 217
8.3.4 Individual Item Scheduling Model................................... 218
8.4 Summary ............................................................................................219
References ......................................................................................................220

Section III Model Solving

9 Solution Approaches: An Overview........................................................223

9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................223
9.2 Complexity and Complexity Classes ............................................223
9.2.1 Complexity of Algorithms .................................................. 223
9.2.2 Complexity Classes.............................................................. 224
9.3 Classical Optimization Techniques................................................225
9.3.1 Linear Programming............................................................ 225
9.3.2 Integer Programming: The Curse
of Dimensionality ................................................................. 227
9.3.3 Integer Linear Program: Solution Approaches ............... 228
9.3.4 Special Linear Programming Models ............................... 230
9.3.5 Goal Programming............................................................... 230
9.3.6 Nonlinear Programming ..................................................... 231
9.3.7 Multi-Objective Models....................................................... 232
9.4 Heuristic Techniques........................................................................233
9.4.1 Hill Climbing ........................................................................ 233
9.4.2 Simulated Annealing ........................................................... 233
9.4.3 Tabu Search ........................................................................... 234
9.4.4 Genetic Algorithms .............................................................. 234
9.4.5 Ant Colony Optimization ................................................... 235
9.4.6 Memetic Algorithms ............................................................ 236
9.4.7 Other Heuristics ................................................................... 236
9.5 Optimization Software.....................................................................236
9.5.1 LINGO=LINDO .................................................................... 237
9.5.2 MPL with OptiMax 2000, CPLEX,
and XPRESS........................................................................... 237
9.5.3 GAMS..................................................................................... 237
9.5.4 Solver and Premium Solver................................................ 238
9.5.5 Win QSB................................................................................. 238
9.5.6 MINOS ................................................................................... 238
9.6 Summary ............................................................................................239
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References ....................................................................................................239
Appendix-9A LINGO: An Introduction .................................................241
9A.1 Introduction .....................................................................................241
9A.2 Inputting Model in LINGO...........................................................241
9A.3 Solving the Model...........................................................................243
9A.3.1 Solver Status Window.................................................... 243
9A.3.2 LINGO Special Features ................................................ 244
9A.4 Another Example............................................................................246
9A.4.1 Objective Function .......................................................... 246
9A.4.2 Constraints ....................................................................... 247
9A.4.3 Complete LINGO Model ............................................... 248
9A.4.4 Defining the Sets ............................................................. 249
9A.4.5 Inputting the Data .......................................................... 250
9A.5 LINGO Syntax .................................................................................252
Appendix-9B MPL: An Introduction.......................................................253
9B.1 Introduction .....................................................................................253
9B.2 Use of MPL ......................................................................................253
9B.3 Using Vectors and Indexes in MPL.............................................255
9B.4 A Product-Mix Model with Three Variables .............................256
Appendix-9C GAMS: An Introduction ...................................................260
9C.1 Introduction.....................................................................................260
9C.2 An Example.....................................................................................260
Appendix-9D Excel Solver: An Introduction .........................................264
9D.1 Introduction.....................................................................................264
9D.2 Solving Linear Programs with Solver .........................................264
9D.2.1 Defining the Target Cell (Objective Function) ........... 266
9D.2.2 Identifying the Changing Cells
(Decision Variables) ........................................................ 266
9D.2.3 Adding Constraints ........................................................ 267
9D.2.4 Some Important Options ............................................... 269
9D.2.5 The Solution ..................................................................... 270
Appendix-9E Win QSB: An Introduction ...............................................273
9E.1 Introduction.....................................................................................273
9E.2 Problem Solving with Win QSB...................................................273
9E.3 Reference..........................................................................................275

10 Input Preparation and Model Solving ..................................................277

10.1 Introduction .....................................................................................277
10.2 Data and Data Collection ..............................................................277
10.3 Data Type.........................................................................................279
10.4 Data Preparation .............................................................................280
10.4.1 Data Requirements ......................................................... 282
10.4.2 Data Aggregation............................................................ 283
10.5 Data Preprocessing .........................................................................287
10.6 Model-Driven Data versus Data-Driven Model ........................292
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10.7 Model Solving .................................................................................292

10.7.1 Excel Solver ....................................................................... 293
10.7.2 LINGO and MPL.............................................................. 295
10.8 Summary .........................................................................................304
Exercises .......................................................................................................304
References.....................................................................................................308
Appendix-10A Additional Problem-Solving Using LINGO ...............309
10A.1 Example 4.6 (Model 4.7) ..............................................................309
10A.1.1 LINGO Code ................................................................ 309
10A.1.2 LINGO Solution ........................................................... 310
10A.2 A Transportation Model ..............................................................310
10A.2.1 LINGO in Algebraic Form ......................................... 311
10A.2.2 LINGO Solution Report.............................................. 311
10A.2.3 LINGO Codes (Alternative)....................................... 312
10A.2.4 LINGO Solution Report (Using
Alternative Codes)....................................................... 312
10A.2.5 A Modified Transportation Model ........................... 313
10A.2.6 LINGO Solution Report (with Restricted
Path)............................................................................... 314
10A.3 Example 4.14 (Model 4.15) ..........................................................315
10A.3.1 LINGO in Algebraic Form ......................................... 315
10A.3.2 LINGO Solution Report ............................................. 316
10A.3.3 LINGO Codes (Alternative Form)............................ 316
10A.3.4 LINGO Solution Report
(for Alternative Codes)............................................... 317
10A.4 Example 3.6 (Model 4.1) ..............................................................318
10A.4.1 LINGO in Algebraic Form ......................................... 318
10A.4.2 LINGO Model Statistics ............................................. 318
10A.4.3 LINGO Solution........................................................... 318
10A.4.4 LINGO Codes (Alternative Form)............................ 319
10A.4.5 LINGO Solution for Alternative Codes ................... 319
10A.5 Example 5.3 (Model 5.2) ..............................................................320
10A.5.1 LINGO Codes .............................................................. 320
10A.5.2 LINGO Solution Report ............................................. 321
10A.5.3 LINGO Alternative Codes ......................................... 321
10A.5.4 LINGO Solution Report (for Alternative
Codes)............................................................................ 321
10A.6 Example 5.16..................................................................................322
10A.6.1 LINGO Codes .............................................................. 322
10A.6.2 LINGO Solution Report ............................................. 322
10A.7 Example 4.11 (Model 4.12) ..........................................................323
10A.7.1 LINGO Codes .............................................................. 323
10A.7.2 LINGO Solution Report ............................................. 324
10A.8 Example 5.10 (Model 5.7) ............................................................324
10A.8.1 LINGO Codes .............................................................. 324
10A.8.2 LINGO Solution Report ............................................. 325
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11 Output Analysis and Practical Issues ...................................................327

11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................327
11.2 Solutions and Reports.....................................................................327
11.2.1 Shadow Price ................................................................... 329
11.2.2 Reduced Cost ................................................................... 330
11.3 Sensitivity Analysis .........................................................................331
11.3.1 Changes in the Objective Coefficients ......................... 331
11.3.2 Changes in the RHS Values........................................... 332
11.3.3 Changes in the Constraint Coefficients ....................... 332
11.3.4 Addition of New Product or Variable ......................... 333
11.3.5 Sensitivity Analysis for Integer and Nonlinear
Models............................................................................... 333
11.4 Practical Issues and Tips ................................................................336
11.4.1 Solutions to Goal Programming Problems ................. 336
11.4.2 Multi-Objective Optimization ....................................... 336
11.4.3 Reduction of Variables and Constraints...................... 336
11.4.4 Solutions and Number of Basic Variables................... 337
11.4.5 Variables with No Restriction in Sign ......................... 338
11.4.6 Negative RHS................................................................... 338
11.4.7 Scaling Factors in Modelling ......................................... 339
11.4.8 Linear vs. Nonlinear Relationships .............................. 339
11.4.9 Non-Smooth Relationships ............................................ 339
11.4.10 Linear vs. Integer and Nonlinear Models ................... 340
11.4.11 Rounding for Integer Solutions..................................... 340
11.4.12 Improved Initial Solutions ............................................. 340
11.4.13 Variable Bounds .............................................................. 340
11.4.14 Management Issues in Solution Implementation ...... 341
11.4.15 Gap between Solutions and Outcomes........................ 342
11.4.16 Nontechnical Report ....................................................... 342
11.4.17 Special Cases in LP Models ........................................... 342
11.5 Risk Analysis ....................................................................................343
11.6 Summary ...........................................................................................344
Exercises .......................................................................................................344

12 Basic Optimization Techniques .............................................................347

12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................347
12.2 Graphical Method ............................................................................347
12.3 Simplex Method ...............................................................................355
12.4 Branch-and-Bound Method............................................................365
12.5 Summary ...........................................................................................374
Exercises .......................................................................................................375
Bibliography.................................................................................................377
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Section IV Practical Problems

13 Models for Practical Problems I .............................................................381

13.1 Introduction ......................................................................................381
13.2 A Crop Planning Problem ..............................................................381
13.2.1 Linear Programming Model ............................................ 382
13.2.2 Goal Programming (GP) Model...................................... 385
13.3 Power Generation Planning ...........................................................387
13.3.1 Linear Programming Model ............................................ 387
13.3.2 Multi-Objective Optimization Model............................. 391
13.4 A Water Supply Problem ...............................................................392
13.4.1 Linear Programming Model ............................................ 393
13.4.2 Goal Programming Model ............................................... 394
13.5 A Supply Chain Problem................................................................395
13.6 Coal Production and Marketing Plan...........................................398
13.6.1 Multi-Objective Problem .................................................. 403
13.6.2 Multi-Period Problems ..................................................... 403
13.7 General Blending Problem .............................................................404
13.8 Summary ...........................................................................................409
References.....................................................................................................409

14 Models for Practical Problems II............................................................411

14.1 Introduction ......................................................................................411
14.2 A Combat Logistics Problem .........................................................411
14.3 A Lot-Sizing Problem ......................................................................415
14.3.1 Finished Product Inventory............................................. 417
14.3.2 Raw Material Inventory ................................................... 418
14.3.3 Total Cost Function per Year .......................................... 419
14.4 A Joint Lot-Sizing and Transportation Decision Problem ........420
14.5 Coal Bank Scheduling .....................................................................423
14.5.1 Static Model........................................................................ 424
14.5.2 Dynamic Model ................................................................. 426
14.6 A Scaffolding System ......................................................................427
14.7 A Gas-Lift Optimization Problem .................................................429
14.8 Multiple Shifts Planning .................................................................432
14.9 Summary ...........................................................................................434
References.....................................................................................................435

15 Solving Practical Problems ......................................................................437

15.1 Introduction ......................................................................................437
15.2 A Product Mix Problem..................................................................437
15.3 A Two-Stage Transportation Problem..........................................443
15.4 A Crop Planning Problem ..............................................................445
15.4.1 Constraint and Variable Reduction................................ 448
15.4.2 Scaling the Model.............................................................. 450
15.4.3 Working with Solutions ................................................... 450
15.4.4 Multi-Objective Crop Planning Problem....................... 451
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15.5 Power Generation Planning Problem ...........................................452

15.5.1 Model Validation............................................................... 452
15.6 Gas-Lift Optimization .....................................................................455
15.7 Summary ...........................................................................................457
References.....................................................................................................458
Appendix-15A Crop Planning Linear Programming Model............459

Index .....................................................................................................................463
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“No, rispose il conte, la luce morente del giorno mi fa sembrare
ancor più soave il tono argentino della tua voce. Non bisogna offrire
ai sensi già inebriati tutti i profumi della bellezza in una volta.
D'altronde, io vedo i nobili contorni della tua persona, disegnati sul
lucido crepuscolo che attraversa l'invetriata del verrone. La mano di
Giotto non tracciò mai forme più angeliche delle tue.„
Agnese non aggiunse parola; o meglio non seppe scegliere, fra le
molte che le si presentavano alla mente, quella che dicesse il vero;
o, se l'avesse trovata, non avrebbe avuto il coraggio di pronunciarla.
Quel silenzio intanto non era muto del tutto; nella sospensione
d'animo d'entrambi, emergevano più distinti i sospiri, che Agnese
cercava invano di comprimere.
“Mia diletta, prese a dire il conte; a quanto vedo, oggi siamo soli.„
“Canziana è fuori; ma rientrerà fra pochi minuti.„
“Quella buona donna non ti abbandona mai, — soggiunse il conte
con un leggiero accento di amarezza, che sfuggì alla fanciulla; — ella
t'ama assai; quasi io comincio a divenire geloso della tenerezza che
tu senti per colei.„
La fanciulla rise a queste parole.
“Avvicinati a me, Agnese, e porgimi la tua mano, perchè stringendola
abbia almeno un compenso alla privazione di contemplarti.„
Agnese spinse più avanti la sedia, e stese la mano al conte.
“Sei di poche parole, ripigliò questi; che hai, ben mio? forse sei tu
scontenta di me? dimmi tutto.... è egli possibile che il tuo cuore, che
batte sì fortemente, neghi al tuo labro una sola parola?„
“O Giovanni, ripigliò Agnese assai commossa, che potrei io dirvi, che
non abbia già mille volte ripetuto? — Io vi amo, o signore; vi amo
con tutta l'anima; il dirlo, il ripeterlo non è egli un indiscreto
rimprovero diretto al destino, che da tre mesi copre una nobile
passione col velo del mistero, quasi fosse una colpa?„
“Hai ragione di dolerti, — soggiunse l'amante stringendo la destra
della fanciulla tra le due mani, ed accostandola alle sue labra — Ma il
tuo rimprovero dovrebbe essere rivolto a me. — Io lotto fra la legge
dettata dalla mia condizione, e quella che tu padrona del mio cuore,
árbitra della mia felicità, a miglior ragione, hai dritto d'impormi. —
Credi, però, Agnese; non è a mio vantaggio che io trascino nel
mistero il nostro affetto. Quante e quante volte ho ripetuta quella
parola, che tu mi hai detto appena fosti salva; oh perchè non
nasceste voi in una condizione pari alla mia? Sì: noi saremmo a
quest'ora le due più felici creature della terra!„
“Altra volta voi mi ricordaste le parole di mio padre, ed io n'ebbi
pronto e salutare conforto. Ora tocca a me a ripeterle.„
“La dimenticanza, questo sudario delle tombe che consuma i nostri
cari che vi riposano, indebolirà le memorie or vivissime di tuo padre:
allora, attraverso a quelle, brillerà di una luce più sinistra la storia di
un affetto che io ho sacrificato a tiepide prudenze, -quell'affetto che
non dovrebbe essere, e non è secondo che all'amore di Dio!„
“No, mio signore; qualunque sarà il mio avvenire, io non attribuirò
mai a voi il male che mi affligge. Da voi non spero, e non attendo
che il bene.„
“Ti è grave la incertezza a cui ti condanna un rispetto mondano: non
negarlo, mia cara Agnese, l'hai detto....„
“Vi è caro il mio lamento? Grazie, o signore; sì, io mi lagno del
destino, perchè temo che il vostro amore rassegnato possa condurvi
all'oblío.„
“Tu deplori nel destino la prima cagione, l'unica sorgente dei dubii
che ti travagliano. Ma il più pietoso e più indulgente amore non ti
impedisce di scorgere che fra quella prima causa e l'ultimo suo
effetto, v'ha di mezzo la mia libera volontà. Questa, sorretta da una
passione ardente, com'è la tua, dovrebbe rovesciare quanti ostacoli
si frappongono al vantato desiderio di rendere felice la persona
amata. — Tu oggi discacci questo pensiero perchè è un'accusa; e mi
ami troppo per accusarmi. Quel pensiero tornerà in campo dimani; lo
combatterai di nuovo, esso rivivrà sempre finchè durano le tristi
circostanze in cui versiamo. A poco a poco, ciò che nei primi tempi ti
parve in me una necessità insurmontabile, diverrà a' tuoi occhi pura
e vulgare convenienza; ah, non surga mai quel giorno in cui tu lo
chiami arte maliziosa per rallentare un legame, per isfuggire al
compimento di una sacra promessa...!„
“Sperda Iddio l'augurio: non mi spaventate con sì funeste visioni.„
Se non sapessimo che l'amore del conte era sincero e sviscerato,
avremmo diritto di sospettare che tali parole racchiudessero il
maligno disegno di smagliare la rete in cui si era avviluppato, e
d'escirne a buon patto. D'ordinario, le scene fra gli amanti riboccano
di promesse, di preghiere, di giuramenti; sono questi i mezzi più
efficaci a smovere una volontà restía, a decidere una mente
travagliata dalle incertezze. Ma il conte, che era troppo leale per
destreggiare le felici circostanze in cui il caso lo aveva collocato, non
faceva progetti, nè avanzava promesse per conquidere la virtù di
colei, ch'egli appunto amava per la sua virtù. Uomo avveduto ch'egli
era, in ciò si mostrava il più ingenuo, il più candido cuore che mai;
ben sapendo che non era mestieri pregar molto per ottenere tutto.
Eppure egli giungeva inavvertitamente alla stessa meta per una via
opposta. La sua diffidenza provocava l'altrui fiducia; i suoi dubii
destavano la sicurezza della sua ascoltatrice; ei s'accusava, ella lo
assolveva, e gli accordava in premio una confidenza ancor più viva
ed illimitata.
In quello scambio d'affetti, le parole diventarono per Agnese imagini
troppo pallide degli interni sentimenti. Combattere i detti dell'amante
con altri detti d'egual tenore, era per lei quanto mettere in dubio le
proprie convinzioni, e profanare la religione del proprio cuore. Meglio
le parve lo scongiurare l'infausto presagio, opponendo alla modesta
peritanza di colui una luminosa prova di fiducia, un atto di pronta e
completa soggezione. L'ardente fanciulla non discusse, come
facciamo noi, l'arduo quesito; ma lo sciolse d'un tratto, lanciandosi
nelle braccia dell'amante con quell'abbandono, che vuol dire: —
invano tu tenti di offuscare le tue virtù, invano tu metti a prova il mio
cuore; esso è giù tuo, tuo per sempre, tuo ad ogni patto.
Quando, pochi istanti dopo, s'udì battere alla porta, Agnese rinvenne
dal suo delirio, e, senza saperne il perchè, si trovò gli occhi e il volto
inondati di pianto. Ma ben comprese che volessero dire quelle
lacrime, quando sentì il bisogno di nasconderle all'amica sua. — Fu
tosto accesa una lampada. Agnese, facendo violenza a se stessa e
studiando di ripigliare la solita compostezza, mosse ad incontrarla.
Nel momento in cui ebbe aperto l'uscio e si trovò di faccia a
Canziana, il lume che ella teneva a mano vibrò un raggio indiscreto
sul suo viso, e lo mostrò sfolgorante di una bellezza affatto nuova. —
La buona donna, colpita da quella improvisa visione, non disse
parola, perchè aveva tutto indovinato. E Agnese?.... poveretta, se le
fosse stato possibile articolare un accento avrebbe ripetuto, colla
sposa della Cantica: — “Il mio amico è mio, ed io son sua [27].„

LXXXIII.

Da quel dì, dopo quel convegno, l'esistenza d'Agnese subì un

mutamento assai importante. La vita di quella donna può dividersi in
due epoche, e questo giorno ne segna il confine. — Gioje, speranze,
dolori ebbero in seguito eguale vicenda nell'animo suo; ma non
eguale l'indole e l'intensità. Ella provò nuovi istanti di gaudio
inesprimibile; ma le sue dolcezze più profonde, più interne, più
nascose, non andavano mai disgiunte da una soavissima mestizia,
che le dimandava nuove lacrime. Prima di quel giorno ella soleva
riguardare la sua felicità come l'effetto che tien dietro
immancabilmente alla sua cagione: l'amore non le dava soltanto la
contentezza presente, ma era un pegno sicuro di quella ben più
grande e durevole che le veniva promessa per l'avvenire. Da qui
innanzi invece, il suo poetico dimani erasi fatto una positiva attualità,
ricca di bene, ma pur troppo non scevra di dubii e di apprensioni. —
Se il cuor suo non poteva più chiedere nulla al mondo ed agli uomini,
la ragione molto doveva chiedere a sè stessa. Vero è, che il cuore
era sempre vittorioso; ma la vittoria attestava la lotta; questa il
travaglio e l'incertezza. La speranza dei giorni addietro le faceva
gradire la promessa di un bene futuro e lontano, quasi che il suo
stato presente non potesse capire tutto quello che gli era serbato. La
speranza dei giorni successivi all'opposto la guidava ad affrettare con
animo impaziente il compimento di un patto, senza il quale crollava
in parte il meraviglioso edificio della sua esistenza. — È cosa ben
diversa lo sperare l'aggiunta di un bene ad un bene, e l'attendere un
fatto che ci guarentisca da un male. Spera sorridendo colui che oggi
è felice, ed aspetta un dimani ancora più felice. Ma l'ansietà di chi
attende un giudizio è sempre grave e severa, anche quando abbia
ragione di crederlo favorevole a' suoi voti.
Torneremo ad Agnese tra breve. — Prima di ripigliare il filo degli
avvenimenti che la riguardano, ci è necessario arrestarci alquanto
alla corte di Milano, dove si congiura a suo danno. Ma poichè quel
luogo e quelle persone ci richiamano alcune memorie storiche, e
queste alla lor volta risvegliano in noi qualche idea generale sulle
nostre condizioni civili e politiche, così prima ancora di ripigliare la
cronaca, registreremo brevemente, come in un sommario, alcuni
fatti, aggiungendovi qualche nostra osservazione. — Chi non
s'accomoda a digressioni, e preferisce continuare la storia di Agnese,
non ha che a lasciar di mezzo il capitolo seguente.

FINE DEL PRIMO VOLUME.

 NOTE:

1. Crescenzi, Anfit. romano, parte 1.ª Milano 1648.

2. De vulg. eloquentia lib. 1.º cap. XVI.

3. Dante, De vulg. eloq. cap. XVI.

4. Dante, Purgatorio, Canto XVI.

5. Lettera di Fra Guittone d'Arezzo, ai cavalieri di Pisa; Roma, 1745.

6. Dante, Paradiso, canto XXXI.

7. P. Giovius. Hist. XII Vicecom. Ediz. princ. Parigi 1549.

8. P. Giovio. Vite dei XII Visconti.

9. Raccontasi che in Firenze una donna assalita da un leone e derubata di

un bambino poppante raggiungesse il rapitore, e postasi ginocchioni sui
passi di lui, glielo chiedesse con tale accento di pietà, che indusse
l'animale ad abbandonare la sua preda.
A proposito di generosità associata alla ferocia, udite un'altro aneddoto
non meno meraviglioso e certo più verosimile. — Un novelliere persiano
ci racconta (Alkurdi tradotto dal persiano da A. Chodzko), che sul Kurr,
torrente rapidissimo che corre tutto sciolto in ischiume in mezzo alle
frane di due scogliere, erasi gettato un ponte per dar passaggio ad
un'armata, che, con gran scorta di cammelli e di carri, e col consueto
sèguito di donne e di servi, accorrevano a reprimere la rivolta scoppiata
in una provincia della Persia.
La carovana passato il ponte dovette arrestarsi all'improviso; la sosta fe'
retrocedere bruscamente quelli che stavano al retroguardo. Nel
trambusto un cammello urtò una donna, che si teneva al petto il suo
bambino, la spinse a terra, tolsele dal braccio il carico e lo lanciò di colpo
oltre la sbarra del ponte nei vortici della fiumana. La desolata, in
procinto di perdere la ragione, fra le grida e le smanie teneva fisso lo
sguardo sulle onde, sperando discernervi l'oggetto perduto; ferma nel
 proposito di perire per lui o con lui. — Ma i lini che ravvolgevano il
bambino erano bianchi come la schiuma, e travolti nei gorghi del
torrente, sotto il velo di una densa nube di vapori, sfuggivano agli
sguardi di tutti.
Ad un tratto un'aquila, che aveva il suo nido sur una altissima rupe,
scendente a picco nel letto del fiume, guidata, dal suo istinto, o fatta
accorta dalla sua vista acutissima di un nastro rosso, che stringeva i lini
intorno al corpo della creatura, piombò sovr'essa, la ghermì per la
benda, e la trasse seco nell'aria. È facile imaginarsi, come rimanessero
attoniti coloro che avevano seguito coll'occhio fisso, e con un'angoscia
mortale quel fatto prodigioso. Ma il cambiar della scena ed il rinovarsi di
una nuova e più strana avventura, non scemavano punto lo sgomento
generale. — Il bambino era salvo dalle acque solo per subire tra gli
artigli dell'animale una morte egualmente certa e mille volte più crudele.
L'aquila ingannò i presentimenti di tutti. Spiegando le ali, non si sollevò
nelle regioni perdute dell'aria, nè corse a rinchiudersi nel suo covile, —
ma con un volo di traverso toltasi a quel suolo ingombro di burroni e di
precipizii, scese a poca distanza su di un piano coperto d'erba; ed ivi
depose la sua preda, cui sembrò vagheggiare scuotendo le penne e
mandando un grido acuto.
Un branco di que' soldati accorreva a quel luogo coll'intendimento di
uccidere il rapitore e di sottrarre in qualsiasi modo la vittima. L'esito di
quest'impresa era assai dubio; e l'aquila la prevenne; perocchè mossa,
Dio sa da quale istinto, ripigliò il volo, abbandonando la preda, che fu
restituita incolume alla madre desolata.
Non è affar nostro il discutere sull'autenticità di questi racconti, che
sembrano, invero, parto della fantasia de' poeti; nè ammesso il fatto, ci
dobbiam occupare di sciogliere il quesito, se azzardo o istinto guidasse
quegli animali a perdonare alle loro vittime — Diremo soltanto che
quanto è nel vasto campo del possibile rispetto ai maestosi sovrani del
deserto e delle nubi, ci sembrerebbe inammissibile ed assurdo in un
ordine subalterno d'esseri viventi, cui la natura rese tanto più cupidi e
feroci quanto fece meno forti e potenti.

10. Questo fatto avvenne il 25 agosto 1369. Vedi il Corio, il Giulini ed il Verri
all'anno sudetto.

11. Il Principe, Cap. III.

12. Il Principe Cap. XVIII.

13. L'Azario ci riferisce che Barnabò aveva publicato un editto il quale
proibiva ai cittadini di Milano il circolare di notte per città senza lume,
sotto pena del taglio di un piede.

14. All'incirca verso quest'epoca si cominciò a dare ai prìncipi il titolo

d'Altezza. Una lettera di Jacopo dal Verme al duca di Milano, colla quale
gli dà parte della presa di Bologna, comincia così: Illustris Princeps, et
Excelse Pater, Domine noster — Sicut ante Celsitudinis Vestrae
conspectum ecc. — Giulini Docum. Volume ultimo pag. 272.

15. P. Giovio. Vite dei XII Visconti tradotte da Lodovico Domenichi. Venezia
1549. Milano 1853.

16. P. Giovio. Vita dei XII Visconti.

17. Vedi il Corio all'anno 1374., il Verri. Cap. XIII, e Matteo Villani. R. I. S.
volume XIV.

18. Appendice alle memorie ecc... Docum. ined. Volume ultimo.

19. Vedi il Corio all'anno 1340.

20. Vincenzo Monti.

21. Giulini all'anno 823.

22. Vedi il Giulini all'anno suddetto.

23. Ovidio, Metam. Lib. 1.º

24. Divina Commedia Canto XXII del Paradiso.

25. Dante. Canzone in lode di Beatrice figlia di Folco Portinari.

26. Chi non s'accomoda a tale racconto, consulti il Dictionnaire des sciences
médicales, vol. IV, all'articolo Incube, ove il dottore Parent espone un
fatto simile accaduto nei tempi moderni ad un battaglione napoletano,
che da Palmi si recava a Tropea. Le milizie, estenuate dal caldo e da una
lunga marcia, presero alloggio in una vecchia abbazia mezzo diroccata.
A mezzanotte il riposo generale venne turbato da grida, cui tennero
dietro il tumulto e la fuga. La cagione del disordine fu una visione simile
a quella che pose in iscompiglio la banda armata di Campomorto. — Il
dotto scrittore, per ispiegare questo fenomeno, asserisce che la generale
disposizione fisica dei soldati poteva rendere ognuno di essi suscettibile
a subire, in un'unica maniera, l'impressione dello sgomento. Il primo
 grido echeggiò nell'animo di tutti, e impresse sulle travagliate fantasie
una sola allucinazione. Checchessia di questa spiegazione, a noi basta il
potere aggiungere fede non al fatto, ma alle apparenze del fatto: nè, per
quanto ci sembri stiracchiata la spiegazione del dottor Parent, osiamo
posporla a quella di F. Eudes de Mirville, che racconta questo aneddoto,
con mille altri di simile natura, nel suo libro intorno agli spiriti; e in pieno
secolo XIX, con una pompa di dottrina veramente meravigliosa, ci vuole
ricondurre al medio evo, per ripopolare il mondo di genii e di diavolerie.
Del resto, il Sacchetti e il Passavanti elegantissimi scrittori del
quattrocento, ne raccontano come cose autentiche delle avventure assai
meno credibili di questa.

27. Lib. della Cantica. Cap. II, v. 16.

 VOLUME PRIMO

Pag. lin. errata corrige

92 6 di quello; gli usciva di quello, gli usciva

114 5 predilettoe prediletto
173 31 desriveore descrivere
212 30 barda barba
 Nota del Trascrittore

Ortografia e punteggiatura originali sono state

mantenute, correggendo senza annotazione minimi errori
tipografici.
Le correzioni indicate dall'autore a fine volume sono
state riportate nel testo.
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