Electronic Devices

10th ed., Global Edition

Chapter 16
Oscillators

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Electronic Devices
10th ed.

Objectives:
◆ Describe the operating principles of an oscillator
◆ Discuss the principle on which feedback oscillators is based
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of RC feedback oscillators
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of LC feedback oscillators
◆ Describe and analyze the operation of relaxation oscillators
◆ Discuss and analyze the 555 timer and use it in oscillator applications

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 Electronic Devices
The Oscillator

Oscillators are electronic circuits that produce a periodic

waveform with only the dc supply voltage as an input.
Common output waveforms are the sine wave, square wave
and sawtooth.

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 Electronic Devices
The Oscillator

Oscillators are electronic circuits that produce a periodic

waveform with only the dc supply voltage as an input.
Common output waveforms are the sine wave, square wave
and sawtooth.

Two types of oscillators are feedback oscillators and

relaxation oscillators.
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 Electronic Devices
Feedback Oscillators

In a feedback oscillator, a fraction of the output is returned to

the input with no net phase shift. This means that the feedback
circuit compensates for any phase shift in the amplifier and the
reinforces the input, a condition known as positive feedback.

If the amplifier is a noninverting

type, the feedback circuit does
not invert the amplifier’s output,
producing positive feedback.

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 Electronic Devices
Feedback Oscillators

In a feedback oscillator, a fraction of the output is returned to

the input with no net phase shift. This means that the feedback
circuit compensates for any phase shift in the amplifier and the
reinforces the input, a condition known as positive feedback.

If the amplifier is an inverting

type, the feedback circuit inverts
the amplifier’s output, again
producing positive feedback.

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 Electronic Devices
Half-Wave Rectifier

Two conditions are required for sustained oscillations:

1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be effectively 0o.
2. The closed loop voltage gain, Acl, must be ≥ than 1. For a sine
wave oscillator (shown), the closed loop gain = exactly 1.
(Acl = AvB =1).

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 Electronic Devices
Half-Wave Rectifier

What is the gain required for the amplifier portion of a sine-wave

oscillator if the feedback fraction, B, is 0.05?

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 Electronic Devices
Half-Wave Rectifier

What is the gain required for the amplifier portion of a sine-wave

oscillator if the feedback fraction, B, is 0.05?

Acl = AvB
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1.00
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣 = = = 20
𝐵𝐵 0.05

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 Electronic Devices
Feedback Oscillators

Feedback oscillators require a small disturbance such as that

generated by thermal noise to start oscillations. This initial
voltage starts the feedback process and oscillations.

t0

Acl > 1 Acl = 1

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 Electronic Devices
Feedback Oscillators

Feedback oscillators require a small disturbance such as that

generated by thermal noise to start oscillations. This initial
voltage starts the feedback process and oscillations.

Computer simulations, such

as Multisim, use digital
signals, which do not have
thermal noise. This often t0

creates a problem for

computer simulations of
Acl > 1 Acl = 1
oscillators.

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

RC feedback is used in various lower frequency sine-wave

oscillators. The text covers three: the Wien-bridge oscillator,
the phase-shift oscillator, and the twin-T oscillator.

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

RC feedback is used in various lower frequency sine-wave

oscillators. The text covers three: the Wien-bridge oscillator,
the phase-shift oscillator, and the twin-T oscillator.
The feedback circuit in a Wien-bridge uses a lead-lag circuit. When
the R’s and C’s have equal values, the output will be ⅓ of the input at
only one frequency and the phase shift at this frequency will be 0o.

C2
R1
Vout
Vin Vout
1
V
3 in

C1 R2

f
fr

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Because the Wien-bridge lead-lag feedback network

attenuates the output by 1/3 (with equal R’s and C’s), the
gain of the noninverting amplifier must be exactly 3.0 to
produce a loop gain of 1.0.

R1
Voltage-
–
divider
R2 Vout
+

C1 R4
R3 C2
Lead-lag
network

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Because the Wien-bridge lead-lag feedback network

attenuates the output by 1/3 (with equal R’s and C’s), the
gain of the noninverting amplifier must be exactly 3.0 to
produce a loop gain of 1.0.
The noninverting amplifier
gain is set by R1 and R2. If the R1
gain is too little, oscillations Voltage-
–
divider
will not occur; if it is too R2 Vout

much the sine wave will be +

clipped. In the basic circuit

shown, it is nearly impossible C1 R4
R3 C2
to set this gain to the precise Lead-lag
value required. network

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

To produce the precise gain required, the Wien bridge needs

some form of automatic gain control (AGC). One popular
method is shown here and uses a JFET transistor.

C1 Rf

–
R1
Vout
+
D1
Q1

R2 C2

R3 R4 C3

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

To produce the precise gain required, the Wien bridge needs

some form of automatic gain control (AGC). One popular
method is shown here and uses a JFET transistor.
The key elements of the AGC
C1 Rf
circuit are highlighted in
–
yellow. The diode charges C3 R1
Vout
to the negative peak of the +
D1
signal. This develops the gate Q1

bias voltage for the JFET that R2 C2

is related to the output level. R3 R4 C3

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The JFET is operated in the ohmic region and can change its
resistance rapidly if conditions change.
7
Ohmic
6 VG = 0 V
region
5
VG = − 0.5 V
ID 4
(mA)
VG = −1.0 V
3

2 VG = −1.5 V

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The JFET is operated in the ohmic region and can change its
resistance rapidly if conditions change.
Recall from Chapter 8 that a JFET acts 7
as a variable resistor in the ohmic Ohmic
6 VG = 0 V
region
region. If the output increases, the bias
5
tends to be larger, and the drain-source VG = − 0.5 V
ID 4
resistance increases (and vice-versa). (mA)
VG = −1.0 V
In the Wien-bridge, the JFET drain- 3

source resistance controls the gain of 2 VG = −1.5 V

the op-amp and will compensate for 1

any change to the output. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

When the R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the
frequency of the bridge is given by f = 1
r
2πRC

C1 Rf
4.7 nF 10 kΩ
–
R1
Vout
680 Ω
+
D1
Q1

R2 C2
680 Ω 4.7 nF C3
R3 R4
1.0 kΩ 10 kΩ 1.0 µF

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

When the R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the
frequency of the bridge is given by f = 1
r
2πRC

What is fr for the Wien bridge? C1 Rf

4.7 nF 10 kΩ
–
R1
Vout
680 Ω
+
D1
Q1

R2 C2
4.7 nF C3
R3 R4
1.0 kΩ 10 kΩ 1.0 µF

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

When the R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the
frequency of the bridge is given by f = 1
r
2πRC

What is fr for the Wien bridge? C1 Rf

4.7 nF 10 kΩ
–
R1
Vout
680 Ω
+
1
fr =
D1
Q1
2πRC
R2 C2
1
= 680 Ω 4.7 nF
2π ( 680 Ω )( 4.7 nF )
R3 R4 C3
1.0 kΩ 10 kΩ 1.0 µF

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 Electronic Devices
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

When the R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the
frequency of the bridge is given by f = 1
r
2πRC

What is fr for the Wien bridge? C1 Rf

4.7 nF 10 kΩ
–
R1
Vout
680 Ω
+
1
fr =
D1
Q1
2πRC
R2 C2
1
= = 48.9 kHz
680 Ω 4.7 nF
2π ( 680 Ω )( 4.7 nF )
R3 R4 C3
1.0 kΩ 10 kΩ 1.0 µF

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The phase-shift oscillator uses three RC circuits in the

feedback path that have a total phase shift of 180o at one
frequency – for this reason an inverting amplifier is
required for this circuit.

Rf

– C1 C2 C3
0V
Vout
+
R1 R2 R3

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Conditions for oscillation with the phase-shift oscillator is

that if all R’s and C’s are equal, the amplifier must have a
gain of at least 29 to make up for the attenuation of the
feedback circuit. This means that Rf /R3 ≥ 29.

Rf

– C1 C2 C3
0V
Vout
+
R1 R2 R3

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Conditions for oscillation with the phase-shift oscillator is

that if all R’s and C’s are equal, the amplifier must have a
gain of at least 29 to make up for the attenuation of the
feedback circuit. This means that Rf /R3 ≥ 29.
Under these conditions,
Rf
the frequency of
oscillation is given by
1 – C1 C2 C3
fr = 0V
2π 6 RC
Vout
+
R1 R2 R3

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Multisim 14 can simulate the phase-shift oscillator; if there is a problem

starting the simulation, you can use a switch and a dc voltage source
(see next Example).

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = =
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )

Calculate the feedback

resistor needed:

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )

Calculate the feedback

resistor needed:
Rf = 29R = 238 kΩ.

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )
Rf

Calculate the feedback 238 kΩ

resistor needed: – C1 C2 C3
Vout
Rf = 29R = 238 kΩ. + 10 nF 10 nF 10 nF
R1 R2 R3
8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz. The capacitors

are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
=R = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz )(10 nF )
Rf

Calculate the feedback 238 kΩ

resistor needed: – C1 C2 C3
Vout
Rf = 29R = 238 kΩ. + 10 nF 10 nF 10 nF
R1 R2 R3
The following slide shows 8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ

the Multisim check.

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 Electronic Devices
The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Multisim 14 with S1 to start the simulation (close and open S1). The
frequency determined by Multisim is 791 Hz.

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 Electronic Devices
The Twin-T Oscillator

The basic twin-T oscillator combines a low-pass and high-

pass filter to form a notch filter at the oscillation frequency.

R Low-pass R

2C
–
Vout
C High-pass C
+ R1

R/2 R2

Twin-T filter

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 Electronic Devices
The Twin-T Oscillator

The basic twin-T oscillator combines a low-pass and high-

pass filter to form a notch filter at the oscillation frequency.
An excellent notch filter
can be formed by using R Low-pass R
R’s and C’s related by a
factor of 2 as shown here. 2C
–
Vout
C High-pass C
+ R1

R/2 R2

Twin-T filter

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 Electronic Devices
The Twin-T Oscillator

The basic twin-T oscillator combines a low-pass and high-

pass filter to form a notch filter at the oscillation frequency.
An excellent notch filter
can be formed by using R Low-pass R
R’s and C’s related by a
factor of 2 as shown here. 2C
–
With this relationship, the C C
Vout
High-pass
+
oscillation frequency is R1

approximately
R/2 R2
1
fr = Twin-T filter
2πRC

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 Electronic Devices
The Twin-T Oscillator

Two improvements to the basic circuit are shown here – adding the
parallel diodes and R6 significantly reduces distortion by attenuating
harmonics. The potentiometer adds output amplitude adjustment.

R6

R3 R4 330 kΩ D1 and D2
– 1N914A
82 kΩ C 1 82 kΩ 741C Vout
2.0 nF + R1A
10 kΩ
R1B
C2 C3 10 kΩ Output
Amplitude

1.0 nF R5 1.0 nF R2
220 Ω
41 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Twin-T Oscillator

Two improvements to the basic circuit are shown here – adding the
parallel diodes and R6 significantly reduces distortion by attenuating
harmonics. The potentiometer adds output amplitude adjustment.

The frequency is a R6
little higher than the R3 R4 330 kΩ D1 and D2
predicted value of – 1N914A
82 kΩ C 1 82 kΩ 741C Vout
1.94 kHz. With ±15 V R1A
2.0 nF +
power supplies, the 10 kΩ
R1B
measured values are: C2 C3 10 kΩ Output
Amplitude
f = 2.28 kHz @2.0 Vpp
R5 1.0 nF R2
Amplitude = 0 to 27 Vpp 1.0 nF
220 Ω
41 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Colpitts Oscillator

LC feedback oscillators use resonant circuits in the feedback

path. A popular LC oscillator is
V
the Colpitts oscillator. It uses A
f
Vv out

two series capacitors in the

resonant circuit. The feedback L
voltage is developed across C1.

Out I In
C1 C2

Vf Vout

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 Electronic Devices
The Colpitts Oscillator

1
The resonant frequency is found by fr =
2π LCT
If Q > 10, this formula gives good results.

Zin Vout

C1 C2

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 Electronic Devices
The Colpitts Oscillator

1
The resonant frequency is found by fr =
2π LCT
If Q > 10, this formula gives good results.
Recall that the total capacitance of two
series capacitors is the product-over-sum Zin Vout
of the individual capacitors. Therefore,
1
fr =
 CC 
2π L  1 2  L

 C1 + C2 
C1 C2

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 Electronic Devices
The Colpitts Oscillator

1
The resonant frequency is found by fr =
2π LCT
If Q > 10, this formula gives good results.
Recall that the total capacitance of two
series capacitors is the product-over-sum Zin Vout
of the individual capacitors. Therefore,
1
fr =
 CC 
2π L  1 2  L

 C1 + C2 
For Q < 10, a correction for Q is C1 C2

1 Q2
fr =
2π LCT Q2 + 1

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 Electronic Devices
The Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator,

except the resonant circuit consists of two series inductors (or
a single tapped inductor) and a parallel capacitor. The
frequency for Q > 10 is
1 1
=fr = Vf
2π LT C 2π ( L1 + L2 ) C Av Vout

Out L1 L2 In

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 Electronic Devices
The Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator,

except the resonant circuit consists of two series inductors (or
a single tapped inductor) and a parallel capacitor. The
frequency for Q > 10 is
1 1
=fr = Vf
2π LT C 2π ( L1 + L2 ) C Av Vout

C
One advantage of a Hartley
oscillator is that it can be tuned by
Out L1 L2 In
using a variable capacitor in the
resonant circuit.

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 Electronic Devices
The Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are highly stable oscillators for demanding circuits such
a radio transmitters. Crystals have very high Q. +V CC

R1 L
C4
Vout

R2 R4 C3

XTAL
C1 C2

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 Electronic Devices
The Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are highly stable oscillators for demanding circuits such
a radio transmitters. Crystals have very high Q. +V CC

Manufacturers prepare natural crystals

(usually quartz) by mounting a very thin slab R1 L
C4
between metal electrodes. When a small ac Vout

voltage is applied, the crystal oscillates at its

own resonant frequency.
R2 R4 C3

XTAL
C1 C2

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 Electronic Devices
The Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are highly stable oscillators for demanding circuits such
a radio transmitters. Crystals have very high Q. +V CC

Manufacturers prepare natural crystals

(usually quartz) by mounting a very thin slab R1 L
C4
between metal electrodes. When a small ac Vout

voltage is applied, the crystal oscillates at its

own resonant frequency.
R2 R4 C3

The crystal acts as the resonant circuit for the

modified Colpitts oscillator and stabilizes the
oscillations. The capacitors still tap off a C1
XTAL
C2
feedback signal to the CE amplifier.

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillators are characterized by an RC timing

circuit and a device that periodically changes state.

–
R1
–
+ Vout
Comparator R2 +
R3 Integrator

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillators are characterized by an RC timing

circuit and a device that periodically changes state.
The triangular wave oscillator is an example. For this circuit, the device
that changes states is a comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger). The
RC timing device is an integrator. The comparator output can be used as a
square wave output. A square wave
can be taken as C
an output here.
–
R1
–
+ Vout
Comparator R2 +
R3 Integrator

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Relaxation oscillators are characterized by an RC timing

circuit and a device that periodically changes state.
The triangular wave oscillator is an example. For this circuit, the device
that changes states is a comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger). The
RC timing device is an integrator. The comparator output can be used as a
square wave output. A square wave
The trigger points set the can be taken as C
an output here.
triangle’s peak-to-peak –
R1
voltage: R  –
VUTP = +Vmax  3  + Vout
 R2  R2
Comparator +
R  R3
VLTP = −Vmin  3  Integrator
 R2 

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

For the triangular wave generator, the frequency is found from:

1  R2 
fr =  
4 R 1 C  R3 

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here?

–
R1 10 nF
–
+
82 kΩ Vout
Comparator R2 +
22 kΩ
R3 Integrator

10 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

For the triangular wave generator, the frequency is found from:

1  R2 
fr =  
4 R 1 C  R3 

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here?

C
1  R2 
fr =   –
4 R 1 C  R3  R1 10 nF
–
1  22 kΩ  82 kΩ
=   + Vout
4 ( 82 kΩ )(10 nF )  10 kΩ  Comparator R2 +
22 kΩ
R3 Integrator

10 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

For the triangular wave generator, the frequency is found from:

1  R2 
fr =  
4 R 1 C  R3 

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here?

C
1  R2 
fr =   –
4 R 1 C  R3  R1 10 nF
–
1  22 kΩ  82 kΩ
=   + Vout
4 ( 82 kΩ )(10 nF )  10 kΩ  Comparator R2 +
22 kΩ
R3 Integrator
= 671 Hz
10 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Normally, the triangle wave generator uses fast comparators to avoid slew
rate problems. For non-critical applications, a 741 will work nicely for low
frequencies (<2 kHz). The circuit here is one you can construct easily in
lab. (The circuit is the same as Example 16-4 but with a larger C.)

Vout2
Square wave C

– R1 0.1 µF
741 –
10 kΩ 741 Vout1
+
R2
33 kΩ + Triangle
R3 wave

10 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Normally, the triangle wave generator uses fast comparators to avoid slew
rate problems. For non-critical applications, a 741 will work nicely for low
frequencies (<2 kHz). The circuit here is one you can construct easily in
lab. (The circuit is the same as Example 16-4 but with a larger C.)
The waveforms are:
Vout2
Square wave C

– R1 0.1 µF
741 –
10 kΩ 741 Vout1
+
R2
33 kΩ + Triangle
R3 wave
Both channels: 5 V/div
250 µs/div
10 kΩ

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

A sawtooth VCO also uses an integrator to create the ramp

portion of the waveform. In this case, when VC > VG + 0.7 V,
the PUT fires and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
VG
PUT
+ Vp
off
discharge
C
–

Ri
– charge
0V Vout
–
VIN +
+

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

A sawtooth VCO also uses an integrator to create the ramp

portion of the waveform. In this case, when VC > VG + 0.7 V,
the PUT fires and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
In this circuit, the device that changes VG
PUT
state is a PUT and the RC timing circuit
+ Vp
is an integrator. off
discharge
C
–

Ri
– charge
0V Vout
–
VIN +
+

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

A sawtooth VCO also uses an integrator to create the ramp

portion of the waveform. In this case, when VC > VG + 0.7 V,
the PUT fires and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
In this circuit, the device that changes VG
PUT
state is a PUT and the RC timing circuit
+ Vp
is an integrator. off
discharge
C
–

The frequency is found by: Ri

– charge
V  1  0V Vout
f = IN   –
4 R i C  V p − VF  VIN
+
+

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Another relaxation oscillator that uses a Schmitt trigger is the

basic square-wave oscillator. The trigger points are set by R2
and R3. The capacitor charges and discharges between these
levels:  R3  R
VUTP = +Vmax  
1

 2
R + R3 
VC
 R3  –
VLTP = −Vmax   Vout
 2
R + R3 
C
Vf +
R2

R3

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 Electronic Devices
The Relaxation Oscillator

Another relaxation oscillator that uses a Schmitt trigger is the

basic square-wave oscillator. The trigger points are set by R2
and R3. The capacitor charges and discharges between these
levels:  R3  R
VUTP = +Vmax  
1

 2
R + R3 
VC
 R3  –
VLTP = −Vmax   Vout
 2
R + R3 
C
Vf +
The period of the waveform is given by: R2

 2R 
=T 2 R1C ln 1 + 3  R3
 R2 

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 Electronic Devices
The 555 Timer

The 555 block diagram is shown.

VCC

(8)

RA
5 kΩ Upper
comparator
(6) +
Threshold

Flip-flop
Control (5)
–
voltage R
RB (3)
Lower Q Output
5 kΩ
comparator
S Output
+
buffer

(2)
Trigger –
Discharge
(7) path transistor
Discharge
Qd
RC
5 kΩ

(1) (4)

Gnd Reset

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 Electronic Devices
The 555 Timer

The 555 block diagram is shown.

Addition of a few external VCC
+V CC

parts forms a versatile (8)

astable multivibrator. R
RAA Upper 555
5 kΩ
comparator
(6)
Threshold (6) +

Flip-flop
Control (5)
(5)
–
voltage RR
RB (3)
(3)
R1 R Lower Q
Q Output
V
5BkΩ out
comparator
Charging

SS Output
+
buffer
2 1 2 1
(2) 2 1 2 1
Trigger (2) –
on off on
Discharge
(7) path transistor
Discharge (7) Q
Qd d
R
Discharging
C
R2 RC
5 kΩ
2V 2 2 2
3 CC
+
VC C (1) (4)
(4)
– ext (1)
1
V
3 CC
1 1 Gnd Reset
+VCC

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 Electronic Devices
The 555 Timer

The 555 block diagram is shown.

Addition of a few external VCC
+V CC

parts forms a versatile (8)

astable multivibrator. R
RAA Upper 555
5 kΩ
comparator
(6)
Threshold (6) +
The frequency and duty Flip-flop
Control (5)
(5)
cycle are given by: voltage
RB
–
RR
(3)
(3)
R1 R Lower Q
Q Output
V
5BkΩ out
1.44 comparator
fr =
Charging

SS Output

( R1 + 2 R2 ) Cext
+
buffer
2 1 2 1
(2) 2 1 2 1
Trigger (2) –
 R +R  on off on
Duty cycle =  1 2 100% Discharge

 R1 + 2 R2 
(7) path transistor
Discharge (7) Q
Qd d
R
Discharging
C
R2 RC
5 kΩ
2V 2 2 2
3 CC
+
VC C (1) (4)
(4)
– ext (1)
1
V
3 CC
1 1 Gnd Reset
+VCC

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms

Oscillator

Positive feedback

Voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO)

Phase-locked loop
(PLL)

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms

Oscillator An electronic circuit that produces a periodic

waveform on its output with only the dc
supply voltage as an input.
Positive feedback

Voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO)

Phase-locked loop
(PLL)

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms

Oscillator An electronic circuit that produces a periodic

waveform on its output with only the dc
supply voltage as an input.
Positive feedback The return of a portion of the output signal to the
input such that it reinforce and sustains the
output.
Voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO)

Phase-locked loop
(PLL)

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms

Oscillator An electronic circuit that produces a periodic

waveform on its output with only the dc
supply voltage as an input.
Positive feedback The return of a portion of the output signal to the
input such that it reinforce and sustains the
output.
Voltage-controlled A type of relaxation oscillator whose frequency
oscillator (VCO) can be varied by a dc control voltage.

Phase-locked loop
(PLL)

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 Electronic Devices
Selected Key Terms

Oscillator An electronic circuit that produces a periodic

waveform on its output with only the dc
supply voltage as an input.
Positive feedback The return of a portion of the output signal to the
input such that it reinforce and sustains the
output.
Voltage-controlled A type of relaxation oscillator whose frequency
oscillator (VCO) can be varied by a dc control voltage.

Phase-locked loop An integrated circuit consisting of a phase

(PLL) detector, a low-pass filter, and a voltage-
controlled oscillator.

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q1

1. The Wien-bridge oscillator uses the network shown. If

R’s and C’s are equal, the maximum Vout will be phase-
shifted by
a. 0o R1
C2
Vin Vout
b. 90o
C1 R2
c. 180o
d. 270o

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q2

2. The ohmic region of a JFET is the operating region for a

JFET used in a Wien-bridge AGC circuit because the
a. resistance is constant 7

6 VG = 0 V

b. resistance depends on VDS 5

VG = − 0.5 V
ID 4
c. resistance depends on VG (mA)
VG = −1.0 V
3

VG = −1.5 V
d. resistance depends on ID 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q3

3. Assume the Wien-bridge oscillator shown is operating

normally and the output voltage is a 6 Vpp sine wave. VG
should be
a. 1 Vpp sine wave C1 Rf

–
R1
b. 2 Vpp sine wave Vout
+
D1
c. +3 VDC Q1
VG
R2 C2
d. −2.3 VDC R3 R4 C3

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q4

4. The twin-t oscillator uses the network shown. At the

oscillator frequency, the output of this network is phase-
shifted by
a. 0o
b. 90o Vin Vout

c. 180o
d. 270o

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q5

5. The overall frequency response characteristic of the

twin-t oscillator network shown is that of a
a. low-pass filter
b. high-pass filter
Vin Vout
c. band-pass filter
d. notch filter

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q6

6. An example of an LC feedback oscillator is a

a. phase-shift oscillator
b. relaxation oscillator
c. Colpitts oscillator
d. Wien-bridge oscillator

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q7

7. In a crystal oscillator, the crystal acts like a

a. band-pass filter
b. resonant circuit
c. notch filter
d. power source

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q8

8. The waveforms at Vout1 and Vout2 should be a

a. sawtooth wave and a sine wave
b. triangle wave and a square wave
c. sawtooth wave and a square wave
d. triangle wave and a sine wave
Vout2 C

–
R1
–
+ Vout1
R2
+
R3

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q9

9. The output waveform from this circuit should be a

a. sawtooth wave
VG

b. triangle wave PUT

+ Vp
C
c. square wave –

Ri
d. sine wave –
0V Vout
–
VIN +
+

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 Electronic Devices
Quiz Q10

10. To make a basic astable multivibrator using a 555 timer,

as a minimum you need
a. one resistor and one capacitor
b. one resistor and two capacitors
c. two resistors and one capacitor
d. two resistors and two capacitors

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 Electronic Devices
Answers

Answers:
1. a 6. c
2. c 7. b
3. d 8. b
4. c 9. a
5. d 10. c

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