electronics

Review
Integrated Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and Microgrids:
Modeling and Optimization of DERs
Kumail Twaisan * and Necaattin Barışçı

Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Gazi University, Ankara 06500, Turkey
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +964-770-175-84-09

Abstract: In the near future, the notion of integrating distributed energy resources (DERs) to build
a microgrid will be extremely important. The DERs comprise several technologies, such as diesel
engines, micro turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic, small wind turbines, etc. The coordinated operation
and control of DER together with controllable loads and storage devices, such as flywheels, energy
capacitors and batteries, are central to the concept of microgrid. Microgrids can operate intercon-
nected to the main distribution grid, or in an islanded mode. This paper reviews the studies on
microgrid technologies. The modeling and optimization methodologies of DERs are also presented
and discussed in this paper along with system control approaches for DERs and microgrids. The
review findings indicate that the use of multimodal indicators that take into consideration the fi-
nancial, technological, ecological, and social elements of microgrids increased the community’s and
stakeholders’ reaction capability. The microgrid structure under consideration comprises several
types of combined heat power devices, boilers, and various types of DERs, including FC units,
distributed generators, and MTs. Moreover, compared to grid-connected mode, the microgrid’s total
operation cost is significantly higher in isolated mode.

Keywords: distributed energy resources; DER; microgrid; renewable energy; photovoltaic

Citation: Twaisan, K.; Barışçı, N.
Integrated Distributed Energy
Resources (DER) and Microgrids:
Modeling and Optimization of DERs. 1. Introduction
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816. https:// The whole-life cost-optimal combination of the sizes of the prospective DERs and mi-
doi.org/10.3390/electronics11182816 croelectronics is determined via planning optimization. For supply and demand balancing,
Academic Editor: Arturo de la Microgrids (microgrids) can trade energy and ancillary commodities to the electric grid. In
Escalera Hueso isolated mode, the microgrid is disconnected from the main grid, and the customers get
their electricity from the microgrid’s DERs. When DERs are integrated into a distribution
Received: 22 July 2022
network, new options for technical, legal, and economic methods to ensure a safe and
Accepted: 29 August 2022
efficient operation arise. DERs increase distribution network flexibility and enable the
Published: 6 September 2022
distribution system to provide supplementary services to the transmission system. It is
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral important to integrate distributed generating plants with enhanced functionality, as well as
with regard to jurisdictional claims in deploy measuring and analysis devices on the feeder and demand, in order for isolated
published maps and institutional affil- microgrids to operate an active distribution system.
iations. The role of distributed generators in power system generation is growing, and micro-
grids are becoming more prevalent. Low-voltage distribution networks incorporating DER,
i.e., configurable loads and storage devices, are found in microgrids. There are numerous
levels of decentralization that may be used in microgrid control systems, ranging from a
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
totally decentralized approach to hierarchical control.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Mohamed and Koivo optimized the functioning of a self-contained microgrid over
This article is an open access article
a 24 h period [1]. They conducted an evolution of a model from one cycle to a multi-
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
period optimization model for an interconnected microgrid. The model includes hard
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
inter-temporal limitations, such as distributed generator ramp rate limits, electrochemical
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ storage charge and discharge rates, and maximum charge/discharge capabilities. The
4.0/). proposed model is solved using a genetic algorithm and assessed on a microgrid under

Electronics 2022, 11, 2816. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11182816 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 2 of 24

various conditions, with the results examined [2]. The frequency management of the
power grid has been identified as a major issue, and designing an analytical model for a
complicated large-scale power grid is difficult. For enhanced functioning of load frequency
control systems, Xu proposed a unique flexible neural networking system that restricted
the control using a hybrid energy storage system. A suggested network is examined that
does not only transform system state to performance assessment, but also detects the link
among control output and long-term control performance, as has been done previously.
The inverter interfaces used in storage technologies, fuel cells and micro-turbines are
used in micro-source controller approaches. The rating of semiconductor devices about
2 p.u. limits inverter fault currents. Traditional over-current protection strategies may not
be effective in islanded inverter-based microgrids since fault currents are not high enough.
Digital relays coupled to breakers are indicated as a solution for power electronics-based
microgrid protection coordination [3].
Traditional power systems have a variety of issues, including high emissions, high
generating costs, and voltage variations. The microgrid is a system that combines DERs,
loads, and storage units to provide power to tiny settlements. The microgrid is not linked
to the power grid and operates independently in islanded mode; in grid-connected mode, it
aids other producing units in meeting network demand. The retreat building of the territory
of renewable energy institute requires additional energy to fulfill total load demand during
grid outages. The feasibility of adding a second battery bank and a diesel generator has
been investigated. After weighing both possibilities, a small distributed generator with
a capacity of 5 kVA (depending on market availability) is incorporated with the current
system and deemed an improvement at Territory of Renewable Energy Institutes’ Retreat
Facility. The use of distributed generators might further improve the system’s performance
by utilizing more local photovoltaic energy [4]. “Electricity distribution systems include
demands and DERs that may be operated in a regulated, coordinated fashion either while
linked to the main power network or when islanded,” according to the CIGRE’s C6.22
Working Group” [5].
The benefits of microgrid sustainability are well understood, but still there are no
well-established approaches for assuring and monitoring it (limitations of microgrids
are discussed in Section 5). Comprehensive knowledge necessitates a holistic strategy
capable of dealing with system-wide characteristics such as uncertainty, evolution, and
accumulation. Through solar energy microgrid applications, the Ayllu Solar project intends
to promote the sustainable growth of the Chilean regions of Arica and Parinacota (both
grid-connected and off-grid). The principles provided in this study compress and enhance
the knowledge gained from these initiatives, with the goal of serving as a technique for
replicating the Huatacondo microgrid’s success in other communities. The “Integrated
Energy UNiLAB:DEM” has planned and produced this Special Issue in the hopes of
delivering the most up-to-date research in the distributed energy and microgrids field [6].
Given different forms of renewable integration and other obstacles to the legacy system,
distributed energy and microgrids have arisen as a viable approach of increasing the quality
of energy services. The requirement for flexible demand and energy storage is growing,
and the financial case for their adoption is becoming more compelling [6].
Microgrids have an advantage in distant region electrification, since they are less
expensive than expensive grid integration, which is often impossible owing to ecological or
natural build-up. The goal of this paper is to give an overview of numerous state-of-the-art
characteristics that contribute to the development and efficient performance of a futuristic
power system based on clean energy sources [7].
Photovoltaic systems, and in many locations, photovoltaic combined with storage,
have reached grid parity due to the tremendous decline in the cost of solar photovoltaic
and storage. Some utilities have gone even farther to address the issues of integration by
encouraging self-generation and eliminating net-metering. Fundamental differences exist
between power system and inverter manufacturers designers and operators, hindering the
move to renewables even further [8]. Distributed generation is quickly gaining popularity
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 3 of 24

since it provides electricity with less environmental implications, is simple to install, and
is extremely efficient and reliable. Distributed generators such as photovoltaic systems,
tidal, small hydro turbines, wind power, combined heat and power microturbines, fuel
cells, geothermal, biogas, and battery storage facilities, among others, have the potential to
support conventional power systems while posing numerous interconnection challenges.
The requirements for the microgrid integration of DERs and loads in order to improve
power are generating reliability, marketability, and the capacity of scattered microsources.
The “IEEE P1547-2003” standard is a benchmark model for linking DERs with traditional
power systems [3].
The contemporary notion of microgrid began with the deployment of smart genera-
tors based on renewable energy resources and microsources such as solar systems, wind
turbines, fuel cells, and batteries with storage facilities [3]. It may work in either islanded
or grid-connected mode. When a power quality incident happens, the microgrid can dis-
connect from the main grid. Because microsources may be controlled autonomously, the
microgrid should be peer-to-peer and plug-and-play. The power storage equipment ought
to be able to respond quickly to changes in frequency and voltage, as well as exchange huge
volumes of actual or reactive power. When it comes to auxiliary voltage and frequency
regulation, most microsources have a delayed reaction. The microgrid must be ready
for planned islanding, which is a key feature of the microgrid idea that ensures supply
continuity during outages. The inverter interfaces used in fuel cells, small wind turbines,
and storage systems are used in micro-source controller approaches [3].
When the system islands, the controls include the capacity to manage power flow
on feeders and guarantee that each microsource quickly provides its portion of the load.
Integrating diverse types of energy sources would also have an influence on the quality
of the power supply and produce a slew of control issues. Interconnecting adequately
built parallel inverters for seamless transition from grid connected to islanded mode can
solve the variation in DER generation and the uncertainty in the usage of renewable energy
resources. According to [3], “The solid state power electronic interfaced” relays’ quick
reaction time can provide effective protection coordination across all relevant protective
devices in a microgrid system. A microgrid can be grid linked or islanded, with a rapid
semiconductor switch recognized as a static switch connecting it to the main power supply.
The rating of semiconductors around 2 p.u. rated current restrictions inverter fault currents.
Traditional over-current protection strategies may not be effective in islanded inverter
based microgrids since fault currents are not high enough. The safeguarding concept is
that both islanded and grid-connected operations should use the same protective measures.
A microgrid’s stability refers to its capacity to return to regular or steady operation after
being disrupted in some way. In contrast, instability refers to a state in which there is a
breakdown of synchronism or regular operation. Stability issues must be considered in the
steady state, dynamic, and transient conditions for optimal microgrid functionality [3].
The main contributions of this paper could be listed as follows:
1. Indicating and discussing the potential befits and problems of integrating DERs into
distribution networks (particularly in isolated microgrids).
2. Laying out some ideas for integrating DER units into the main grid, as well as the next
measures that governments should take to integrate them into microgrid operations.
3. Discussing the modeling and optimization methodologies of DERs in detail.
4. Reviewing and investigating the effectiveness of the proposed combined cooling,
heating, and power system, which intended to reduce the overall yearly cost of the
system while simultaneously lowering the energy cost.
5. Critically reviewing and discussing the studies on microgrid technologies.
6. Evaluating the feasibility of using an actor-critical neural network with a distributed
reinforcement learning control method to adjust for power grid frequency regulation.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives an overview of the DER
modeling which includes defining photovoltaics, energy storage systems, combined cooling
and heating, wind turbines, and fuel cells. Section 3 discusses briefly the DER optimization.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 4 of 24

Section 4 reviews the literature on the microgrids and also the modeling and optimization
of DERs. Section 5 addresses and discusses the limitations of microgrids proposed in
studies, and also discusses a numerical study of a community microgrid project with a
low-risk, high-return investment that may be owned by the whole community. Section 6
concludes the paper and highlights ongoing research areas.

2. DER Modeling
A. Photovoltaic system
Photovoltaic solar systems turn sunlight into electrical power. Solar photovoltaic has
two main advantages. Photovoltaic may be used in extremely tiny quantities. This property
allows for a broad variety of deployment options. In 2017, total solar photovoltaic capacity
reached approx. 398 GW and produced about 460 TWh, accounting for around 2.0 percent
of global electricity output. “Utility-scale projects account for little over 60% of the total
photovoltaic capacity deployed, with the remainder being used in dispersed applications
(residential, commercial and off-grid)”. “Solar photovoltaic is predicted to lead renewable
power capacity development over the next five years, growing by about 580 GW under the
Renewables 2018 main scenario” [9].
B. Energy storage systems (ESS)
Energy storage technologies are becoming increasingly important in the planning and
implementation of power systems. Power schedulers and policymakers cannot ignore the
innovation that storage technologies will offer to future power systems as they continue
to evolve [10]. Batteries, flywheels, and ultra-capacitors are examples of energy storage
technologies. They are mostly used in islanded mode in microgrids to offer uninterrupted
power supply in the meantime of outages.
C. Combined cooling and heating
District combined cooling and heating refers to a system that uses pipelines and net-
works to supply cooling and heating services to clients near to their homes. District heating
and cooling is a type of “central heating and cooling” (CHC) that has been around since
the 1930s, with nations such as the United States, Russia, and Germany at the forefront [11].
The purpose of district heating networking systems is to utilize heat sources that could
otherwise be squandered to meet customer load via “heat distribution pipes” in the com-
munity or at least the neighborhood. While District Cooling is the connecting of numerous
cooling sources to consumers via hot or cold water networking systems in order to offer
room space cooling. As a result, the combination of district heating, district cooling, and
combined power and heat creates a trigeneration system in which high-efficiency cooling,
heating, and electrical power are produced with minimal flue gas and carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) emissions. District heating and cooling has a number of features that make it more
appealing to today’s established environment [12].
D. Wind turbines
Wind energy is becoming more popular as a source of power. It turns the wind
movement through the earth’s surface into electrical power and is one of the most often
utilized renewable energy sources for microgrids, see Figure 1. “Worldwide wind power
capacity remained above 50 GW in 2017,” according to the report [12].
E. Fuel cells
Fuel cells transform a fuel’s chemical energy into electricity with a very high efficiency.
Moreover, it has the capacity to emit tiny amounts of carbon while maintaining a low tem-
perature. “Their electrical and total efficiency varies depending on the kind of system and
system design, ranging from 30.0 percent to 60.0 percent without recovery heat equipment
to 80.0–85.0 percent with standard recovery equipment.” [11].
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 5 of 24

Figure 1. DER Modeling.

3. DER Optimization
The majority of energy management academics are unfamiliar with optimization
techniques. Engineering design is made up of multiple objective functions with a high
number of decision variables, with the potential solutions being the collection of all r
designs categorized by all possible choice variable values. An optimization strategy may
be defined as attempting to find the best answer out of all the possibilities [13]. The two
types of optimization methodologies are mathematical and heuristics approaches. Figure 2
illustrates this. Heuristic procedures are often simple strategies that produce adequate
results quickly but are not always ideal. The simplex approach, the steepest descent, and
quasi-Newton methods are examples of optimization methods that utilize mathematical
approaches and concepts, which are commonly referred to as deterministic approaches [14].
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 6 of 24

Figure 2. Categories of optimization methods.

4. Literature Review
The modeling and optimization of “Distributed Energy Resources” (DES), which
includes “District Heating and Cooling networks”, has attracted a lot of interest. Several
academics have optimized the design and operation of DER systems for both single- and
multi-objective issues in order to minimize yearly costs and carbon emissions into the
environment. In modeling, a single objective function is taken into account. In a multi-
objective paradigm, more than one objective function is defined. Mixed Integer Linear
Programming is a technique for solving complicated mathematical programming problems.
“Using different DER technologies including as thermal and electrical generation units,
storage systems, and district heating and cooling networks, a hundred buildings at the
district network level were analyzed and upgraded for energy savings” in [15]. The model’s
output may effectively minimize the influence of greenhouse gas emissions in district
network buildings, and [16] has a good description of techniques and current research on
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 7 of 24

DER optimization at the city level, while [17] has a concise overview of approaches and
research literature on DER optimization at the rural level.
Various researchers have experimented with single- and multi-objective functions
using various technology inputs and have come up with a variety of solutions. By creating
the mathematical modeling using a Mixed Integer Linear Programming approach, refer-
ence [18] offered a multi-objective optimization by reducing the cost and carbon emission.
The case study included 1 commercial building and 11 residential buildings with a
variety of technical inputs such as gas boilers, combined heat and power, water heat storage,
photovoltaics, solar thermal collectors, and coupled with a district heating system. “The
model has 83,945 variables, 6218 integers, and 108,178 different forms of linear constraints in
its many formulations. In comparison to the benchmark, the results suggest that the model
might effectively lower emissions by 23%”. The authors of [19] used deterministic “Mixed
Integer Linear Programming” to create a mathematical model that included the economic
and environmental advantages. Under diverse design and operational restrictions, the
model was constructed as a multi-objective logistic issue to improve the DER system by
reducing total yearly cost and carbon dioxide emissions. The case study consisted of four
buildings: “two housing and 2 office buildings connected by a district power, heating,
and cooling network. PGUs, boilers, heat recovery systems, heat exchangers, heat and
cold storages, and absorption and compression chillers are among the different technology
DER inputs” [19]. They picked a Reference Energy System to utilize as a baseline for their
own system. The model was able to select the suitable system operating strategy, and
it was also determined that the model outperforms the “Reference Energy System” by
saving 16 percent of the total cost and 45 percent of CO2 emissions. In [20], Jayasekara et al.
proposed optimizing a combined cooling, heating, and power system to reduce the overall
yearly cost of the system while simultaneously lowering the energy cost.
The contributions of [21] are based on DER assessment planning that was multi-
objective and multi-criteria. The data were collected from a fancy hotel in Sri Lanka and
a fancy hotel in Australia over the course of a year. According to the findings of another
research, the proposed strategy was able to lower overall yearly costs by 13.0% and 7.0%
in Sri Lanka and Australia, respectively [22]. The primary goal was to reduce operational
costs by delivering energy at a low cost. The literature on capacity planning for sustainable
power systems may be divided into two categories: accurate mathematical optimization
methods and artificial intelligence (AI) methodologies. Although defining the economical
microgrid energy scheduling issue in such a way that accurate mathematical solution
algorithms can solve it lessens the computing effort, it significantly raises the probability of
sub-optimality [23]. Number of parameters should not be the major consideration while
optimizing the best microgrid asset allocation because it is an off-line, one-time activity.
In this light, new research suggests that AI-based meta-heuristic optimization algorithms
can be used instead of traditional optimization approaches. Meta-heuristics can solve the
NP-hard issue in polynomial time while addressing model-inherent nonlinearities and
non-convexities effectively. The article swarm optimization and the genetic algorithm
are two of the most extensively utilized algorithms in the literature. In the literature
and industry, there are several microgrid design optimization and long-term investment
management software programs. The techniques to problem solving utilized in these tools
may be divided into two categories. The 1st class solves the optimal design issue using a
straightforward full-factorial technique.
A more algorithmically sophisticated linearized technique to equipment capacity man-
agement, such as mixed-integer linear programming, is used by the second class [23–28].
“The crisis of an microgrid has been studied from a variety of perspectives, including
problem modeling, single- and multi-objective functions, the effects of combined heat
power systems, considered uncertainties and modeling techniques, robustness to opera-
tional scheduling, optimization approaches used to solve the model, demand response
(DR) programs, and so on” [29]. A stochastic cost-emissions based paradigm for optimum
joint power and buffer planning of a sustainable microgrid was given in [29], with the goal
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 8 of 24

of enhancing microgrid social welfare while reducing emissions of the environment. “In
the presence of electric vehicles, a day-ahead framework has been established to handle
distribution feeder reconfiguration as well as optimal generation scheduling in the micro-
grid while addressing uncertainties” [29]. By recovering heat lost during the generation of
electrical energy, combined heat power units help to improve the efficiency of the operating
system. combined heat and power economic dispatch is a tough non-convex optimization
problem [30] proposes a stochastic-robust optimization model for combined cooling, heat-
ing, and power-based microgrid, which takes into account multi-energy operation and
power exchange with power market. DERs are frequently managed to run at a constant or
even unity power factor in most prior microgrid scheduling systems.
An optimization framework for the power and heat economic dispatch of microgrids
has been created, taking into account the benefits of the heat buffer tank and the energy
storage system [31]. “To manage active-reactive power dispatch, both operation modes for a
grid-connected microgrid have been established” [31]. In both grid-connected and isolated
modes, the bulk of the research in the literature has not addressed a unified and combined
active-reactive and heat powers scheduling framework in the microgrids. Reference [32]
presents a complete model for DER and combined-heat-power-based microgrids to identify
the best economic dispatch of active and reactive electricity as well as frictional heating.
Load shedding is used in the microgrid optimum operating in the isolated mode, and it is
based on the value of lost load principle [32].
Small-scale generation’s integration into the distribution network alters the tradi-
tional operating model, resulting in economic and technological benefits. In terms of
economics, connecting these techniques to the distribution system minimizes network
congestion-related distribution costs, as well as power losses and financial factors [33,34].
The development in distributed generators, storage systems, and demand as an active
agent with market involvement has resulted in multidirectional flows in active distribution
networks. Demand side management refers to the planning, execution, and oversight of
operations intended to cause changes in consumption patterns in order to improve energy
efficiency and operate the electrical power systems [35–37]. According to [38], “demand
response is the pooling of affects throughout the whole distribution network, allowing the
system to be more flexible at a lower cost. Incorporating active demand into the system’s
functioning can help to reduce the fluctuation and uncertainty associated with renewable
energy sources” [38]. If we are planning to create an adaptive and dependable functioning
of microgrids with the potential to run by local production units, including energy storage
systems is advised. When used as separated discrete units produced, the primary function
of energy storage systems is to keep it balanced between demand and supply. These
systems might provide auxiliary services such as frequency management and reactive
control (through inverters and converters), allowing restoration activities to be completed
faster. The capacity of the lines increases as demand varies, which is one of the benefits
of the microgrid operation. “When distributed generators are linked to a microgrid, they
have a major impact on power quality, stability, and voltage profiles, making them a geo-
graphically localized voltage control. A flexible and dependable operation, which enables
the distribution system to isolate faults and maintain acceptable standards of protection,
dependability, and quality in the electrical supply for connected consumers, is one of the
challenges of DER integration” [39,40].
The performance of a number of functions such as power generation analysis, moni-
toring, and forecasting is characterized as microgrid energy management system (EMS).
Researchers divided microgrid EMS techniques into five categories, each of which em-
ployed a different solution strategy to arrive at an ideal solution for microgrid functioning.
In each of the following sub-categories, a comprehensive critical analysis of these tactics
was offered, along with a description of the solution strategy used. Tenfen and Finardi
offer an ideal power management method in [41] with the goal of lowering microgrid’s
operational costs. This model demonstrated several of the benefits of DR software, such
as load factor optimization, coping with renewable energy resources’ intermittent and
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 9 of 24

fluctuating impacts, and lowering peak consumption, among others. Alavi et al. in [42] de-
signed an ideal EMS model to enhance the microgrid, with the goal of lowering emissions,
operating and maintenance expenses, and microgrid dependability costs. Ho. P.H.A and
Cao. V.K developed a real-time optimum energy management method simulation for the
final microgrid architecture and an optimum energy management method employing intel-
ligent optimization approaches to optimally execute the hybrid heat and power insulation
microgrid in [43]. The results revealed that the multi-population coevolution-based multi-
objective particle swarm optimization algorithm’s performance improves as the simulation
period and Pareto interface thickness increase. Santis et al. in [44] present an enhanced
microgrid model that incorporates a fuzzy logic-based EMS and employs a hierarchical
evolutionary algorithm.
A district cooling microgrid structure has been developed using an input-output
nonlinear neural network. “Transys”, “Matlab”, “Genopt”, and “Trnopt” software tools
were used to model the system. It was compared to the centralized fuzzy logic-based
EMS technique in terms of economic gains. In contrast to recurrent neural networks, a
trustworthy neural network technique for representing a nonlinear constant relationship
was used to construct a robust control scheme. Julio. C et al. offer a system in [45] that
maintains a balance between various energy sources, such as wind, solar, hydro, and
geothermal energy, on the one hand, and storage units, such as flywheels, fuel cells, and
batteries, on the other. With a power of 10 kW, the working method was based on the
suggested PMS system and then numerically assessed using SIMULINK-MATLAB. The
salp swarm optimization method for the adaptive tuning of an ideal controller is based on
artificial intelligence. During load shift situations, the proposed grid-connected microgrid
controller is meant to achieve a pre-determined active and reactive energy exchange chances
among the utility grid and the distributed generator. The simulation was run, and the
results reveal the level of growth that resulted from microgrid’s reduced reliance on the
main network and increased usage of renewable energy. To verify the superiority of
the proposed controller, the performance of the algorithm was compared to that of the
prior grasshopper optimization algorithm for the same operating conditions and system
configuration. “The results showed that the proposed microgrid controller outperforms
its competitor in terms of power quality and transient response” [46] EMS is based on
techniques to resilient and stochastic programming. A number of works that are linked to
this one will be highlighted.
Ghasemi suggested “an agricultural community connected to the microgrid network”
in [46]. The suggested solution establishes a coordinating framework for lowering the costs
of both the water supply and the pumped storage unit, as well as energy trading with the
primary grid.
Farzin et al., on the other hand, advocated for a randomized EMS to ensure optimal
microgrid functioning during unexpected reflux episodes [47]. The purpose of their strategy
is to lower microgrid’s predicted operating costs, which include load separation costs, small
turbine operation costs, revenue possibilities, wind and battery power costs, and risk factors
related with the target function’s value. The suggested system also included sensitivity
analysis, which looked at risk variables, downtime impacts, and battery operation. He
and others did so in [48], it introduces a strong two-stage optimization based on the grid-
connected microgrid EMS model, which executes unit commitment one day early in the
first stage and energy trading and actual financial dispatch in the second. In comparison
to the greedy algorithm, the proven Lyapunov optimization approach was applied in the
suggested strategy.
A number of works that are linked to this one will be highlighted. Introducing a
non-linear model predictive control technique to the microgrid EMS model is island based
to assure its stable operation by Minchala-Avila et al. [49]. The load separation strategy
and state of charge battery control process stabilized the microgrid system. The payload
was specified using a synthetic neural network, and the power output of the conjugate
gradient was projected using both an adjustable fuzzy neural inference system and pro-
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 10 of 24

jections of demand based on load demand. When putting inference methods to the test,
the proposed strategy performed better [50]. Increasing the efficiency of the networked
microgrid network’s EMS operation is achieved by presenting the following coordinated
two-step approach: the first stage pertains to the microgrid’s regular transmission operation
in the environment, while the second stage is a one-stage tuning. This suggested technique
addresses any real-time load generation imbalances caused by the unpredictability of re-
newable energy resource power output on the one side and load need on the other. Proudan
et al. propose a fault-tolerant EMS for controlling the linked microgrid network [51]. Market
pricing, need, load and generator mistakes, and uncertainty in renewable energy resources
were all considered in the suggested strategy.
Moreover, the battery expense is incorporated in the aging factor control goal function.
Finally, by exposing the fault-tolerance approach as a constraint file, the availability of
appropriate funding from the energy storage system was secured to fulfill the load re-
quirement during generator faults. The central controller shifts the microgrid system to
stand-alone mode from grid-connected mode in response to any big event in the main grid.
Because voltage and frequency variations become more noticeable at that time, each DER’s
micro-source controller should adjust its amplitude and current to preserve microgrid
stability [52]. Local micro-sources controller and central controller are used to regulate and
coordinate microgrid management and operation in both modes [52]. The microgrid is
controlled by the central controller using the most appropriate control techniques, such as
decentralized and hierarchical control, expert system control, and real-time optimization.
The system to be improved is expressed as a linear programming or nonlinear program-
ming optimization issue in an optimization method [11]. The goal function and constraints
in linear programming algorithms are both linear coefficients, but the objective functions in
nonlinear programming algorithms are nonlinear formulas and the constraints are regu-
lar formulas. Nonlinear programming may also be used to analyze separable or convex
networks [53–55].
The use of expert system control mitigates the problem of real-time optimization
control, namely, that it places too much computing strain on the central controller. The
AI technology (e.g., “Fuzzy logic”) that simulates human thinking can be employed for
central controller design in this control method. Li et al. presented a novel grid-interfacing
power quality compensator for “three-phase three-wire microgrid applications” in their
research [56]. Krishna et al. used the Genetic Algorithm in MATLAB to construct a statis-
tical tool for declaring the sizes of DERs for an “autonomous microgrid islanded mode”
functioning of a radial distributor. “The modeling and control challenges of internal
combustion engine driven winding field synchronous generators in microgrids were inves-
tigated by the US Department of Energy” [57,58]. They came to the conclusion that while
a non-inverter may be employed as a distribution generator, the internal conventional
generator is more effective [59]. Serban suggested a control technique that can operate
in off-grid, genset-connected, and grid-connected modes of operation [60]. Employing
back-to-back converters, Majumder et al. suggested a control technique to support actual
and reactive power exchange across the microgrid and utility. They used distributed power
generation modules to incorporate a pseudo-droop control mechanism into a microgrid.
Between the hybrid converter and photovoltaic inverter components, no extra hardware or
communication cable connections are required.
Ahn et al. suggested a “technique for changing the feeder flow control-mode dis-
tributed generations’ droop constant to guarantee proper power sharing across distributed
generations” [61]. Yuen and Yuen developed an uncoordinated and coordinated control
strategy for supplying basic frequency regulation reserves from several microgrids in
their study [62]. Zhong et al. detailed the mechanics, construction, and functioning of
synchronverters, which are inverters that imitate synchronous generators. They came to
the conclusion that synchronverters are simple to use in both microgrid operation modes,
and hence provide an optimal control solution for microgrids [63]. The suggested method
accomplishes power source planning and management in three phases, according to [64].
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 11 of 24

The initial step is to plan each microgrid individually in order to satisfy its particular load
requirement. Determine the best prospective offers to export electricity to the distribution
network and participate in a full sale energy market in the second stage.
Ross et al. developed a novel online intelligent technique for optimal tuning of
the most popular current PI-based frequency controllers in AC microgrids [65,66]. They
discovered that using updated models of optimization algorithms can lead to improved
results. Guerrero et al. presented a broad strategy to standardization in [67]. They presented
hierarchical control with three levels of control. The droop approach is used at the first
control level. The second control level permits the deviations produced by the “first control
level” to be restored. The output current between the microgrid and the outside power
distribution system is managed at the third control level. Wu et al. established a method
for regulating inverters locally [68]. The very first characterization is that it allows the
microgrid to adjust online power generation to loads, minimizing fuel consuming and thus
the cost of CO2 emissions; the 2nd characterization is that it allows the microgrid to adjust
online electrical generation to loads, minimizing fuel consuming and thus the costs of CO2
emissions. The second advantage is that it is simple to integrate into a “low-cost controller”
or “micro-source controller” and that it can operate online [69].
Gu et al. presented a cooperative frequency control strategy including a microgrid
central controller and a micro-source controller to achieve a smooth transition from grid-
connected to islanded mode [70]. A local energy management technique for hybrid pho-
tovoltaic and storage tanks in microgrids has been proposed in [71]. Each source’s power
reference and control signals are determined by this technique. The findings show that
the suggested technique produces output power that is quite smooth. In [72], Morais et al.
proposed using two fuel switching load management algorithms in plug-in hybrid cars
to increase energy management flexibility. The implications of thermal limitations on the
design of distributed power modules were explored in [73], and then optimum DER unit
planning was carried out. Sustainable energy for everyone (SE4All) solutions have been
used in minigrids [74], where renewable energy-based distributed generating resources
have a high penetration. According to the findings, power system policymakers should
pay greater attention to remain sustainable in order to alleviate the consequences of global
warming and climate change.
Sanjari et al. presented a new optimum control approach combining a storage system
and a load-shedding mechanism to preserve frequency response in the microgrid [75]. They
employed (1) colonial competitive algorithms for cooperatively developing micro-source
controllers in order to keep the microgrid stable, and (2) the Levenberg– Marquardt algo-
rithm for producing controlling signals for each controller in order to keep the frequency
and voltage in a specified range.
Dou et al. suggested a smart control approach for operating a smart-microgrid based
on hierarchical hybrid control [76]. For a variety of reasons, microgrids and DER are up-
ending the century-old industrial status quo. The qualities of electricity as a resource make
it particularly challenging to build effective markets. The economic feasibility of integrated
smaller-scale energy systems necessitates extensive operational optimization. Because they
are generally building-scale systems, challenges including changing occupancy, weather
sensitivity, and non-dispatchability of several sustainable energy resources come into play.
The management of the future distribution network will be a more fluid and difficult
technical endeavor, and the material in [77] examines one essential part of this task, reactive
power provision. Two methods for provisioning in a grid-connected microgrid are consid-
ered: switching capacitors on the grid side and photovoltaic inverters on the microgrid
side, with a genetic algorithm employed to discover the best solution. “The fluctuation
of sustainable generation and loads presents a well-known control challenge for small
systems, and [78] investigates the functioning of the resulting household batteries” [78].
Under a regular tariff, the authors estimate the advantages of central centralized control of
these batteries. The impact of various low-carbon technology acceptance behaviors by a
variety of socioeconomically different neighborhoods is examined in [79].
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 12 of 24

A revolutionary coordinated frequency control (CF C) technique is described in [80].

This design depicts the rapid response of photovoltaic systems, battery-based systems,
and thermostatically regulated loads (TCLs), as well as the delayed response of the diesel
generating system. The goal of this system is to manage the frequency by using the device’s
quick response in a transient state and then returning to normal operating conditions in a
steady state. During normal operation, the photovoltaic and energy storage subsystems
supplied power by adjusting the demand on the diesel system without the use of an inter-
link device. As a result, following over-frequency regulation, the photovoltaic system is
gradually flipped back to the constrained photovoltaic power period to MPPT.
Based on the aforementioned concerns, the microgrid is designed to meet the aims of
continuous supply and cost-effectiveness. In the microgrid, the scheduling process is carried
out by an energy management approach, which may work at frequencies lower than power
and influence managerial level. As a result, the microgrid system has a significantly lower
effect on the attainment of stability and durability. Management and control techniques
may have an impact on the current provisions concerning frequency, voltage, current
restrictions, and power quality. As a result, [81] proposes an adaptive online microgrid
EMS. This system ensures correct module integration and communications as well as the
regulated interface. In microgrid systems, it is responsible for planning, scheduling, data
collecting, and processing. The technology adapts to the fluctuation of the sustainable
generator. For islanded or grid-connected activities, the scheduling procedure is based on
economic management. In order to conduct minimal prediction error in the system, the
processing module is based on the forecasting module’s results. This system must create
connecting commands for DER controllers in order to optimize the overall system, which
includes not only much improved microgrid efficiency, but also technical, economical,
ecological, and environmental regulatory constraints. Thus, this system has the potential to
operate in several modes in microgrid and has overcome the operating costs.
The microgrids’ operating performance, control methods, and difficulties are discussed
in [82]. The power command and management techniques are the most important factors
in the functioning of microgrids. Thus, this work presents the control techniques and
power management tactics of different kinds of microgrids under different operational
conditions [82].
According to [83], “the power balance at the district cooling link is maintained in
district cooling microgrid by controlling the district cooling link voltage. However, the AC
microgrid control also comprises keeping voltage and frequency within limitations so that
synchronization with the grid is maintained. The district cooling microgrid was chosen for
its higher effectiveness, stability, simpler design, and minimal power losses” [84].
A mixed-integer linear programming model was proposed in [85] for evaluating invest-
ments in substations, circuits, capacitor banks, non-renewable distributed generation units,
and renewable energy and EV charging stations (EVCS). In the same way, a mixed-integer
linear programming model in [86] finds optimal expenditures in substations, networks,
rechargeable batteries, renewable distributed generation units, energy storage systems,
and EVCSs. The models developed in [85] and [86] featured stochastic behavior connected
to conventional demand; to cope with those unknown ties, resilient optimization and
probabilistic coding were used. Unlike [86], the suggested model in [85] did not account
for uncertainty in electric vehicle demand. The authors of [87] created a multi-objective
distribution system expansion planning (DSEP) model with high wind power penetration,
which includes EVCS planning.
Predicting the electric vehicle charging demand pattern is a difficult endeavor due
to the small number of real-world examples documented, uncertainty in driver behavior,
the amount of electric vehicle penetration, and the power needed by these cars, among
other factors [88]. System operators, on the other hand, are concerned with anticipating
electric vehicle charging usage in order to estimate the consequences and demands for
modernizing the EDS infrastructure [88]. As a result, a method to describe the uncertainty
in electric vehicle charging demand is provided here to quantify it. The approach used
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 13 of 24

to predict electric vehicle demand described here is based on [85]. In contrast to [85],
which uses data from internal combustion engine travel patterns [89], the electric vehicle
infrastructure projection tool (EVI-Pro) Lite [90] was utilized to establish the electric vehicles
arrival timings in this proposal. Furthermore, just one type of electric vehicle charger (slow
charger (3.3 kW)) was studied in [85]. In this concept, however, the chargers employed
at the stations have power ratings of 7 kW (slow charger), 50 kW (rapid charging), and
150 kW. (super-fast charger).
The resulting electric vehicle demand profiles are connected to the other unknown
factors (conventional demand, solar irradiation, and wind speed). To illustrate the un-
certainties, a set of yearly scenarios is generated by combining historical demand data
(Brazil) [91], solar insolation data [92], wind speed data [92], and the electric vehicle charg-
ing requirement supplied by the technique described in Section 2. Given the large number
of possible situations, the k-means situation reducing approach is used to achieve com-
putational tractability. The k-means clustering approach is commonly used to simulate
uncertainty in medium and long-term planning [93]. This type of clustering algorithm
preserves correlation among unclear info.
“For DSEP problem, a mixed-integer linear programming model has been presented
in [94]. Uncertainties in conventional demand, electric vehicle demand, and renewable
generation, as well as investments in distributed generation units and energy storage
systems, were all taken into account”.
A two-stage energy management model for the sustainable wind-PV-hydrogen-storage
microgrid based on receding horizon optimization was proposed in [95], and the role
of energy storage has also been explored. This model is conducted for the purpose of
tackling the uncertainties and randomness of renewable energies and loads, as well as to
minimize the operation cost. “The day-ahead optimization model is used to trace the day-
ahead schemes and reduce the variances between the intra-day and day-ahead operating
strategies” [95].
González et al. [96] proposed an innovative multi-layered architecture to deploy
heterogeneous automation and monitoring systems for microgrids. This research proposes
and validates a unique multi-layered architecture. This design, which is divided into six
functional levels, is dedicated to arranging the heterogeneous parts for energy automation
and monitoring in microgrids. Interoperability is handled effectively throughout the
Modbus TCP network, and data transfer is completed successfully.
According to the authors, this variability necessitates various infrastructure upgrading
requirements. The revolutionary Brooklyn Microgrid demonstration’s market design
strategy, which is developing a communal energy market utilizing blockchain technology,
is explained in [97]. This will undoubtedly be one of the first implementations of a strategy
that is generally predicted to transform local energy markets. While the threat of DER to
electricity quality is frequently highlighted, solutions for improving outcomes are more
difficult to come by. The authors of [98] seek a novel method that might enable the
distribution network controller to better govern the network by marshaling scattered assets.
In [99], Ceseña EA et al. address the complicated subject of how a microgrid operating
inside a reconfigurable energy framework could co-optimize various service offerings. To
provide services, the microgrid can draw on the different qualities of its assets. Together,
these studies provide a strong foundation for tackling the arduous task of reworking our
socioeconomic system to meet local energy needs in a low-carbon society. Each study
focuses on a unique facet of the problem and proposes a novel solution.

5. Discussion
5.1. Addressing the Limitations of Microgrids
“Nonlinear mixed-integer programming” with severe inter-temporal constraints is
the optimization issue. Mathematical approaches are ineffective in solving this problem
since they are model-based, and derivation requires an accurate model of the system.
Furthermore, they begin at a single location, and the likelihood of capturing in a local
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 14 of 24

optimum is significant for these approaches. In contrast to mathematical approaches,

genetic algorithm (GA) is an inhabitant, data-based, and free-derivative method that uses
genetic operators to reduce the likelihood of trapping in a local optimum. As a result,
GA is employed in this study. The outputs of base load power generators, storage charge
and discharge capacity, and load curtailment values are all included on each chromosome.
A backward/forward power flow [100] is conducted for each chromosome based on the
aforementioned parameters to calculate the power exchange between the microgrid and
the main grid, as well as the microgrid power losses. The sufficiency and stable security
limitations are evaluated in power flow calculations, it should be noted. The optimal
solution is generated after all other constraints have been checked, and a cost term is
applied when the restrictions are broken. If the goal function does not improve for a
specific amount of generations, the algorithm will cease. It is set to 50 in this study using a
set-and-test method. The efficiency of the provided concept is demonstrated by putting it
to the test on a microgrid and assessing the outcomes [101].
According to [102], DERs can be defined as “devices that run in parallel with the
utility at all times and provide sensitive loads that may be turned off when necessary”.
Photovoltaic systems, wind energy systems, fuel cells, combined-heat-power-based micro-
turbines, and super conducting magnetic energy storages are examples of DERs described
in an integrated approach to DER adoption in the distribution network’s immediate vicinity.
The authors aimed to develop an integrated, iterative, and comprehensive strategy. It was
a first step toward creating an implementation strategy for communities centered around a
feeder that might serve as a microgrid. The geometry of this integration is determined by
the individual connections of each DER parallel to the grid system in semi-autonomous
clusters of small, scattered-type sources associated with loads, which is referred energy
as a microgrid. Reference [103] discusses the advantages of adding dispersed resources
into an industrial site that is planned as a plant with a large number of induction machines.
In islanded operation, the efficacy of the local voltage regulator during load sharing and
load change features has been proven. Barkeley Lab has created an economic model of
DER deployment to identify the ideal number and kind of modest on-site generation
utilizing DERs. Microgrids can have a proper business consumer, such as an office building,
restaurant, retail mall, or grocery store, according to [104].
The Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model is a sort of model that
can anticipate DER uptake by commercial clients. Early results demonstrate that, in all
cases studied, ordinary business clients can embrace DER: [105] appears to be the first
time a tiny gas turbine producing system feeding a microgrid is disclosed; [106] examines
a DER business case at the “San Diego biotechnology supply company BD Biosciences
Pharmingen”, which evaluates DERs for a facility with a base load of 200–300 kW. The
site is simulated as a DER-CAM, which is comparable to a model created at “Berkeley
Lab” to find the most cost-effective DER system for a particular location. In the context of
the power–electronic interface and control techniques for quick management of voltage
and frequency magnitude, the steady state and transient functioning of a microgrid is
achievable among distributed microsources. Based on the quality of microgrid power and
the power transferred across the microgrid and utility grid, a grid connecting a voltage
stability compensator for three phases and three wire microgrid applications is conceivable.
To get the most out of RESs, researchers are attempting to establish a link between the
restricted supply of electricity from RESs and demand-side usage. The authors in [107]
recommend, for example, the implementation of a pre-paid pump station with certain
control capabilities that may respond to customer demand. The total energy distributed
is related to the monthly supply of a restricted amount of power to distribute electricity
equitably. In [108], the concept of running an inverter that acts as a synchronous generator
is created and offered. It may be regulated using synchronverters in the same way that
classic synchronous generators are. A control approach is provided for balancing microgrid
power by regulating the fixed value of microgrid voltage level at the transformer side as a
function of the link voltage. For the scheduling of an energy storage system deployed in
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 15 of 24

a wind-diesel isolated power system, a knowledge-based expert system is presented [3].

When the utility grid undergoes anomalous conditions, microgrid protection problems
must be addressed. Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS)
recommended the essential measures and considerations for operating a microgrid in an
abnormal state owing to a failure. During a fault, the protection coordinator would quickly
isolate feeder faults and islands the microgrids from one another. Protective relays must also
be strategically located throughout the grid, with a control system to trigger those relays in
time. The voltage/power consistency within the stated parameters of microgrid operation
is designed and deployed in a stable condition by dispersed-type distributed generators.
In stability studies, the influence of preventive compensators and factors such as the
generator set’s actual inertia should be taken into account. The authors of [109] examine a
microgrid system with a continuous power demand and find that, based on the negative
resistance characteristics, constant power loads render the system unstable. The authors
of [110] investigate the stability of an automated microgrid, a topic that is becoming
increasingly popular as distributed generation becomes more integrated into the power
system. Droop features for grids with dominating resistive and resistant lines, as well as the
influence of reverse droop features on small-signal stability and line segments with various
X/R ratios, are investigated. In [3], an adaptive feed forward compensation approach
for “modifying the dynamic coupling between a distributed resource unit and the host
microgrid in order to improve the system’s stability” was described.
Eto et al.’s goal [111] was to lay the groundwork for a multi-year research effort that
would make it easier to integrate large-scale DERs into current distribution infrastructure.
Marnay and Davis emphasized the necessity of DER integration in meeting future power
needs in developed nations [112]. Davis presented a tiny gas turbine producing system for
a microgrid for the very first time [113]. It has a high cost of installation, connections, and se-
curity. Its investment costs are also expensive, and its coherence is low. The CERTS has been
continuously examining and reviewing test facilities since 1999, when the initial actions on
DER integration began. The microgrid was characterized by Kueck et al. as a combination
of electrical demands and non-conventional/sustainable energy sources, where some of
them create overheating that may be used for home and industrial heating [114].

5.2. Numerical Study

The proposed community microgrid project is a low-risk, high-return investment
that may be owned by the whole community. The investment proposal’s levelized cost
of electricity, modified internal rate of return, and distribution to paid-in capital were
found to be USD 0.02/kWh, 5.40 percent, and 1.42 percent, respectively. The metrics for
the most cost-effective conceptual microgrid setup were evaluated in terms of those for
a control case scenario. The existing electrical supply system at the site is represented in
the base case scenario. The data models used in the application use cases are adaptable,
allowing for a wide range of data handling scenarios. They include the bare minimum
of information essential to provide DERs with an appropriate degree of control. When a
product is reserved or activated, the majority of this information is reused. The weather and
pricing forecasts and measurements are based on a current data model; thus, they are not
included in this report. The majority of countries have concentrated on expanding power
coverage without considering yet if the improvement efforts is long-term and medium-term
sustainable. It is crucial to remember that in Colombia, like in many other parts of the globe,
the electricity of these remote places is mostly accomplished using diesel generators and a
few modest hydropower projects. The high reliance on small-scale diesel production units
raises fuel prices significantly, particularly for petroleum countries. It also undermines
the viability of enterprises in these areas that are involved in the electrical supply chain.
When isolated microgrids run, the balance between the electricity produced in distributed
generation facilities and the energy required by consumers must be appropriately adjusted.
The use of DERs in an independent microgrid has the potential to provide benefits such
as technical durability in the medium and long run. In the long run, the introduction of
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 16 of 24

voltage and frequency regulation as auxiliary services would allow for the decrease in
energy not provided due to inadvertent disconnections, allowing for the reduction in energy
not delivered. A technological infrastructure, comprising a processing and automation
system, automated safeguards, and aspects of active distribution systems linked with
DERs, must be in place from a technical standpoint. The NIZ’s pilot projects might be
regarded knowledge sources for the design of advanced grid technology in Colombia in
particular. The assessment approach described in the strategy for the installation of smart
grids might be used to evaluate these activities. The goal is to make the distribution system
more responsive and to provide ancillary services to the transmission system, as well as to
maximize the benefits of new technology integration.
The input signal of the deviation in transfer functions rises continually with respect to
time, indicating that the system is unstable. Under the application of modest load distur-
bances at separate buses, the hierarchical controllers are extremely resilient at smoothing
out oscillations and settling fast at a new operating point. The hierarchical controller, unlike
the decentralized controller, can enhance the reliability of microgrids with static and static
loads. Huatacondo and its residents have gone through all of the steps outlined in this
study for a sociotechnical system’s energy transition. The population and stakeholders
were included early on in order to collaboratively identify the aspects of the intervention.
After this point, the microgrid is established, and electric energy usage patterns begin to
shift. This shows that the intervention has had an impact on the co-evolution of institu-
tions, equipment, industrial networking systems, and activities in the area. Microgrids are
systems that, over time, reshape societies and their habits in the same way as microgrid
applications affect societies [115,116].
A re-composition of territory, social meaning, and political structure of power gen-
eration, delivery, and consuming occurs as a result of this reconfiguration in renewable
technology and economics. It is necessary to monitor and enhance microgrid resilience. En-
gaging both in a comprehensive and dynamic process of education, information exchange,
and collective learning community and technical personnel is a focus. What constitutes a
‘resilient’ microgrid or a ‘sustainable’ energy transition, as well as the underlying norms
and assumptions, is highly dependent on the region and people to which it is implemented.
Practices and indications that worked for Huatacondo might not be appropriate for other
microgrids. The applicability of our approach to other situations (such as the “Ayllu Solar
project”) would necessitate a thorough and place-based co-construction process.

6. Conclusions and Future Works

According to the literature reviewed in this paper, the proposed paradigm for co-
optimizing the construction and planning of microgrids may be used in larger-scale com-
munity initiatives. In-depth energy management assessments for the min and max net
system load days have proven that the microgrid designs are feasible and stable. The project
proposal’s economic superiority over the analyzed site’s current solar photovoltaic/grid
energy delivery system has also been proved through capital budgeting analysis. In com-
parison to the situation where no self-sufficiency limitation is enforced, establishing a
baseline ego ratio of 100.0 percent raises microgrid lifetime expenses by just 14.0 percent.
All parameterized inputs are considered to be deterministic in this study, which adds to
the model’s limitations in terms of dealing with model-inherent parametric uncertainty.
The open source Smart API library was chosen as the platform’s standard interface for
any resources interacting with it. The project then moves on to an implementation phase,
which is accompanied by a validation process, in which the platform’s real operation is
verified [117].
The best operating strategy based on a comprehensive active-reactive and thermal
power scheduling in microgrids is investigated in this research, taking into account network
constraints and following [118]. The microgrid structure under consideration comprises
several types of combined heat power devices, boilers, and various types of DERs, including
FC units, distributed generators, and MTs. In compared to grid-connected mode, the
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 17 of 24

microgrid’s total operation cost is significantly higher in isolated mode. It should be

highlighted that future research might look at expanding the suggested model to include
renewable resources such as photovoltaic and WT units. Because they offer particular
circumstances for the functioning of DERs, Colombia’s “National Indigenous Areas” (NIZ)
are ideal labs for the creation of isolated microgrids. For the system to operate sustainably
in the medium and long term, it is recommended that each DER be assigned roles and
tasks. The infrastructure required for efficient and long-term DER incorporation should
be identified and described. Regulatory regulations that stimulate the supply of auxiliary
functions to the transmission system should be outlined. An incorporated actor-critic
neural networking system is examined for power grid frequency management [119]. The
suggested model is tested on a microgrid, with the outcomes assessed under several
scenarios. For control, a deterministic learning technique is presented, as well as the
estimation of a strategic utility function. The optimization of actor-sensor position and
communication architecture will be investigated in a future study. For DER integration
to be effective, correct operation and control, protection, and stability concerns must all
be addressed.
Microgrids are a potential approach for combining various dispersed sources of energy
into reduced voltage side networking systems in order to fulfill local demand while reducing
carbon emissions. The aggregation of numerous DERs and energy storage technologies, each
with its own operation and control technique, in order to provide a dependable and steady
output, will be connected with a variety of technical issues [119]. These issues are regarded
as obstacles to the practical and beneficial procedure of microgrids. An institution’s building
integrated photovoltaic model with fuel cells and distributed generators may deliver electricity in
accordance with grid restrictions and function as a microgrid. The enhanced power system with
distributed generation at TERI’s retreat construction complex has resulted in a considerable
increase in battery energy throughput, from 37.0 percent (in base scenario) to 72.0 percent. It
has been discovered that distributed generation not only meets entire load demand during
grid outages, but also increases yearly battery energy output. The use of multimodal
indicators that take into consideration the financial, technological, ecological, and social
elements of microgrids increased the community’s and stakeholders’ reaction capability.
The microgrid’s potential to foster the development and transformation of the regions
in which it is located, as well as its interaction with the environment, are not expressly
considered in resilience indices. With reference to [11], this study demonstrated and
addressed an integrated framework for assessing the long-term durability of initiatives
built on the notion of sociotechnical transformation.
Finally, microgrids are becoming more popular across the world as a novel idea that
demonstrates the benefits of distributed renewable energy resources. With the proper use of
converter control techniques, EMSs, and PQ improvement strategies, the DER architecture
has been shown to be practical for the photovoltaic systems. The optimal interplay of
electric vehicles and efficient energy storage system operating techniques improve the
performance of DER microgrids, according to the review. The simulations corroborate
previous research on microgrid frequency management and dependability, highlighting the
relevance of energy storage system and electric vehicle interaction with the microgrid [7].
Literature review summary is shown in Table 1.
Authors comment on this paper: Future energy networks will encounter a variety of
issues as the percentage of sustainable energy resources increases and the interaction with
the other energy sectors expands. Solar, wind, energy storage, combined heat and power
plants, electric cars, and smart circuits are becoming increasingly common. So, in this paper,
we have covered many critical points regarding DERs as we evaluated the feasibility of
using an actor-critical neural network with a distributed reinforcement learning control
method to adjust for power grid frequency regulation. We also went over some of the most
important components of a DER-based microgrid, as well as its significance and limitations.
As for the limitations of this paper, we had limited access to the newest resources about
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 18 of 24

this topic, so we had to utilize some of the older ones. Besides, more figures and statistical
evidence are needed.

Table 1. Literature review summary.

Classification/Proposed
Reference Aim Findings
Approach
“Despite the fact that all of the
meta-heuristics examined produced the same
optimum system configuration, the
Lévy-flight MFOA was able to generate a
This research presents a “robust solution set (containing component sizes and
microgrid capacity planning total power exchanged with the utility grid)
optimization framework” based on the that gave a lower overall discounted system
[23] meta-heuristic approach
Lévy-flight moth-flame optimization” cost”. Moreover, “Solving the microgrid
method, which is a state-of-the-art sizing problem using meta-heuristics is
meta-heuristic (MFOA)” computationally intensive since it requires
calculating the year-long, hourly energy
balance of the infrastructure mix chosen by
each of the hundreds of search agents in the
meta-heuristic of interest”.
This work summarizes current relevant
literatures on “hybrid distributed energy “The overall cost of energy provided by DER
resources”, such as wind, solar, combined systems is still relatively high, and efforts to
cooling and heating and power, minimize it should be made as soon as
combined heating and power, possible”. For the purpose of accelerating
geothermal, and hydro, published in the technology and information transfer from the
[13] meta-heuristic approach
previous five years. It emphasizes the classroom to practice, there should be more
many approaches used as well as the cooperation between academics and industry.
issues that DER faces, which has now Finally, favorable rules and regulations
become a ground-breaking study subject should be in place to encourage extensive
for researchers to investigate and provide system installation and financial viability.
answers to.
The study outlines the minimal exchange
The suggested data sharing platform is built
of information requirements for some
in terms of the smart grid architectural
instances for the “integrated business
model’s specification of use cases. The
platform”, in order to enable new
necessity for an innovative information
[117] classical methods business opportunities for tracking,
sharing platform in the energy system was
verifying, and implementation of
identified in the study. The platform for
microgrid and energy community
information sharing was introduced and
flexibility services for distribution and
specified.
transmission grid management.
“Determining the most transmission In this study, network constraints are used to
losses of active and reactive power as investigate an optimal cost structure based
robust and stochastic well as thermal conduction for DER and on a comprehensive active-reactive and
[118] programming combined-heat-power-based microgrids thermal power scheduling in microgrids. In
approaches that take into account network compared to grid-connected mode, the
restrictions such as AC power flow microgrid’s total operation cost is
limits”. significantly higher in isolated mode.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 19 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Classification/Proposed
Reference Aim Findings
Approach
This study begins with a discussion of
the obstacles and possible advantages of Because they offer particular circumstances
incorporating DERs into distribution for the functioning of DERs, Colombia’s
system operations. It also lists some “National Institute of Electricity” (NIZ) and
common tactics for reducing the risk of “National Statistical Institute” (NIS) are
these technologies being introduced into suitable laboratories for the development of
[40] classical methods microgrids. The present status of every isolated microgrids. For the system to
sort of energy source in Colombia is operate sustainably in the mid to long term,
examined from the airwards. Finally, it is recommended that each DER be assigned
some fundamental ideas for enhancing roles and tasks. Regulatory regulations that
the benefits of DER integration, as well as stimulate the supply of auxiliary services to
the limitations of islanded microgrid the electricity network should be outlined.
operation in said nation, are discussed.
This chapter discusses numerous forms
of DERs, including both distributed
generation units and distributed energy
storages, as well as their controls at
“The results of secondary level decentralized,
various hierarchical levels. There have
centralized, and two-level hierarchical
been descriptions of distributed
controllers used to a typical AC microgrid
Distributed control generation technologies such as
[119] system are discussed”. “Hierarchical
approach conventional/dispatchable and
controllers are more resilient than
renewable energy/nondispatchable
decentralized and centralized controllers,
kinds. “Chemical energy storage,
according to the findings”.
mechanical energy storage, electrical
energy storage, thermal energy storage,
and electrochemical energy storage are
also briefly explored”.
To optimize the value of a linked “The findings of the test microgrid results
microgrid with centralized organization with and without losses reveal that ignoring
that competes in the wholesale energy energy loss causes erroneous results. The
market, a discs optimization model is obtained average algorithm execution
being developed (i.e., revenues-costs). durations are suitable for microgrid
Multi-agent technology “The sufficiency and constant security day-ahead decision making, which is an
[101]
based approach constraints of the microgrid, as well as its off-line application with restricted time.
power losses, are integrated in the However, in practice, by utilizing C++/C#
optimization model in addition to the software to simulate the program and
operational limitations of DERs, which employing multi-trading programming, the
include both inter-temporal and execution time may be significantly
non-inter-temporal kinds”. reduced”.
The simulation findings show that the
Proposing an “actor-critic neural suggested method outperforms some
network” that integrates a “distributed actor-critic networking control strategies in
Model predictive
[119] reinforcement learning control scheme to frequency management of the power grid
control
compensate frequency regulation of under specific conditions. The upper bound
power grid”. of long-term performance is calculated based
on the analysis.
The major goal of this work is to provide
It has been discovered that good
energy management strategy(s) that take
coordination of DERs with battery energy
into account the lowest cost of generating
[4] Classical methods storage can help meet institutional vital load
while maximizing battery energy
requirements and provide the complete load
participation (i.e., “battery energy
during grid outages
throughput”) inside microgrid.
The results suggest that modeling the load as
Developing an investment strategy with voltage-dependent and incorporating
Mixed linear the lowest total cost while meeting network reconfiguration into medium-term
[94]
programming network operating constraints and the planning actions aids in the creation of an
CO2 emissions cap. efficient network that is both eco friendly
and has low total planning costs.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2816 20 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Classification/Proposed
Reference Aim Findings
Approach
The proposed two-stage energy management
approach is resilient and effective in
Proposing a two-stage energy managing the functioning of the
management strategy based on receding wind-PV-hydrogen-storage microgrid and
Robust and stochastic
horizon optimization to address the removing WT, PV, and load uncertainties and
[95] programming
uncertainties and unpredictability of variations. Furthermore, battery storage can
approaches
renewable energies and loads while lower the operating costs of electricity
minimizing operating costs. exchanged with the power grid and increase
the effectiveness of the energy management
model.
The development of smart grids and
microgrids is primarily promoting the
Proposing a novel multi-layered
digitalization of energy infrastructure. Their
framework for deploying “heterogeneous
[96] Classical methods effective application overcomes hurdles,
automation and monitoring systems for
including research activities aimed at
microgrids”.
standardizing communication protocols and
networking systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.T.; N.B.; methodology, K.T.; software, N.B.; K.T.; N.B.;
formal analysis, K.T.; investigation, K.T.; resources, N.B.; data curation, K.T.; writing—original draft
preparation, N.B.; writing—review and editing, K.T.; visualization, K.T.; supervision, N.B.; project
administration, K.T.; funding acquisition, K.T.; N.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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