Chapter 11

• THE EQUATIONS OF CHANGE FOR NON-ISOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

• Shell EB → simple, steady state heat flow problems.

• General shell EB → Eq. of energy

• The energy equation

• The eq. of change for energy is obtained by applying the law of conservation of energy to a
small element of volume ∆x∆y∆z and then allowing the dimensions of the volume element
to become vanishingly small.

• The law of conservation of energy is an extension of the first law of thermodynamics, i.e.,

∆U= Q + W

• We consider a stationary volume elements, fixed in space, through which a fluid is flowing.
Both K.E and Internal energy may be entering and leaving the system by convection
transport. Heat may enter and leave the system by heat conduction as well. Thus, the
conservation energy can be expressed as:
(i) By kinetic energy we mean that energy associated with the observable motion

.
of the fluid, which is ½ρv2 = ½ρ(v v), per unit volume. Here v is the fluid

velocity vector.
i. By internal energy we mean the kinetic energies of the constituent molecules calculated in a
frame moving with the velocity v, plus the energies associated with the vibrational and rotational
motions of the molecules and also the energies of interaction among all the molecules. It is
assumed that the internal energy U for a flowing fluid is the same function of temperature and
density as that for a fluid at equilibrium. Keep in mind that a similar assumption is made for the
thermodynamic pressure p (ρ, T) for a flowing fluid.

ii. The potential energy does not appear in Eq. 11.1-1, since we prefer instead to consider the work
done on the system by gravity. At the end of this section, however, we show how to express this
work in terms of the potential energy.

iii. In Eq. 10.1-1 various source terms were included in the shell energy balance. In 10.4 the viscous
heat source Sv appeared automatically, because the mechanical energy terms in e were properly
accounted for; the same situation prevails here, and the viscous heating term -(τ:∇v) will appear
automatically in Eq. 11.2-1. The chemical, electrical, and nuclear source terms (Sc, Se, and Sn) do
not appear automatically, since chemical reactions, electrical effects, and nuclear disintegrations
have not been included in the energy balance
(i) In Chapter 19, where the energy equation for mixtures with chemical reactions
is considered, the chemical heat source Sc appears naturally, as does a
"diffusive source term," ∑ ( jα ⋅ gα ) .
α

We now translate Eq. 11.1-1 into mathematical terms. The rate of increase of kinetic
and internal energy within the volume element ∆x ∆y ∆z is

∆x ∆y ∆z
∂ 1
∂t
(
2 ρv + ρU
2 ˆ )
Here Û is the internal energy per unit mass (sometimes called the "specific internal

energy"). The product ρ Û is the internal energy per unit volume, and
1
2
ρv 2 = 12 ρ (vx2 + v y2 + vz2 ) is the kinetic energy per unit volume. Next we have to know how

much energy enters and leaves across the faces of the volume element Ax Ay Az.

(
∆y∆z ex x − ex x + ∆x
) + ∆x∆z (e y y − ey
y + ∆y
)+ ∆y∆x(e z z − ez z + ∆z
)
Keep in mind that the e vector includes the convective transport of kinetic and internal energy, the heat
conduction, and the work associated with molecular processes. The rate at which work is done on the
fluid by the external force is the dot product of the fluid velocity v and the force acting on the fluid

(ρ∆x ∆y ∆z)g, or

ρ∆x ∆y ∆z (vxgx + vygy + vzgz)

We now insert these various contributions into Eq. 11.1-1 and then divide by ∆x ∆y

∆z. When ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z are allowed to go to zero, we get

∂
∂t
(1
2 ρv 2
+ ρUˆ =  )
 ∂e x
+
∂e y
+
∂e z  + ρ(v g + v g + v g )
 x x y y z z
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

This equation may be written more compactly in vector notation as

∂
∂t
(1
2 )
ρv 2 + ρUˆ = − (∇ ⋅ e ) + ρ (v ⋅ g )
• Next we insert the expression for the e vector from Eq. 9.8-5 to get the equation of energy

• This equation does not include nuclear, radiative, electromagnetic, or chemical forms of
energy. For viscoelastic fluids, the next-to-last term has to be reinterpreted by replacing
"viscous" by "viscoelastic
Equation of change for kinetic energy as derived in Section 3.3
SPECIAL FORMS OF THE ENERGY EQUATION
• The most useful form of the energy equation is one in which the temperature appears. The
object of this section is to arrive at such an equation, which can be used for prediction of
temperature profiles. First we subtract the mechanical energy equation in Eq. 3.3-1 from the
energy equation in 11.1-7. This leads to the following equation of change for internal energy:
• It is now of interest to compare the mechanical energy equation of Eq. 3.3-1 and the internal
energy equation of Eq. 11.2-1. Note that the terms ρ(∇.v) and (τ:∇v) appear in both
equations - but with opposite signs. Therefore, these terms describe the interconversion of
mechanical and thermal energy. The term ρ(∇.v) can be either positive or negative,
depending on whether the fluid is expanding or contracting; therefore it represents a
reversible mode of interchange. On the other hand, for Newtonian fluids, the quantity -
(τ:∇v) is always positive (see Eq. 3.3-3) and therefore represents an irreversible degradation
of mechanical into internal energy. For viscoelastic fluids, discussed in Chapter 8, the quantity
(τ:∇v) does not have to be positive, since some energy may be stored as elastic energy. We
pointed out in s3.5 that the equations of change can be written somewhat more compactly
by using the substantial derivative (see Table 3.5-1). Equation 11.2-1 can be put in the
substantial derivative form by using Eq. 3.5-4. This gives, with no further assumptions
DUˆ
ρ = −(∇ ⋅ q ) − p(∇ ⋅ v ) − (τ : ∇v ) (11.2-2)
Dt
• Next it is convenient to switch from internal energy to enthalpy, as we did at the very end of 9.8.
� = 𝐻𝐻
That is, in Eq. 11.2-2 we set 𝑈𝑈 � − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝐻𝐻
�− 𝑝𝑝
⁄𝜌𝜌 , making the standard assumption that
thermodynamic formulas derived from equilibrium thermodynamics may be applied locally for
nonequilibrium systems. When we substitute this formula into Eq. 11.2-2 and use the equation
of continuity (Eq. A of Table 3.5-1), we get
DHˆ
= −(∇ ⋅ q ) − (τ : ∇v ) +
Dp
ρ (11.2-3)
Dt Dt
• Next we may use Eq. 9.8-7, which presumes that the enthalpy is a function of p and T (this
restricts the subsequent development to Newtonian fluids). Then we may get an expression for
the change in the enthalpy in an element of fluid moving with the fluid velocity, which is

DHˆ DT   ∂Vˆ   Dp
ρ = ρC p
ˆ + ρ V − T 
ˆ  
Dt Dt  ∂ T   Dt
 p

DT 1  ∂ 1 ρ   Dp (11.2-4)
= ρCˆ p + ρ  − T   
Dt  ρ  ∂ T  p  Dt
DT   ∂ ln ρ   Dp
= ρCˆ p + ρ 1 + T   
Dt   ∂T  p  Dt
 (i) When Fourier's law of Eq. 9.1-4 is used, the term -(∇.q) becomes +(∇.k∇T),

or, if the thermal conductivity is assumed constant, +k∇2T.

(ii) When Newton's law of Eq. 1.2-7 is used, the term -(τ:∇v) becomes µΦv + κ Ψv
the quantity given explicitly in Eq. 3.3-3.

We do not perform the substitutions here, because the equation of change for temperature
is almost never used in its complete generality.
We now discuss several special restricted versions of the equation of change for
temperature.
In all of these we use Fourier's law with constant k, and we omit the viscous dissipation term,
since it is important only in flows with enormous velocity gradients:
(i) For an ideal gas,
PV = nRT
nM PM
or ρ= =
v RT
ln ρ = ln( PM ) − ln R − ln T
 ∂ ln ρ 
or ln   = 0 − 0 − 1 = −1
 ∂ ln T  p
DT 2 Dp
ρC p
ˆ = k∇ T + (11.2 − 6)
Dt Dt
R
let Cˆ p − Cˆ v =
M
nM pM
let ρ = =
v RT
or pM = ρRT
 EOC (Eq. A, Table 3.5-1)
Dρ
Dt
( )
= − ρ ∇.v

Substituting in Eq. (11.2-6):

 R ˆ  DT D  ρRT 
ρ + Cv  = k∇ 2T +  
M  Dt Dt  M 
DT Dρ RT ρR DT ρR DT
ρCˆ v = k∇ 2T + ⋅ + −
Dt Dt M M Dt M Dt
ρCˆ v
DT
Dt
( )
= k∇ 2T − ρ ∇ ⋅ v
p
ρ
ρCˆ v
DT
Dt
( )
= k∇ 2T − p ∇ ⋅ v (11.2 − 7)
I . For a fluid flowing in a constant pressure system , 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 0, and
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 =𝑘𝑘𝛻𝛻 2 𝑇𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝒫𝒫
II. For a fluid with 𝒫𝒫 independent of T , = 0 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑛𝑛 𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 =𝑘𝑘𝛻𝛻 2 𝑇𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

III. For solids , the deasity may be considered as constant , 𝑣𝑣̅ is zero

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 =𝑘𝑘𝛻𝛻 2 𝑇𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

Eq. ( 11.2.7) – (11.2-10) are used as the starting point for most transfer.

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝝏𝝏
Note : 𝝆𝝆 = � . 𝝆𝝆𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 + 𝛁𝛁
𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝝏𝝏
𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 = 𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 𝑻𝑻 + 𝛁𝛁
� . 𝝆𝝆𝑪𝑪́ 𝒑𝒑 𝝊𝝊� 𝑻𝑻
𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

.
• For𝜌𝜌= const., 𝜐𝜐̅ = 0 , cp = const.
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇
𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌 ́
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
• 11.4 : Use the Equation of change to solve steady-state Problems

• In general , to describe the non isothermal flow of a Newtonian fluid one needs :

• - The EOC (containing 𝜇𝜇 and κ Kappa )

• EOE (containing 𝜇𝜇 , κ, and k)

• thermal equation of state (p =p(𝜌𝜌.T)

• caloric eq. of state (𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝 = 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝(ρ,𝑇𝑇))

• 𝜇𝜇=𝜇𝜇 ρ, 𝑇𝑇 ; 𝑘𝑘, κ

• B.𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 , and I.Cs.

• => pressure , density , velocity , and temperature as function of position and time . → usually numerical
solution needed
• for simplified solution ( restricted solution.), following assumptions are made:
• I ) Assumption of constant physical properties

• II) Assumption of zero fluxes : 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑜𝑜

• For adiabatic flow processes in systems designed to minimize frictional effects ( e.g. venturimeters and turbines.

• High speed flows around streamlined objects.

Ex 11.4-1 : Steady -State Forced Connection Heat Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube

To find the fluid temperature profiles for the fully developed laminar flow in a tube.

Solution :

• Assume constant ρ , μ, k, 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝

• Postulate solution of the form :

• 𝜐𝜐̅ = 𝛿𝛿𝑧𝑧̅ 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟) , 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 𝑣𝑣θ = 0 , 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 (𝑟𝑟)

• P=P(𝑧𝑧) , T =T (r,𝑧𝑧) , fully developed flow, 𝛉𝛉-symmetry

• Then the equations of change in cylindrical coordinatesmay be simplified as:

 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
• EOC ( r, 𝛉𝛉,𝑧𝑧) : + 𝜌𝜌𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝛉𝛉 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

⇒ 0=0 (11.4-1)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
• EOM : : 0=− + 𝜇𝜇 𝑟𝑟 (11.4-2)
𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• EOE 𝑟𝑟, 𝛉𝛉, 𝑧𝑧 : 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐵𝐵. 9 − 2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣θ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝 + 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 + + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

1 𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇

k 𝑟𝑟 + + + 𝛷𝛷𝑣𝑣
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉2 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

⇒ 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 + + 𝜇𝜇 (11.4.3)
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• From eq.B.7-2,

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 2
𝝓𝝓𝒗𝒗 = =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟
• On solving EOM ( Eq.11.4.2) , one obtains.

P=𝑃𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧/𝑙𝑙

𝑃𝑃0 −𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑟 2
𝜐𝜐𝑧𝑧 = 1−
4𝜇𝜇𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅

𝑟𝑟 2
= 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 − 𝑅𝑅

• The expression for velocity is then substituted in EOE.

• To simplify solution , we make two assumption.

𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇
I. - in the 𝑧𝑧-direction , heat convection ≫ heat conduction, i.e., 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2
≅0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
II. - flow is small => viscous heating , not significant , i.e., 𝜇𝜇( 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧)2 ≅ 0

Eq(11.4-3) ⇒

𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜌𝜌 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 − 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
= 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 (10.8-12)
• B.cs:

• B.c.1 : at r = 0 , 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇
• B.c.2 : at r =R , 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑞𝑞0 ( constant)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

• B.c.2 : at 𝑧𝑧 =0 , 𝑇𝑇 =𝑇𝑇1

• Non Dimensionalization

𝑇𝑇−𝑇𝑇1 𝑟𝑟 ℨ
∅= , ξ= , ζ= 𝑣𝑣 𝑅𝑅 2 / 𝒦𝒦
𝑞𝑞0 𝑅𝑅/𝒦𝒦 𝑅𝑅 𝒫𝒫 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝 ℨ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉
⇒ 1 − ξ2 = ξ
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 ξ 𝜕𝜕ξ 𝜕𝜕ξ

• B.C.1 : at ξ= 0 , θ = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝜕𝜕𝛉𝛉
• B.C.2 : at ξ=1 , =1
𝜕𝜕ξ

• B.C.2 : at ζ =0 , 𝛉𝛉 =0
Then rest of the asymptotic solution for large z follows as in Section 10.8.
Important to note :
• postulate – the form of the solution is guessed
• Assumptions – some terms discarded, and physical properties assumed constant
• asymptotic solution – a paert of the solution obtained
Ex. 11.4-3: Steady Flow in a Nonisothermal Film
A liquid is flowing downward in steady laminar flow along an inclined plane surface, as
shown in Figs. 2.2-1 to 3. 3. The free liquid surface is maintained at temperature To, and the solid
Steady Flow in a surface at x = δ is maintained at Tδ ,. At these temperatures the liquid viscosity has
values 𝜇𝜇0 and 𝜇𝜇𝛿𝛿 , respectively , and the liquid density and thermal conductivity may be assumed
constant . find the velocity distribution in this nonisothermal flow system , neglecting end effects.
Find the velocity distribution in this nonisothermal flow system, neglecting end effect.
• Solution :

• We postulate T =T(x) , 𝜐𝜐̅ = 𝜕𝜕̅𝑧𝑧 𝜐𝜐𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑠𝑠. 𝑠𝑠

• EOE : (x,y,𝑧𝑧) , Eq (B.9-1)

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

• 𝜌𝜌 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝜐𝜐𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇

• 𝑘𝑘 + + + 𝜇𝜇𝜙𝜙𝑢𝑢
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦2 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇
• 𝑘𝑘 + 𝜇𝜇𝜙𝜙𝑢𝑢 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑘𝑘 2

� can be written as :
• From Eq.(B.7-1) , 𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2
• � =
𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2
• For viscous heating to be small , ≈ 𝑜𝑜
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
• EOM :

𝜕𝜕2 𝑇𝑇
• => = 𝑜𝑜
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2

• B.c.1: at 𝑥𝑥 = 0 , 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇

• B.c.2: at 𝑥𝑥 = δ, 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇δ

• Integrating eq.(1):

• 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2

• B.c.1 => 𝑐𝑐2 = 𝑇𝑇0

• B.c.1 => 𝑐𝑐1 = 𝑇𝑇δ − 𝑇𝑇0 /δ

𝑥𝑥
• => 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇δ − 𝑇𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑇0
δ
𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑇−𝑇𝑇0
• Or =
δ 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0
δ
𝑇𝑇−𝑇𝑇0 𝑥𝑥
• Or = (2)
𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0
δ δ
• 𝜇𝜇 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵/𝑇𝑇

• 𝜇𝜇 = 𝜇𝜇 𝑇𝑇 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ,

𝜇𝜇 𝑇𝑇 1 1
• = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 − (3)
𝜇𝜇0 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇0

• B= constant

• Substituting for 𝑇𝑇 ,

𝑇𝑇0 −𝑇𝑇
•
𝜇𝜇 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 δ 𝑥𝑥
𝜇𝜇0 𝑇𝑇δ𝑇𝑇0 δ

𝜇𝜇 𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑇0 −𝑇𝑇𝒫𝒫 𝑥𝑥
• = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 (4)
𝜇𝜇0 𝑇𝑇δ 𝑇𝑇0 δ
• (if the temp. change is small )

• For T =Tδ ,𝜇𝜇=𝜇𝜇 δ , eq 3) =>

𝜇𝜇 1 1
• δ = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 − (5)
𝜇𝜇0 𝑇𝑇𝒫𝒫 𝑇𝑇0
• Substituting (5) in (4) :
𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇0 −𝑇𝑇 δ
𝜇𝜇𝑥𝑥 δ
• = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇0
δ
𝜇𝜇0

𝑥𝑥
𝜇𝜇
• =( 𝜇𝜇𝒫𝒫 )δ (6)
0

• EOM ( in term of 𝜏𝜏 ) :

• X: 0=0

• Y: 0=0

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

Z: 𝒫𝒫 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
• = - 𝜕𝜕𝜕 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 𝒫𝒫 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧0 +𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
• 0 = - 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 − 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧
• Let p = p(x)

𝜕𝜕
• 𝜏𝜏 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧

• Or 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐1

• B.c. at gas liquid in face:

• At x=0 , 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 = 0

• => 𝑐𝑐1 = 0

• 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 (7)

• Substituting Newton’s law in with variable viscosity as given in eq.(6)

𝜇𝜇 𝑥𝑥
- 𝜇𝜇0 ( δ ) δ
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
• = 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 𝑥𝑥 (8)
𝜇𝜇0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• Integrating eq(8) , and eralvating the constant of integration using B.c. at x= δ, 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 0 , Given
velocity profile as ,
𝟏𝟏+𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 δ
𝜇𝜇
𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏+ 𝒙𝒙/δ 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝜇𝜇 /𝜇𝜇𝟎𝟎
𝜌𝜌𝒒𝒒 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝜷𝜷 δ δ 𝜇𝜇𝟎𝟎
• 𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 = . 𝒙𝒙/δ
−
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝜇𝜇δ
𝜇𝜇
𝜇𝜇𝟎𝟎 𝜇𝜇 /𝜇𝜇𝟎𝟎
𝜇𝜇 /𝜇𝜇 δ
𝟎𝟎 δ 𝟎𝟎

A system with two concentric porous spherical shells of radii KR and R is shown in Fig. 11.4-1. The
inner surface of the outer shell is at temperature 𝑇𝑇1 ,and the outer surface of the inner shell is at a
lower temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 . Dry air at 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 is blown outward radially from the inner shell into the
intervening space and then through the outer shell. Develop an expression for the required rate of
heat removal from the inner sphere as a function of the mass rate of flow of the gas. Assume steady
laminar flow and low gas velocity. In this example the equations of continuity and energy are solved
to get the temperature distribution. The equation of motion gives information about the pressure
distribution in the system.
We postulate that for this system v = 𝜹𝜹𝒓𝒓 𝝊𝝊𝒓𝒓 (r), T = T(r), and 𝒫𝒫= 𝒫𝒫 (r). The equation of continuity in
spherical coordinates then becomes
𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅
(𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝊𝝊𝒓𝒓) =0 (11.4-21)
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

This is equation can be integrated to give

𝔀𝔀𝒓𝒓
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝊𝝊𝒓𝒓 = const. = (11.4-22)
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

Here 𝔀𝔀𝒓𝒓 , is the radial mass flow rate of the gas.

The r-component of the equation of motion in spherical coordinates is, from Eq. B.6-7,

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅 𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅
𝝆𝝆𝝊𝝊𝒓𝒓 =− + 𝝁𝝁 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝝊𝝊𝒓𝒓 (11.4-23)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

The viscosity term drops out because of Eq. 11.4-21. Integration of Eq. 11.4-23 then gives

𝔀𝔀𝒓𝒓 𝑹𝑹 𝟒𝟒
𝓟𝓟(r) – 𝓟𝓟(R) = 𝟏𝟏 − (11.4-24)
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝑹𝑹𝟒𝟒 𝒓𝒓
Hence the modified pressure 𝒫𝒫 increases with r, but only very slightly for the low gas velocity assumed here.

The energy equation in terms of the temperature, in spherical coordinates, is, according to Eq. B.9-3,

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

= ́ 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 (11.4-26)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝔀𝔀𝒓𝒓∁𝒑𝒑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Here we have used Eq. 11.2-8, for which we assume that the thermal conductivity is constant, the pressure is
constant, and there is no viscous dissipation-all reasonable assumptions for the problem at hand. When Eq.
11.4-22 for the velocity distribution is used for 𝜐𝜐𝑟𝑟 , in Eq. 11.4-25, we obtain the following differential equation
for the temperature distribution T(r) in the gas between the two shells:

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

= ́ 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 (11.4-26)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝔀𝔀𝒓𝒓∁𝒑𝒑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
We make the change of variable 𝑢𝑢 =𝑟𝑟 2(dT/dr) and obtain a first-order, separable differential equation for uW.
This may be integrated, and when the boundary conditions are applied, we get

−𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹/𝑹𝑹
𝑻𝑻−𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝒆𝒆−𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹/𝒓𝒓 −𝒆𝒆
= (11.4-27)
𝑻𝑻𝒌𝒌 − 𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 𝒆𝒆−𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹/𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 −𝒆𝒆−𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹/𝑹𝑹

in which 𝑅𝑅0 = 𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶́𝑝𝑝/4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 is a constant with units of length. The rate of heat flow toward the inner sphere is

𝓠𝓠 = −𝟒𝟒 𝝅𝝅𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝒒𝒒𝒓𝒓 |𝒓𝒓 = 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 (11.4-28)

and this is the required rate of heat removal by the refrigerant. Insertion of Fourier's law for the r-component of
the heat flux gives

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝓠𝓠 = +𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌 |𝒓𝒓 = 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 (11.4-29)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Next we evaluate the temperature gradient at the surface with the aid of Eq. 11.4-27 to obtain the expression for
the heat removal rate

𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝑹𝑹𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒌 𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 − 𝑻𝑻𝒌𝒌

𝓠𝓠 = (11.4-30)
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝑹𝑹𝟎𝟎 / 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝟏𝟏−𝒌𝒌 − 𝟏𝟏
• In the limit that the mass flow rate of the gas is zero, so that 𝑅𝑅0= 0, the heat removal rate Becomes

𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑻𝑻𝟏𝟏 −𝑻𝑻𝒌𝒌

𝓠𝓠𝟎𝟎 = (11.4-30)
𝟏𝟏−𝒌𝒌

• The fractional reduction in heat removal as a result of the transpiration of the gas is then

𝓠𝓠𝟎𝟎 − 𝓠𝓠 𝝓𝝓
= 𝟏𝟏 − (11.4-31)
𝓠𝓠𝟎𝟎 𝒆𝒆𝝓𝝓−𝟏𝟏

Here 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑅𝑅0 1 − 𝑘𝑘 / kR =𝓌𝓌𝑟𝑟 ∁́ 𝑝𝑝 1 − 𝑘𝑘 / 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 is the “ dimensionless transpiration rate equation 11.4-32 is
1
shown graphically in fig. 11.4-2. For small values of 𝜙𝜙, the quanti (𝒬𝒬0 − 𝒬𝒬 /𝒬𝒬0 approaches the asymptote 𝜙𝜙
2