Forging

Introduction

The importance of metals in modern technology is due, in large part, to the ease with which they
may be formed, into useful shapes such as tubes, rods, and sheets. Useful shapes may be generated
in two basic ways:

1. By plastic deformation processes in which the volume and mass of metal are conserved and the
metal is displaced from one location to another.

2. By metal removal or machining processes in which material is removed in order to give it the
required shape.

Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing. Various useful shapes
are obtained by compressive forces that are applied on workpiece through various dies and tools.
The compressive forces for forging are derived either from the impact of a hammer (hand or power
operated) or from the pressure exerted by a large mechanical press. Metals in forging are deformed
plastically at room temperature (cold forging) as well as at higher temperature (hot forging). The
ability to cold forge the metal depends on the ductility and malleability of the metal whereas the
ability to hot forge the metal depends on its ‘range of plasticity' at higher temperature. The forged
components are called forgings.

Cold forging may generally cause anisotropy, a state in which properties of the metal are different in
different directions and this effect of cold forging is taken care of by annealing the cold forged
component. The forgeability of a metal is defined as the capability of the metal to undergo
deformation without cracking. A commonly accepted test for forgeability is to upset a solid
cylindrical specimen and observe any cracking on the barrelled surface, the greater the deformation
prior to cracking, the greater the forgeability of metal.

In forging metal may be:

1. drawn out to increase its length and decrease it cross-section.

2. upset to decrease the length and increase the cross-section.

3. squeezed in closed impression dies to produce the desired shape by compelling the

metal flow in to multi-directions.

Applications of Forging

The following common types of jobs are produced by forging:

Box-end wrenches, always made from forgings, are subjected to very high stresses due to
hammering; excellent for providing highest torque to tighten the bolts. Casting can not survive.

Riveting of shells for boilers, tanks and furnaces. Machinery parts and steel furniture. Bolts, headed
pins, nuts, nails, keys, eye bolts, hooks, bolts, shakles, hinges, aldrops, hangers and racks, hooks,
links and other lifting tackles for cranes and hoists.
Arms, weapons and cutting tools. Agricultural implements and tools. Cams, crank shafts connecting
rods, axles and levers, etc. for vehicles, locomotives and aircrafts.

Helical and laminated springs. Landing gear cylinders, beams for aircraft wings, turbine disks, gears,
wheels.

Importance of forging

Forging operations produces discrete parts while rolling operations, produce continuous plates,
sheets, strip, or various structural cross-sections. Figure 1 shows typical products made from forging
operations

The first question that comes to us is why is it necessary to forge a part to shape when it is simpler
and cheaper to cast or machine the metal direct to the form required? It is true that casting or
machining process may be cheaper when compared to forging operations for certain products. If the
function of a component calls for high strength and resistance to shock or vibration, the properties
must be uniform, easily predicted, and measurable within close limits. To achieve this it is usually
necessary for steel to be subjected to some form of hot working or forging into more complex
shapes. Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. In forging
controlled development of grain flow lines which closely follow the outline of component is obtained
(Figures shown below). The continuous grain flow lines increase overall toughness of the forged part
and decrease its susceptibility to fatigue and corrosion failures. Internal flaws of the metal are
largely eliminated.
Advantages of forging

Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in
the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.

Grains are refined and improved, Forging produces beneficial grain-flow pattern in the direction of
the shape of the forged component, resulting in tough fibrous structure conforming to the outline of
the part, (Forging yields parts that have high strength to weight ratio, and they can be used reliably
for highly stressed and critical applications.

Forging produces products with higher structural integrity, which are consistent from piece to piece,
without any porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects as in case of casting, (Figures 2, 3 & 4).

Reduced testing requirements.

Disadvantages of forging

(i) Hot metal oxidizes rapidly and the scale thus formed gives poor surface finish,

(ii) Close dimensional tolerances on forgings may not be maintained.

(iii) Metal has to be worked within a particular range of temperature: if worked below, it will crack or
get distorted and if worked above the required temperature range, it may burn. Hence, too much
care is needed while maintaining the optimum temperature for forging.

Materials used in forging

The degree to which a metal can be forged depends on its composition and structure. The low and
medium carbon steels are readily forged but high carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to forge.
The metals and alloys that can be forged include carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, wrought
iron, copper base alloys, nickel and nickel copper alloys, aluminum alloys and magnesium alloys. Cast
iron is not forgeable because it has a crystalline structure and when heated and beaten, it breaks
into pieces. Every metal has its own forging temperature range at which it goes in plastic state.

Thermocouples are used for measuring temperatures usually from 200 to 1300°C. Then there are
optical pyrometers which are used for measuring temperatures in higher range, 700 to 2000°C
Radiation pyrometers are also available for measuring still higher temperatures. The assessment of
temperature of hot metals by seeing its colour is an approximate method of temperature
measurement.

Classification of Forging

Forging can be classified into two categories 1. Open die forging, and 2. Closed die forging

Open Die Forging

It is the simplest forging process which is quite flexible but not suitable for large scale production.
The operation is carried out between two flat dies or dies of very simple shape, figures 6. The
process of open die forging is carried out in large hydraulic presses or power hammer. Since in open
die forging the workpiece is usually larger than the tool, at any point of time, deformation is
confined to a small portion of the workpiece. Numerous squeezes or blows are applied to different
portions of the workpiece to bring it to the final desired shape. The operator obtains the desired
shape of forging gradually and step by step, by manipulating the work material between blows. The
resulting size and shape of the forging are dependent on the skill of the operator.

Applications: The process is mostly used for forging large objects of simple shape or when number of
parts to be made is small. Open die forging is often used to make preforms (of workpiece) for use in
close die forging and large and bulky forgings. Examples of parts made in open die forging include
ship propeller shaft, rings, pressure vessels, gun tubes, ring forgings. The process can produce
forgings up to 200 tons of weight.

Advantages of open die forging

(i) Simple process (ii) Dies are inexpensive (iii) Useful for small quantities (iv) Wide range of job sizes
can be handled

Limitations of open die forging

(i) Limited to simple shapes (ii) Close dimensional tolerances not possible (iii) Machining to final
shape required if necessary (iv) Low production rate (v) High degree of skill required
Closed – Die Forging (Impression – Die Forging)

In closed die forging the workpiece is deformed under high pressure between two die halves, which
have the impressions of the desired final shape. The heated metal (billet) is positioned in the lower
die cavity and on it one or more blows are struck by the upper die. This hammering makes the metal
(billet) to flow and fill the die cavity completely. Excess metal is squeezed out around the periphery
of the cavity to form flash. On completion of forging, the flash is trimmed off with the help of a
trimming die. The work material is given final desired shape in stages as it is deformed in several
successive die sets. Thus, a high precision forged with close dimensional tolerances is produced.
Closed die forging is shown in Figures. The shape of the die cavities cause the metal to flow in
desired direction, thereby imparting desired fibre structure to the component. This process is also
known as impression die forging.

Advantages of closed die forging

(i) Good utilization of workpiece material (ii) Better properties than open die forged parts (iii) Good
dimensional accuracy (iv) Higher poduction rates (v) Good reproducibility

Limitations of closed die forging

High cost of dies for small quantities. Die design more complex .Machining of forged part is often
required
Forging Operations

Most forgings are obtained in multiple steps with series of dies, where one or more blows of the
hammer are used for each step in the sequence. The reason for multi steps is to distribute the metal
roughly in accordance with the requirements of the later steps and smooth out the forging force
requirement. These processes prepare the workpieces for further forging processes. Few of the
forging operations are: Upsetting, Cogging, Edging, Fullering, Blocking and Finishing.

Upsetting

The simplest example of open die forging is the upsetting operation shown in Figure. In upsetting, a
solid workpiece is placed between two flat dies and reduced in height (but increasing in size in
lateral direction) by the application of compressive force. The die surfaces may be flat or having
simple cavities to produce relatively simple forgings. Equipment: Hydraulic, mechanical presses,
screw presses; hammers, upsetting machines. Applications: Finished forgings, including nuts, bolts;
flanged shafts, preforms for finished forgings.

As the metal flows laterally between the advancing die surfaces, there is less deformation at the die
interface because of the friction forces than at the mid-height plane resulting into the barreling of
the sides of upset workpiece. Metal flows most easily towards the nearest free surface because that
represents the lowest frictional path. Proper lubrication can help reduce the barreling effect.

To prevent buckling the following rules must be followed in designing parts to be upset forged.

1. The length of the billet to be upset forged should not exceed three items the billet diameter.
2. Length of billet exceeding three times billet diameter may be upset successfully provided the
diameter of cavity does not exceed 1 ½ times the billet diameter.

3. In an upset requiring stock length exceeding three times billet diameter and where diameter of
cavity is not exceeding 1 ½ the billet diameter the length of unsupported metal beyond the face of
the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Edging

Edging is the process of gathering material into a region using a concave shaped open die. The
process is called edging because it is usually carried out on the ends of the workpiece

Fullering

Fullering is the process of reducing the cross-sectional area of a portion of the stock using a convex
shaped die. The metal flow is outward and away from the centre of the fuller

Blocking

Blocking stage makes the metal to approximately final shape, with generous corner and fillet radii

Finisher

Finisher die imparts final shape and size, after which the flash is trimmed from the part

Cogging (drawing out)

Cogging is an open die forging operation in which the thickness of a bar (or workpiece) is reduced by
successive hammer blows at specific intervals
Miscellaneous forging processes

Coining

It is a closed – die forging process used mainly for minting coins and making of jewelry. In order to
produce fine details on the work material the pressures required are as large as five or six times the
strength of the material. Lubricants are not employed in this process because they can get ntrapped
in the die cavities and, being incompressible, prevent the full reproduction of fine details of the die.

Equipment: Presses and hammers.

Applications: Metallic coins; decorative items, such as patterned tableware, medallions and metal
buttons; sizing of automobile and aircraft engine components.

Rotary Swaging

Rotary swaging is the application of forging process for shaping round bars, tubes in which the
diameter of a rod or a tube is reduced. In rotary swaging process workpiece is held stationary and
the dies rotate rapidly in a housing, the dies strike the workpiece at a rate as high as 10 - 20 strokes
per second. The process is shown in figure . When compared to other methods of forging, roduction
rate is high in rotary forging. The maximum diameter of work piece that can be swaged is limited to
about 150 mm; work pieces as small as 0.5 mm diameter have been swaged. Swaging is a noisy
operation.

Equipment: Rotory forging presses.

Applications: Screwdriver blades, box spanners and soldering iron tips are typical examples of
swaged products.

In tube swaging, the tube thickness and / or internal diameter of tube can be controlled with the use
of internal mandrels. Also internally shaped tubes can be swaged by using shaped mandrels.

Defects in forgings

Defects in a forging may be due to following reasons:

(i) defective metal with a lot of inclusions of impurities or oxides,

(ii) faulty design of die,

(iii) improper upkeep of die (oxides may get deposited in pockets in the die),

(iv) development of internal stresses affecting the structure and strength of forging,

(v) oxides or scales not properly removed from the hot blank before forging and

(vi) oversize blank fed to the dies for forging.

(i) Defective structure of forged piece due to defective base metal.

(ii) Incomplete forging (not up to correct dimensions) due to either less metal used for forging a part
or the die may be defective.

(iii) Cracks at the corners of the forgings due to improper forging process. Surface cracking of
forgings occurs due to excessive working of the workpiece surface at too low temperature or as a
result of hot shortness.

Cracking at the flash of closed die forging is another defect since crack may penetrate into the
forging when flash is trimmed off. Either increase the flash thickness or relocate the flash to less
critical region of the forging.

Internal cracking the centre of the forging may be due to the development of secondary tensile
stresses during forging. This can be reduced by proper die design.

Cracks in ribs may occur due to the use of oversize billet for.

(iv) Mismatched forgings due to faults in two halves of the die in working. Mismatch is caused by
mis-alignment between the top and bottom dies.

(v) Cold shut or fold is a discontinuity produced when two surfaces of the metal fold

against each other without welding completely. The defect is caused due to sharp corners in the die
cavity, excessive chilling or high friction.

(vi) Laps formed by web buckling are another defect in forgings. Thicker web should be used to avoid
this defect.

(vii) Scale and oxidation of the surface of forging.

(viii)Oversize forging due to oversize dies.