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48 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

effort in algebraic manipulation, and then equate the result to zero. From these relationships
we can write the differential equations for the circuit. Then we can take the Laplace
transforms of the differential equations and finally solve for the transfer function.

Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis

Transfer functions can be obtained using Kirchhoff’s voltage law and summing voltages
around loops or meshes.3 We call this method loop or mesh analysis and demonstrate it in
the following example.

Example 2.6

Transfer Function—Single Loop via the

Differential Equation
L R PROBLEM: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, V C s†, to
the input voltage, V(s) in Figure 2.3.
+
v(t) +
– C vC (t) SOLUTION: In any problem, the designer must first decide what the input and
–
i(t) output should be. In this network, several variables could have been chosen to be the
output—for example, the inductor voltage, the capacitor voltage, the resistor voltage,
FIGURE 2.3 RLC network
or the current. The problem statement, however, is clear in this case: We are to treat the
capacitor voltage as the output and the applied voltage as the input.
Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions,
yields the integro-differential equation for this network as
Z
di t† 1 t
L ‡ Ri t† ‡ i τ†dτ ˆ v t† 2.61†
dt C 0
Changing variables from current to charge using i t† ˆ dq t†=dt yields

d2 q t† dq t† 1
L ‡R ‡ q t† ˆ v t† 2.62†
dt 2 dt C
From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor in Table 2.3,
q t† ˆ CvC t† 2.63†
Substituting Eq. (2.63) into Eq. (2.62) yields

d2 vC t† dvC t†
LC 2
‡ RC ‡ vC t† ˆ v t† 2.64†
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms, and
simplifying yields

1
LCs2 ‡ RCs ‡ 1†V C s† ˆ V s† 2.65†
V(s) LC VC (s)
Solving for the transfer function, V C s†=V s†, we obtain
R 1
s2 + s +
L LC
V C s† 1=LC
ˆ 2.66†
FIGURE 2.4 Block diagram of V s† R 1
s2 ‡ s ‡
series RLC electrical network L LC
as shown in Figure 2.4.

3
A particular loop that resembles the spaces in a screen or fence is called a mesh.
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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions 49

Let us now develop a technique for simplifying the solution for future problems. First,
take the Laplace transform of the equations in the voltage-current column of Table 2.3
assuming zero initial conditions.
For the capacitor,

1
V s† ˆ I s† 2.67†
Cs

For the resistor,

V s† ˆ RI s† 2.68†

For the inductor,

V s† ˆ LsI s† 2.69†

Now define the following transfer function:

V s†
ˆ Z s† 2.70†
I s†

Notice that this function is similar to the definition of resistance, that is, the ratio of
voltage to current. But, unlike resistance, this function is applicable to capacitors and
inductors and carries information on the dynamic behavior of the component, since it
represents an equivalent differential equation. We call this particular transfer function
impedance. The impedance for each of the electrical elements is shown in Table 2.3.
Let us now demonstrate how the concept of impedance simplifies the solution for the
transfer function. The Laplace transform of Eq. (2.61), assuming zero initial conditions, is
! "
1
Ls ‡ R ‡ I s† ˆ V s† 2.71†
Cs
Notice that Eq. (2.71), which is in the form

‰Sum of impedancesŠI s† ˆ ‰Sum of applied voltagesŠ 2.72†

suggests the series circuit shown in Figure 2.5. Also notice that the circuit of Figure 2.5 Ls R
could have been obtained immediately from the circuit of Figure 2.3 simply by replacing
each element with its impedance. We call this altered circuit the transformed circuit.
+
Finally, notice that the transformed circuit leads immediately to Eq. (2.71) if we add V(s) +
1 VC (s)
– Cs
impedances in series as we add resistors in series. Thus, rather than writing the differential –
equation first and then taking the Laplace transform, we can draw the transformed circuit I(s)
and obtain the Laplace transform of the differential equation simply by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the transformed circuit. We summarize the steps as follows: FIGURE 2.5 Laplace-transformed
network
1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as v(t), i(t), and vC t†, as
Laplace transforms V(s), I(s), and V C s†, respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. This replacement is similar
to the case of dc circuits, where we represent resistors with their resistance values.

We now redo Example 2.6 using the transform methods just described and bypass the
writing of the differential equation.
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50 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Example 2.7

Transfer Function—Single Loop via Transform Methods

PROBLEM: Repeat Example 2.6 using mesh analysis and transform methods without
writing a differential equation.

SOLUTION: Using Figure 2.5 and writing a mesh equation using the impedances as we
would use resistor values in a purely resistive circuit, we obtain
! "
1
Ls ‡ R ‡ I s† ˆ V s† 2.73†
Cs
Solving for I(s)/V(s),
I s† 1
ˆ 2.74†
V s† 1
Ls ‡ R ‡
Cs
But the voltage across the capacitor, V C s†, is the product of the current and the impedance
of the capacitor. Thus,
1
V C s† ˆ I s† 2.75†
Cs
Solving Eq. (2.75) for I(s) substituting I(s) into Eq. (2.74), and simplifying yields the same
result as Eq. (2.66).

Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis

Transfer functions also can be obtained using Kirchhoff’s current law and summing currents
flowing from nodes. We call this method nodal analysis. We now demonstrate this principle
by redoing Example 2.6 using Kirchhoff’s current law and the transform methods just
described to bypass writing the differential equation.

Example 2.8

Transfer Function—Single Node via Transform Methods

PROBLEM: Repeat Example 2.6 using nodal analysis and without writing a differential
equation.

SOLUTION: The transfer function can be obtained by summing currents flowing out of the
node whose voltage is V C s† in Figure 2.5. We assume that currents leaving the node are
positive and currents entering the node are negative. The currents consist of the current
through the capacitor and the current flowing through the series resistor and inductor. From
Eq. (2.70), each I s† ˆ V s†=Z s†. Hence,

V C s† V C s† V s†
‡ ˆ0 2.76†
1=Cs R ‡ Ls

where V C s†= 1=Cs† is the current flowing out of the node through the capacitor, and
‰V C s† V s†Š= R ‡ Ls† is the current flowing out of the node through the series resistor
and inductor. Solving Eq. (2.76) for the transfer function, VC s†=V s†, we arrive at the same
result as Eq. (2.66).
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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions 51

Simple Circuits via Voltage Division

Example 2.6 can be solved directly by using voltage division on the transformed network.
We now demonstrate this technique.

Example 2.9

Transfer Function—Single Loop via Voltage Division

PROBLEM: Repeat Example 2.6 using voltage division and the transformed circuit.

SOLUTION: The voltage across the capacitor is some proportion of the input voltage,
namely the impedance of the capacitor divided by the sum of the impedances. Thus,

1=Cs
VC s† ˆ ! " V s† 2.77†
1
Ls ‡ R ‡
Cs

Solving for the transfer function, VC s†=V s†, yields the same result as Eq. (2.66).
Review Examples 2.6 through 2.9. Which method do you think is easiest for this
circuit?

The previous example involves a simple, single-loop electrical network. Many

electrical networks consist of multiple loops and nodes, and for these circuits we must
write and solve simultaneous differential equations in order to find the transfer function, or
solve for the output.

Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis

To solve complex electrical networks—those with multiple loops and nodes—using mesh
analysis, we can perform the following steps:

1. Replace passive element values with their impedances.

2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
4. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
6. Form the transfer function.

Let us look at an example.

Example 2.10

Transfer Function—Multiple Loops

PROBLEM: Given the network of Figure 2.6(a), find the transfer function, I 2 s†=V s†.

SOLUTION: The first step in the solution is to convert the network into Laplace transforms
for impedances and circuit variables, assuming zero initial conditions. The result is shown in
Figure 2.6(b). The circuit with which we are dealing requires two simultaneous equations to
solve for the transfer function. These equations can be found by summing voltages around
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52 Chapter 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain

FIGURE 2.6 a. Two-loop

electrical network;
b. transformed two-loop
electrical network; c. block
diagram

each mesh through which the assumed currents, I 1 s† and I 2 s†, flow. Around Mesh 1, where
I 1 s† flows,

R1 I 1 s† ‡ LsI 1 s† LsI 2 s† ˆ V s† 2.78†

Around Mesh 2, where I 2 s† flows,

1
LsI 2 s† ‡ R2 I 2 s† ‡ I 2 s† LsI 1 s† ˆ 0 2.79†
Cs
Combining terms, Eqs. (2.78) and (2.79) become simultaneous equations in I 1 s† and I 2 s†:

R1 ‡ Ls†I 1 s† LsI 2 s† ˆ V s† (2.80a)

! "
1
LsI 1 s† ‡ Ls ‡ R2 ‡ I 2 s† ˆ 0 (2.80b)
Cs

We can use Cramer’s rule (or any other method for solving simultaneous equations)
to solve Eq. (2.80) for I 2 s†.4 Hence,

# #
# R1 ‡ Ls† V s† ##
#
# Ls 0 # LsV s†
I 2 s† ˆ ˆ 2.81†
Δ Δ

where
# R ‡ Ls† Ls #
# 1 ! " ##
#
Ĉ# 1 #
# Ls Ls ‡ R2 ‡ #
Cs

4
See Appendix G (Section G.4) at www.wiley.com/college/nise for Cramer’s rule.
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2.4 Electrical Network Transfer Functions 53

Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields

I 2 s† Ls LCs2
G s† ˆ ˆ ˆ 2.82†
V s† Δ R1 ‡ R2 †LCs ‡ R1 R2 C ‡ L†s ‡ R1
2

as shown in Figure 2.6(c).

We have succeeded in modeling a physical network as a transfer function: The
network of Figure 2.6(a) is now modeled as the transfer function of Figure 2.6(c). Before
leaving the example, we notice a pattern first illustrated by Eq. (2.72). The form that
Eqs. (2.80) take is
2 3
2 3 Sum of 2 3
Sum of 6 impedances 7 Sum of applied
4 impedances 5I 1 s† 6 6 7
7I 2 s† ˆ 4 voltages around 5 (2.83a)
4 common to the 5
around Mesh 1 Mesh 1
two meshes
2 3
Sum of 2 3 2 3
6 impedances 7 Sum of Sum of applied
6 7
6 7I 1 s† ‡ 4 impedances 5I 2 s† ˆ 4 voltages around 5 (2.83b)
4 common to the 5
around Mesh 2 Mesh 2
two meshes

Recognizing the form will help us write such equations rapidly; for example, mechanical
equations of motion (covered in Sections 2.5 and 2.6) have the same form.
Students who are performing the MATLAB exercises and want to
explore the added capabi l i ty of MATLAB’s Symbol ic Math Toolbox
should now run ch2sp4 in Appendix F at www.wi ley.com/col lege/nise,
where Example 2 . 10 is solved. You wi l l learn how to use the Symbol ic
Math Toolbox to solve simul taneous equat ions using Cramer’s ru l e .
Spec i fica l l y , t he Symbo l i c Ma t h Too l box w i l l be used t o so l ve for
t he t ransfer func t i on i n Eq . (2 . 82) us i ng Eq . (2 . 80) .

Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis

Often, the easiest way to find the transfer function is to use nodal analysis rather than mesh
analysis. The number of simultaneous differential equations that must be written is equal to
the number of nodes whose voltage is unknown. In the previous example we wrote
simultaneous mesh equations using Kirchhoff’s voltage law. For multiple nodes we use
Kirchhoff’s current law and sum currents flowing from each node. Again, as a convention,
currents flowing from the node are assumed to be positive, and currents flowing into the
node are assumed to be negative.
Before progressing to an example, let us first define admittance, Y(s), as the reciprocal
of impedance, or

1 I s†
Y s† ˆ ˆ 2.84†
Z s† V s†

When writing nodal equations, it can be more convenient to represent circuit elements by
their admittance. Admittances for the basic electrical components are shown in Table 2.3.
Let us look at an example.