UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE

HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty
and government with the power to decree and enforce laws.
Types of states
Theocratic states
 The first type of states
 Ruled by priests(shaman)
Secular states
3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The source about punt comes from Egypt.
 Trade was conducted: Iron, bronze, asses, foxes; cattle, animal are fur, dying and
medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords,
knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from
Egypt to Punt.
B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

 The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum.
 Inscription of theking of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he
used politico-religious title known as Mukarib.
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god),
Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the
domain of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
 There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
C. The Aksumite State

 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was
the major port of Aksum.
 The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products
such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and
cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some
curiosity animals like apes.
  Garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware
and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various
kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria were imported.
 Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman
world.
 From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba,
Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and
bronze for both overseas and local transactions.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China
and Aksum) at the time.
 It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries. Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods.
Religion- up to the mid 4th C, Aksumite religion was based on the worship of various gods. The gods
were local, south Arabian and Greek in origin.
 Astar, Mahrem, Baher and Arwe were the principal local god.
 Zeus, Ares and Poseidon were Greek origin.
 Almoqah was South Arabian god.
Architecture- their prosperity enabled the Aksumite kings to build large palaces and Churches. The
outstanding achievement of the Aksumite state was the building of stelea or obelisks, around the present
town of Aksum.
 The longest stelea is 33m long and it is found at Aksum fallen down and broken.
 The second largest obelisk, 25m high (it was taken to Rome in 1937 and returned ti Ethiopia in
2005.
 The third largest obelisk, which stands in Aksum, is 24m high.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum.
Achievement
 script and calendar
 EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc;
 diversified ceramic and
 lithic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and
 Sophisticated building traditions (palaces,stele, rock-hewn churches…). It also developed
complex administrative and governance system, and
 agricultural system including irrigation etc
Decline
Intenal factor
 Rebellions from Beja and Agaw people
 Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation
External factor
  The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of
the state was cut.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
 Established by Merra-Tekle-Haimanot
 C. 1150-1270
 Center at Adefa later Roha(Lalibela)
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
The most important export items included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver
and copper vessels
Achievement
 golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and
 The translation of some of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
 the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside. They are
not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock,
eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete
Gabri’elRufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof and outside. They are
completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete
Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
Decline
Internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from groups claiming descent from the
ancient rulers of Aksum
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States
3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the
eighth century and had early connections with Damot.

B. Damot: was strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands to south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami
was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). In the ninth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said
to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks
of covenant (tabots). Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was
secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated visitors through an intermediary,
AfeBusho.The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's
spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic
speaking population related to Adere and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records
whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of
gold. Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of
their own indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the
Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle which came from six districts, among which Gambo and
Shat are Gafat clan names. The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo.
3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

A. Shewa:
 Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.
 The earliest Muslim sultanate.
B. Fatagar:
 was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century.
 Itwas a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits,
and extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats
C. Dawaro:
 located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and WabiShebelle extending to
Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
 We have valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-
umari. It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled.
 They have a currency called hakuna in which transition takes place.

D. Bali:
 Was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of
Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 It was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-Shebelle
River and extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.

E. Ifat:
 was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.
 Its territory ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
 It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from Hashamite clan and
came from Arabia between 1271 and 1285.
  He intervened between quarrelsome Makzumite princes DilMarrah and Dil-Gamis,
weakened and annexed the sultanate of Shewa.
 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and teff,
and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes,
cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet. Chat was described for the first time as
being consumed as a stimulant.
F. Others: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla,
Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were
established and flourished.
3.3. External Contacts

 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.
 Earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
 With South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between
the region and Egypt.
 Aksum had established close relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire
 after the legend of Prester John Europeans established contact with Ethiopia
3.4. Economic Formations
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
 Ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture.
 mastery of the technology of irrigation
 soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring, compost and residue ashes
 crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing.
 In times of labor shortage, farmers also developed teamwork.
Land tenure system-The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use
land constitute.
Rist system
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective area
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright
 It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to with customary law.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
Gult system
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce
 gult right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central
government.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult as famous wellplaced officials
used to transfer their position to their offspring
B. Handicraft: Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period.
Metal work- spears’ points, swords , javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slings, slashers, shields,
knives, axes, sickles, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments
Carpenters- doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams,
yoke, stilt, coffins
Potters: pan, ovens, jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary
Tanners: produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, saddles, harness, ropes, footwear,
prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by
weavers’ cotton dresses.

NB: except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and
marginalized.
C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade.
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
 Aksum stales
 Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
B. Writing System
 Sabean language: written from left to right since 9th century B.C
 By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only)
written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized
alphabet.
Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the development of
literature, art and the writing of history.
C. Calendar
Oromo calendar
 Based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with
seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and
Bakkalcha (morning star).
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated 300
B.C.),
Sidama
 The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence
each month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala,
New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
Ethiopic calendar
  Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
 Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month.
 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic
and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of
Annunciation.
 Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September
11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap
year.
The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.

Islamic calendar
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year
of 354 or 355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made flight
from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in
this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to
the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra")
Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their
own dating system
D. Numerals

Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez
uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper
typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render
this and show separate bars above and below each character.