Week 3: Considering the use of Algorithms CYBS 2122

Understanding the Role of Algorithms

People often identify AI through tools that offer innovative interactions, like digital assistants (Siri, Alexa,
Cortana) which engage in human-like conversations. In contrast, tools that are more commonplace and operate
behind the scenes, such as GPS systems, collision avoidance technology, autopilot features, and production
planning software, are not always immediately recognized as AI despite their sophisticated underlying
algorithms.

Important Points to Note:

1. Human-like Interaction: AI is frequently recognized when it mimics human interaction, as seen in digital
assistants.

2. Behind-the-Scenes AI: Many AI applications, though less noticeable, are integral to everyday technology
(e.g., GPS, autopilot) and operate invisibly.

3. Perception vs. Reality: Common tools may not seem like AI because they are so familiar, even though
they use complex algorithms to function.

Understanding what algorithm means

An algorithm is a set of steps designed to solve a problem, but it doesn't always complete every step in every
case. Algorithms are diverse in their applications, ranging from data storage and exploration to organizing
information. They are utilized across various fields including science, medicine, finance, industry, and
communication.

Important Points to Note:

1. Steps vs. Execution: An algorithm outlines a sequence of steps, but it may not always execute every
step in every instance to solve a problem.

2. Wide Application: Algorithms have a broad range of applications and can be used to address challenges
in numerous fields such as science, medicine, finance, and more.

3. Functions: Algorithms can involve operations like storing, exploring, and arranging data into structures,
highlighting their versatility in handling different types of problems.

4.

Starting from planning and branching

Planning in AI involves determining the sequence of actions required to achieve a specific goal. This process is
central to various applications, including industrial production, resource allocation, and robotics. The AI starts
by evaluating the current state and exploring all possible actions from that state to project various future states.

Important Points to Note:

1. Purpose of Planning: Planning helps establish a sequence of actions to reach a desired goal, making it a
fundamental AI problem.

2. Applications: This process is used in diverse areas like industrial production, resource management, and
robotic navigation.

3. Process: AI begins with the current state, then expands it by considering all possible actions to generate
potential future states, facilitating decision-making and strategy development.
Playing adversarial games

State-space search is crucial in AI for understanding both current functionality and future possibilities,
especially in adversarial games—where players' goals conflict with one another. A classic example of this is tic-
tac-toe, where AI uses state-space search to determine the best moves.

Important Points to Note:

1. State-Space Search: This technique helps AI analyze both its present situation and potential future
moves by exploring various states and actions.

2. Adversarial Games: In games like tic-tac-toe, where players have competing goals, state-space search
helps AI strategize to achieve its objective while countering opponents' moves.

3. Practical Example: Tic-tac-toe is a straightforward example of how state-space search is applied in AI to

make optimal decisions in competitive scenarios.

Using local search and heuristics

State-space search involves exploring numerous potential states and actions to find solutions, but due to the
vast number of possibilities, it is impractical to evaluate them all exhaustively. Local search and heuristics are
techniques used to manage this complexity by focusing on more promising paths rather than evaluating every
possible option.

Important Points to Note:

1. Complexity of State-Space Search: Evaluating all possible states in a search space can be impractical
due to the sheer number of possibilities.

2. Local Search: This technique improves efficiency by exploring a smaller, local area of the search space
rather than the entire space, often focusing on immediate neighbors of the current state.

3. Heuristics: Heuristic methods guide the search process by providing rules or estimates that help
prioritize which states or paths are more promising, reducing the need for exhaustive search.

4. Practical Application: Combining local search with heuristics allows AI systems to find good solutions
more efficiently without needing to explore every possible state.

Discovering the Learning Machine

Traditional AI algorithms handle complex, repetitive problems by using carefully designed solutions created by
experts. However, these algorithms may struggle when faced with changing problems or unexpected
characteristics, as they are not inherently adaptive.

Important Points to Note:

1. Algorithmic Intelligence: AI algorithms are designed to solve complex, well-defined problems through
smart solutions, relying on human architects to select and implement the appropriate methods.

2. Challenges with Change: Algorithms can encounter difficulties if problems evolve, exhibit mutations, or
present unusual features that differ from the scenarios they were initially designed to handle.

3. Need for Adaptability: Addressing changing or unforeseen problem aspects can be challenging for
traditional algorithms, highlighting the need for more adaptive approaches or learning systems in AI.
Leveraging expert systems

Expert systems were an early effort to move beyond rigid algorithms and develop more adaptable solutions for
real-world problems. They were designed to use a knowledge base and inference rules to simulate human
expertise, offering flexibility in problem-solving, especially when data storage and processing were expensive.

Important Points to Note:

1. Objective: Expert systems aimed to provide a more flexible and intelligent approach to problem-solving
by simulating human expertise rather than relying solely on hard-coded algorithms.

2. Knowledge Base and Inference Rules: These systems used a structured knowledge base and set of
inference rules to mimic expert decision-making processes.

3. Context of Use: They were particularly valuable at a time when storing and managing large amounts of
data was costly, making the efficient use of available information crucial.

4. Evolution: Expert systems marked a significant step toward creating more adaptable and intelligent AI
systems by incorporating human-like reasoning into their design.

Introducing machine learning

Machine learning emerged as a method for solving problems by allowing systems to learn directly from data
without needing to pre-process it into symbolic form. This approach includes statistical methods, nature-
inspired techniques, and systems that autonomously generate symbolic rules from raw data. Over time, these
diverse approaches collectively evolved into what we now refer to as machine learning.

Important Points to Note:

1. Learning from Data: Machine learning systems can learn directly from raw data, bypassing the need for
manual symbolic representation.

2. Diverse Approaches: Early machine learning solutions varied, including statistical methods, nature-
inspired algorithms, and methods for generating symbolic rules from data.

3. Evolution of Machine Learning: Different schools of thought and techniques contributed to the
development of machine learning as a unified field.

4. Historical Context: Machine learning predates expert systems and represents a broader, more flexible
approach to AI, leveraging data-driven learning rather than predefined rules.

Touching new heights

Machine learning is playing a crucial role in advancing AI by both replacing and enhancing existing algorithms. It
enables the handling of tasks that require a level of intelligence and adaptability that is challenging to formalize
into a strict sequence of steps.

Important Points to Note:

1. Role of Machine Learning: Machine learning contributes to modern AI by addressing tasks that are
difficult to define with exact algorithms, offering flexibility and adaptability.

2. Replacing and Supplementing: It both replaces traditional algorithms where they fall short and
supplements them by providing new capabilities.

3. Handling Complex Tasks: Machine learning is particularly valuable for tasks that require human-like
intelligence and cannot be easily broken down into a precise series of steps.

4. New Capabilities: This approach allows AI to tackle problems and perform activities that involve
complex patterns, nuances, or variability that are hard to capture with conventional meth.
Week 1: Introduction to the Study of Culture, Society and Politics BAED-UCSP2111
Sociology

 Scientific study of human society, it's origin, structure, function, and direction
 The word Sociology was taken from two foreign words:
 Socius a Latin term which means companion or associate
 Logos a Greek term for study

Foundation of Sociology

Sociology emerged about the middle of 19th century, when social observers began to use scientific methods to
explain social phenomena.

Characteristics of Sociology

 Sociology is a social science not a physical science. It concentrates on man, his social behavior, social
activities and social life
 Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline. As a categorical discipline, it is a body of knowledge
about human society, and not a system of ideas and values.
 It is a pure science. It aims to provide knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that
knowledge
 Sociology is the generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing science.
Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human interaction and association about the
nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies
 Sociology is a general science not a special science. It is concerned with human interaction and human
life in general. It only studies human activities in a general way.
 Sociology is both rational and an empirical science.
There are two broad ways of approach to scientific knowledge:
 Empiricism is the approach that emphasizes experience and the facts that result from
observation and experimentation.
 Rationalism is a stressed reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

Focus of Sociology

 Is a quantitative social science.

 Most theories are based on polls, statistical analysis, sampling, and large collections of life histories.
Sociologists strive to be as impartial and scientific as possible as they gather data.
 The data analyzed by sociologists is often used by government officials and market researchers alike.

AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)

 Born after the French revolution of 1789

 He proposed the philosophical position of Positivism
 He theorized that the methods of physical science are regarded as the accurate means of obtaining
knowledge and therefore, social science should adhere to the same.
 He developed the idea and coined the term "Sociology"
 He was the founder of Sociology
 Pioneers in the Study of Sociology

The early scholars who contributed significantly for the development of sociology

HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)

 She translate the book of Comte's work by English

 She spoke out in favour of the rights of women. The emancipation of the slaves and religious tolerance
 She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions, but
should act upon their convictions that will benefit society

KARL MARX (1818-1883)

 He is considered as one of the thinkers of the modern times

 He was a native German and later exiled in England
 He said that a sociologist's task is to explain conflict, that conflict is shaped by the means of production
 He also said that industrial revolution resulted in two classes: owners and laborers

HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)

 Spencer grew up in England.

 He proposed that there is parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner as the animal
species do
 He said that man as a member of society is in a never ending competition and should win

EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)

 He was the only one who studied thoroughly the discipline in the school of higher learning.
 He provided insights into the social forces that contributed to the rise of the global village
 He proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two social forces: social
integration and moral regulation
 He concluded that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon

MAX WEBER (1864-1920)

 He focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and action and how it brought about a
process called rationalization
 Rationalization refers to the way daily life is organized so as to accommodate large groups of people.

The Sociological Perspective

 Sociological Perspective enables you to gain a new vision of social life.

 It provides a different way of looking at life, and provides an understanding of why people are the way
they are.

SEEING THE BROADER SOCIAL CONTEXT

a. The social location of people-their culture, social class, gender, religion, age and education

b. The relationship of one group to another.

c. The external influences (people's experiences) that are internalized and have become part of ones thinking
and motivations.

Modern school of thoughts: paradigms

These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and
vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior.

None of them on their own can give an entire explanation of a whole social phenomena. Each one gives its
specific answers.

These are:

 Structural Functionalism
 Conflict theory
 Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic Interactionism

 Focus: Use of symbols; face-to-face interactions

 Most influential
 Founding father: Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher

Tenets:

1. People attach meanings to symbols, then they act according to the subjective interpretation of these symbols

2. Individual, social groups meaning to experience life: we negotiate meaning

3. Meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through time

Structural Functionalism (1)

 Focus: Relationship between the parts of society; how aspects of society are functional or adaptive
 The 2 words can give an idea of this approach: structure and function
 Founding fathers: Comte, Spencer and Durkheim

Tenets:

Society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated parts of the structures

Each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole

Structural Functionalism (2)

 Struct Structures are explained as social institutions like the family, the educational system, politics,
religion, mass media systems, and the economy
 Structures meet the needs of society by performing different functions:
o What would be the functions of above mentioned social institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs.
latent** functions, Robert Merton, b. 1910)
o Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence of some aspect of the social system
o Harmony & stability

*Manifest: the obvious intended functions of a social institution (or social system)

** Latent: the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure

Conflict theory
  Theory focuses on dominance, competition and social change
 Competition for scarce resources; how the elite control the poor and the weak
 Founding father: Marx

Tenets:

1. A materialistic view of society focused on labor practices and economic reality, we play by the rules (roles and
functions) of these social systems

2. Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda, causing them to compete against one another

3. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.

Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills (1916-1962).

He introduced 'sociological imagination'

The Sociological Imagination

The Sociological Imagination is stimulated by a willingness to view the social world

from the perspective of others.

It involves moving away from thinking in terms of the individual and their problems,
focusing rather on the social circumstances that produce social problems.

Private Issues & Public Issues

We tend to experience whatever happens in our own lives as unique and private, and also to interpret what
happens to other people as unique and private to them.

These are seen as 'private troubles'.

The discipline of Sociology encourages you to look for the social processes and structures that give a
generalised pattern to those private troubles and thus turn them into 'public issues'.

 Example - Unemployment

Private Trouble Public Issue

-When 1 person is unemployed, -When 3 million people are unemployed,

that is a 'Private Trouble'. that is a 'Public Issue'.

-When 1 couple never has a baby, -When increasing numbers of couples never have a baby,

that is a 'private trouble'. that is a 'public issue' referred to as the 'declining fertility rate'.

The Thinking of The Sociological Imagination

Seldom are aware of the intricate connection between the patterns of their own lives and the course of world
history. Ordinary men do not usually know what this connection means for the kind of men they are becoming
and for the kinds of history making in which they might take part.

The Thinking of The Sociological Imagination

What they need is a quality of mind that will help them see what is going on in the world and what may be
happening within themselves.

It is this quality that may be called the 'Sociological Imagination

Anthropology

Anthropology is the broad study of humankind in all times and all places.

It involves the careful and systematic study of humankind using: facts, hypothesis, and theories.

It is concerned with other culture's languages, values, and achievements in the arts and literature.

Anthropology is committed to experiencing other cultures

Focus of Anthropology

 is interested in the overall culture of a group of people such as social institutions, art, history,
mythology, and common mores, among other traits.
 Anthropologies now study societies all over the world, but look for overarching themes that are
reinforced through case studies.
 It also includes archeology, and due to a great amount of substantive speculation is thought to be a
softer science than sociology.

Anthropology

Anthropologists are interested in all human beings - whether living or dead.

No place or time is too remote to escape the notice of anthropologists.

No dimension of humankind from skin color to dress customs falls outside the anthropologist's interest.

In summary:

 Anthropology and sociology are both fields of social science that study the behavior of humans within
their societies
 Traditionally, anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of other people, while sociology was used to
understand own society
 Today, anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human culture while sociology spends more time
analyzing data from a specific study
 Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as its conclusions are based on case
studies than hard data.

Other sociologists:
Albion Small

 founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago

 he established the American Journal of Sociology

WEB Du Bois

 a black American who conducted research on race relations in the U.S.

Wright Mills

 urged sociologists to get back to social reform

Robert K. Merton

 he stressed that sociologists need to develop middle-range theories as explanations of human behavior
that go beyond the particular observation or research but avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt
to account for everything

The Development of Sociology in the Philippines

Serfin M. Macarang - the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology and published a book entitled
"An Introduction to Sociology" in 1938.

Fr. Valentin Marin -he introduced Sociology in the Philippines with the opening of criminology program at
University of Santo Tomas in 1950

Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivers - among the first teachers of sociology in the Philippines

 In 1952, Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine Sociological Society which main trust is
to collect, interpret and proposed possible solutions to different Philippine sociological phenomena.
 In 1957, the Community Development Research Council was created to conduct and support social
science researchers.
 In 1960, Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippines Culture at the Ateneo de Manila
University
 In 1972, Xavier University was given credit as the first school, which opens a program in PhD in
sociology.
 It was the University of the Philippines that offered a bachelor degree in sociology.

Three Major Perspectives in Sociology

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different perspectives. Sociologists today
employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist
perspective, and the conflict perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for
explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society,
social forces, and human behavior.
Week 2: Defining Culture and Society BAED-UCSP2111
What is Culture?

 Everything made, learned, or shared by the members of a society, including values, beliefs, behaviors
and material objects.

Material World
• Material Culture
 Visible parts of culture, such as food, clothing, cars, weapons, buildings, that
members of society make, use, and share
 Raw Materials → Technology → Stuff
• Non-Material Culture
 Abstract/intangible aspects of culture that influence people's behavior such as
language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns, political systems.

5 Components of Culture
• People of a culture share a broad set of material and nonmaterial elements

5 components of Culture

1. Technology
o Manmade products (material culture) that make life easier
o Rules of acceptable behavior when using material culture
o Ex: Medicines, Computer

2. Symbols
o Cultural representations of reality
o Give meanings to things and events
o Examples: gestures, images, sounds, physical objects, events, etc

3. Language
o Most powerful of all human symbols
o Expresses the meaning of symbols
o Allows members of society to communicate with one another
o Conveys the beliefs and values of culture

4. Values
o Ideas
o Determines character of people
o Standards by which people assess desirability, goodness and beauty

5. Norms
o Rules that guide human behavior
o Give concrete terms on how we should behave - what we should do or what we should not do.
 Kinds of Norms

 Mores - distinguish between right and wrong (child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc.)
 Folkways - distinguish between right and rude (jaywalking, counterflowing etc.)
 Laws -established punishments for violating norms to protect the social well being

-written rules of conduct enacted and enforced by the government

(Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing are all examples of laws. If violated, the person violating the
law could get reprimanded, pay a fine, or go to jail.)

 Taboo - is an activity that is forbidden or sacred based on religious beliefs or morals. Breaking a taboo is
extremely objectionable in society as a whole. Around the world, an act may be taboo in one culture
and not in another. (abortion, addiction, cannibalism, offensive language, slavery, etc.)

What's the Difference?

• Society - the people who interact to share a common

culture

• Culture - consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects and other

characteristics common to a particular group or society
Basic Features of Culture

• Culture is learned. We learn culture from families, peers,

institutions, and media.

• No one is born equipped with a particular language, or

knowledge of religious beliefs

Features of Culture

 Culture is shared. We share culture with other members of our group.

 Culture is based on symbols. These symbols only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their
use.
 Culture is integrated. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a
culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
 Culture is dynamic. Cultures interact and change
 These changes may be in the form of discoveries, inventions, or cultural borrowings.

Cultural diversity

• the presence of multiple cultures and cultural differences within a society

Subcultures

• Smaller cultural groups that exist within but differ in some way

• Examples of some subcultures include "heavy metal" music devotees, body-piercing and tattoo enthusiasts,
motorcycle gang members, and Nazi skinheads

Countercultures

• In opposition to the norms and values of the dominant culture.

• Members of countercultures-such as hippies and protest groups-are generally teenagers and young adults,
because youth is often a time of identity crisis and experimentation.

Assimilation and multiculturalism

• Assimilation is when dominant culture absorbs subcultural or countercultural groups.

• Multiculturalism respects cultural variations rather than requiring that

the dominant culture assimilate the various cultures

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

• Ethnocentrism involves judging other cultures against the standards of one's own culture

• Cultural Relativism is the perspective that a culture should be sociologically evaluated according to its own
standards, and not those of any other culture.

Toward a Global Culture

• Cultural diffusion

- the spreading of standards across cultures through travel, trade, conquests, etc.

Social Groups and Organization

GROUP

 A group consists of two or more people who are distinct in the following ways:
o Interact over time.
o Have a sense of identity or belonging.
o Have norms that non-members don't have.

AGGREGATE

• a collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but who have no other
connection to one another.

CATEGORY

 Collection of people who share a particular characteristic.

 They do not necessarily interact with one another and have nothing else in common.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A GROUP -Group members interact on a fairly regular basis through communication.

SOCIAL GROUP - families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and
local religious congregations.

NATURE OF SOCIAL GROUP

• The group provides specific form as to the nature of interaction in the society.
• Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific status and adopts a
particular role.
• Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon.
• The members of the group feel a sense of identity.
 Types of Social Group

1. Social Group according to Ties (This is considered a primary group)

• It is the most fundamental unit of human society

• A long-lasting group characterized by strong ties of love and affection
• Do's and don'ts of behavior are learned in this group

Examples: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship groups

2. Social Group according to Ties (A Secondary Group)

• Group with which the individual comes in contact later in life

• Characterized by impersonal business-like, contractual, formal and casual relationship.
• Usually large in size, not very enduring and limited relationships.
• People needed other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs.

Examples: Industrial Workers, business associates. Faculty staff, Company employees

3. Social Group to Form of Organization (Informal Group)

• Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons

• It is unplanned
• Has no explicit rules for membership and does not have specific objectives to be attained
• members are bound by emotion and sentiments

4. Social Group according to Form of Organization (Formal Group)

• Social organization
• Deliberately formed and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined.
• Their goals are clearly stated and the division of labor is based on member's ability or merit

5. Social Group according to Self identification (In-Group)

• It is a social unit in which individuals feel at home and with which they identify themselves

6. Social Group according to Self identification (Out-Group)

• It is a social unit to which individuals do not belong due to differences in social categories and with
which they do not identify.

7. Social Group according to Purpose (Special Interest Group)

• A group which is organized to meet the special interest of the members

8. Social Group according to Purpose (Task Force)

• A group is assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done by one person.

9. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship (Gemeinschaft)

• A social system in which most relationships are personal and traditional

• It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism
• Culture is homogeneous and traditional-bound

10. Social Group according to Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship (Gesselschaft)

• A social system in which most relationships are impersonal, formal, sontractuaal or bargain-like
• Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary and rationalized
• Culture is heterogeneous and mored advanced
Social Organization

Social organization - The type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goods Characterized
by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division of labor and limited membership or admission

- Organization is an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts.

-It is used to refer the interdependence and inter-related of parts in groups

Examples of social organization: Family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a community

Types of Social Organization

1. Political Organization: State (Government)

2. Economic Organization: Factory

3. Religious Organization: Church

4. Financial organization: Bank

5. Educational organization: School and Colleges

Goal of Social organization

That members of an organization are inter-related to each other for the pursuit of a common goal

Preparedness to accept one's role and status:

• Organization is an arrangement of persons and parts

• By arrangement, it is meant that every member of the organization has an assigned role, a positon and a
status

Norms and Mores of Social Organization:

Every organization has its norms and mores which control its members, as a result, an organization can function
smoothly if its members follow the organization norms.

Sanctions:

If a member does not follow the norms he is compelled to follow them through sanctions (conditions) which
may range from warning to physical punishment. For example; a member may be expelled, or dismissed.

To end our discussion on Social Groups and Organization, remember that a group is a major source of solidarity
and cohesion in society.
Week 3: Human Biocultural and Social Evolution BAED-UCSP2111

Society
• Society is a group of people living together in a particular place or at a particular time and having
many things in common
• Sociologists say society is a group of people with common territory, interaction and culture.

What does society look like?

• Society looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)
• Then, if society is an object, we can examine it closely and analyze it like any other subject (We
break it into pieces and explore each piece carefully)
• What a biologist does to a living organism, or a geologist does to a rock, so as a sociologist does to a
society.
• Society becomes something scientifically weighted, measured and dissected.

Four Diverse Perspectives for Social Change and Societal Evolution

 Karl Marx
He believed that the history of all existing society is the history of class struggle
(or class conflict) or the conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a
society's wealth and power.
 Max Weber
The Rationalization of Society is the historical change from tradition - sentiments and
beliefs passed from one generation to another to rationality - deliberate, matter-of-
fact calculation of the cost effective means to accomplish a task as a dominant mode
of human thought.
 Emile Durkheim
He describes society as more than individuals. Society has a life of its own beyond our
personal experiences.
 Gerhard Lenski
He said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as a society acquires
new technology.

Sociocultural Evolution
• It is the change that occurs as a society acquires new technology
• Technology shapes other cultural patterns and that simple technology can only
support small numbers of people who live simple lives
• The greater amount of technology a society has within its grasp, the faster
cultural change will take place
• High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of people who are
engaged in a diverse division of labor.
Types of Society
 Hunting and Gathering Stage
o During this stage, man used simple tools to hunt animals and vegetation
o Family was the primary institution
o Small number of families in this society
o Members are nomadic
o Had high level of interdependence
o Men hunted animals, women gathered

 Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

• Horticultural societies use hand tools to raise crops. People started to stay in
one place and grow their own food.
• Pastoral societies started the domestication and breeding of animals for food.
 Agricultural Societies
• The invention of the plow led to the establishment of agricultural societies.
• Members of these societies tend crops with an animal harnessed to a plow.
• The use of animals to pull a plow eventually led to the creation of cities and
formed the basic structure of modern societies.
 Industrial Societies
• Use advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run
large machinery
 Post-Industrial Societies
• This type of society that has developed over the past few decades, features
an economy based on services and technology, not production
Zcharina C. Delos Reyes
720 San Jeremias Street
Karuhatan, Valenzuela City 1441

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student for the upcoming term.

As a full-time mother of three children—two of whom are already students and one who is a two-
year-old still breastfeeding—continuing my studies online remains the most practical and effective
option for managing my family responsibilities alongside my coursework.

I would greatly appreciate your confirmation that my status as a full online student will be
maintained. If there are any additional steps, I need to take to ensure this, please let me know.

Thank you very much for your understanding and support.

Sincerely,
Zcharina C. Delos Reyes

Anita C. Delos Reyes

Parent/Guardian