Topic 1.

0
COMPUTER SYSTEM(S):
Concepts and
Definitions

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Background of the course
2. Define what is meant by Computer systems
3. Identify types (standalone and networking) and roles of computer
systems
4. Development of computer systems
5. Acquisition of computer systems
6. Evaluating and justifying computer systems investment
7. Identify the importance of computer systems

1.1 Background of Computer Systems

The term computer is/was originally derived from the word compute, which means
calculate. The innovation behind computer was to perform superb calculations than the
normal calculator. More specifically, the idea was to solve complex arithmetic and logical
operations as well as scientific problems. In this contemporary world, computers have gone
beyond the initial objectives with superb performances such as accepting data and
information, storage, processing, sharing, security intelligence (SI), and artificial
intelligence (AI). Any input by a user into the computer systems such as figure/text, voice,
photo or video is called data. The outcome or output of the generated data by the computer
systems is called information. Computers were also called data processors because of the
capability of converting data into required information. This approach is/was called data
processing, thus, data processor. The professionals’ approach (instruction) that controls
computer systems to perform the various tasks is known as computer programming.

In this Topic, you will be also exposed to the definition of computer systems, types and
roles of computer systems in our societies and organisations, evolution of computer
systems, and the importance. Before the details of those mentioned above, let us now
refresh our memory to the initial set-up of computer systems/IT/ICT/computing/digital
technology in our country.
Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 1
The focus of computer systems development in Ghana includes:
i. Enhancing Ghana position as global digital and multimedia hub
ii. Expanding the communication network to ensure more equitable access to
information and services
iii. Intensifying efforts to bridge the digital divide (digital literacy)
iv. Developing existing cybercities as well as promoting new cybercenters and
multimedia applications

Apart from those focuses, measures will also be taken to enhance computer systems-related
skills and competencies. Effort will also be made to improve broadband connections so as
to allow usage of advanced multimedia applications, increase local content development,
and enhanced e-commerce adoption.

1.2 Definition of computer systems

Computer systems refer to different units connected together to perform a specific task.
Also, computer systems refer to integration of hardware, software, and other related
components to work together to meet organisations and users’ needs. Thus, computer
systems consist of different units or components with various or logical roles such as
keyboard, mouse, and system unit. More specifically, computer systems are made up of a
various integrated units or components, which enable the entire structures to work
effectively. On the other hand, each unit cannot function independently for the entire
systems to work. See the Figure below for some units or components of computer systems.

Computer is an electronic device which performs high speed arithmetic and makes a logical
decision under the control of instructions supplied by human. It is automatic and stores data
and information for future use.

Systems (system) refer to a

collection of different units
or elements connected
together to achieve a
particular objective. It is a
group of integrated parts in
digital technology arranged
together to perform a
specific task to meet
organisations and users’
needs. In computing,
systems are made up of
more than one unit or
element. The various
elements work together with different role according to each unit.

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 2
Computer systems can also be defined as the study of computers’ processes and structures
to aid routing activities in human life. Computer systems provide users with the ability to
use computational thinking and creativity to understand and solve routine activities such as
at homes, offices, and schools. Thus, computing is the practice of using computers to solve
a problem. In terse, computing is the process of calculating something with computers. Or
it is the study of computers.

In terse, computer system(s) can be defined as exploring the complex terminologies and
concepts in digital technologies.

1.3 Types and roles of computer systems

Computer systems consist of two (2) types, namely; standalone and networking.

1.3.1 In the context of standalone

Standalone is any computer system with all the necessary peripherals that can process
users’ routine activities without any network support. In this context, the system unit is the
main component, which cannot be replaced by any part for the entire systems to work.
Each system unit with the associated required components is able to work effectively and
independently to meet organisations and users’ needs without any support from other
servers or terminals. The standalone computer systems are usually own by individuals and
small organisations. The Figure below is an example of standalone computer systems.

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 3
In terse, information technology or information systems professionals or experts should
note that computer systems or architecture focuses on three key areas, namely; processors,
memories, and I/O components with their associated software drivers, or just software.

First, processors area is the key aspect. This section concentrates on computation (e.g.,
arithmetic) and control (e.g., executing a sequence of steps). This aspect is explained in
other chapters more on contemporary central processing unit (CPU).

Second, the memories area is always considered next in computer systems. This section
focuses on the storage (main or primary memory) and access of digital data/information.

Finally, I/O components or peripherals area is considered last in computer systems. This
section focuses on the interconnection and standardisation of computers and devices such
as display units, keyboards, mice, microphones, and disks.

The organisations and users’ applications associated with standalone computer systems are
across different sectors for routine activities. The table below highlights some applications
of standalone computer systems.

Some Applications of Standalone Computer System(s)

Sector Application
Education Lecturers standardizing students’ results, preparing
their teaching materials, and other related activities.
Students preparing their assignments, project works,
and other related activities
Church /other organisations Record keeping of daily activities, record keeping of
members’ profiles, payment transactions, and other
related activities
Copy center Printing of customers’ files, editing of customers’
files, scanning of files for customers, and other related
activities
Retail / Sales Malls/supermarkets - Sales transactions, payment
transactions, discount transactions, reorder
transactions, and other related activities

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 4
1.3.2 In the context of networking or integrated computer systems

Computer networking is the other type of computer systems. This type consists of several
standalone computer systems or terminals with a central controller or system called server.
This category of computer systems connects several computers or digital devices across
different locations or geographical areas with various users simultaneously to share data
and information for their routine activities. The networking computer systems, integrated
computer systems or computer
networking systems are usually own
by small and large organisations.
The Figure below is an example of
networking computer systems.

The applications of computer

networking systems or integrated
computer systems are pervasive
across every digital-oriented
organisation and society for real-
time routine activities.
Understanding computer systems
enables you to know the applications
and interactions among all digital
related devices. The table below
provides some highlights of
computer networking systems applications in both societies and organisations.

Some Applications of Computer Networking Systems

Sector Application
Education Universities with integrated tertiary management systems
for managing admissions, payments, programme/course
registrations, publication of exams results, graduations,
and other related activities.
Lecturers providing assignments, providing feedbacks or
responses to students’ assignments, submitting students’
results for publications, providing teaching services via
online, and other related activities
Students checking their results online, discussing and
solving assignments via online platform. submitting their
assignments via online, participating in e-leaning, and
other related activities.
Research- computer networking systems support
researchers in the academic field to share data and
information to solve a particular research problem
Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 5
 virtually irrespective of each participant’s location. This
approach also enables researchers to solve complex
problems with different methodologies within a shorter
period.
Church/other organisations Spreading the Good News to their members via digital
platforms, providing announcements, payment
transactions and acknowledgments, and other related
activities
Health Integrated health management systems adopted by the
health sector facilitate patient record capturing and
keeping, patient profile management, sharing of patients’
profiles across different health sectors, bills payment
transactions associated with funds providers, and other
related activities.
Health records associated with Ghana card, which
provide an effective revenue mobilization to stop
leakages in patient bill payments.
Transport Transport - ridesharing platforms use integrated digital
systems (networking) to link riders and drivers to share
information for trip activities, integrated systems for trip
payment via online, and other related activities.
Banking Salary- digital-oriented organisations use computer
networking systems associated with financial and other
related organisations for salary payment transactions,
contribution transactions, and other related activities.

Retail / Sales Malls or supermarkets use computer networking systems

to link other systems, various outlet or branches together
to manage inventory or reorder, customer relationship,
discounts transactions, and prices, digital payment
transactions, and other related activities
Security Ability to monitor and control vehicles, doors, and other
digital-oriented items virtually. These applications
minimize or prevent the risks likely to affect your assets.

1.4 Development of computer systems

The development of computer systems has gone through several waves or generations.
Each generation has its own strengths and weaknesses. Despite the different generations of
computers as at this contemporary world, new innovations are coming in day and day out.
These numerous advancements in computing make experts in the field difficult to where
we have reach. There are several authors with different categories of computer generations.
The table below provides abstraction of generations of computers.
Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 6
 Generation Major Development Example
0 (before 1940) Mechanical computers Babbage Analytic
Machine
1 (1940-1950) Electronic computers by using vacuum ENIAC, EDVAC
tubes
2 (1950-1960) Solid state electronics IBM 7904
3 (1960-1970) Small and medium scale integrated circuit IBM System 360, DEC
PDP-8
4 (1970-2000) Large scale integrated circuit IBM System 370
Development of microprocessors
5 (2000- now) Very Large-Scale Integrated Circuit, more PC, smart phones, drones.
powerful microprocessors, Semiconductor IBM's Watson
memory, smart processor-based or chips-
based. This technology focuses on
advancement operations such as
multipurpose processing, cloud
computing, simultaneous processing,
anthropomorphic processing, ChatGPT,
robotics, and artificial intelligence (AI).

1.5 Computer systems architecture and infrastructure

It is important for us to differentiate between two important terms: computer systems

architecture and ICT infrastructure.

1.5.1 The Concept of Computer Systems Architecture

The term “architecture” (or physical architecture) is commonly used to describe the way
people's current and emerging requirements are combined with knowledge of the
surrounding environment, resource availability, various constraints, and the technologies
available to provide a blue print for construction of a building.

The concept of ICT architecture specifically in the context of networking is similar to the
building’s architecture. ICT architecture serves as a broad blue print for acquiring,
developing, implementing, and integrating ICT in order to support the business functions
and strategies of an organisation. It integrates the information requirements of the
organisation and all users, the ICT infrastructure and all ICT applications of the
organisation.

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 7
In designing a physical architecture there are several layers of abstraction that need to be
distinguished. This is done to maintain an overview of the complexity and to maintain an
overview of the connections. This zooming in on different levels also happens with ICT
architecture. We might for example talk about ICT architecture at enterprise level, ICT
architecture in a project for several ICT applications and the architecture of an individual
ICT application.

1.5.2 Documenting Computer Systems Architecture

ICT architecture of an organisation should be properly documented. There are many ways
to describe, present, and document computer systems architecture, specifically in the
context of networking. For example, different perspectives can focus on the following:
i. Services and processes to be supported.
ii. Clusters of functionalities required.
iii. Information and data that must be recorded and exchanged.
iv. Specific technology products deployed and integrated.
v. Technical standards for building systems and for interoperability between systems.

1.5.3 ICT/Computing Infrastructure

The main purpose of any computing infrastructure is to support and manage all ICT
resources and services in an organisation. Thus, an organisation’s ICT infrastructure
consists of three elements as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Elements of Computer Systems Infrastructure

Computer systems or ICT resources include:

i. Computer hardware, which is the physical equipment used for input,
processing, storing and output activities;
ii. Computer software. The first type of computer software is called the system
software, which consists of computer programs that control the computer

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 8
 hardware. The second type of computer software is the application software;
iii. Communication Technology, consisting of both physical devices and
software, links various computers located at various locations; and
iv. Data.

ICT services provide means for utilising all ICT resources available within the
organisation. Examples of ICT services are electronic learning (e-learning), e-commerce,
and knowledge management. ICT management explains how the available ICT resources
and ICT services are arranged, operated, maintained, and managed.

1.5.4 Preparing Computer Systems / ICT Architecture

The process of preparing computer systems architecture in the context of networking must
start with ICT planning. The ICT planning process starts by getting a holistic perspective
on what the organisation aims to achieve and how it will do so. The process involves the
steps shown in Figure 1.5 below.

Figure 1.5: Developing ICT Architecture

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 9
The process of preparing ICT architecture involves analysing the organisation’s strategic
plan and the current ICT architecture, if it is already available. Based on this analysis, ICT
Strategic Plan is developed. ICT Strategic Plan is a set of long-range goals that describes
the ICT infrastructure needed to achieve the organisation’s goals. A new ICT architecture
is then developed based on the ICT strategic plan of the organisation.

The ICT Strategic Plan must be aligned to the overall organisation’s strategic plan, so that
the ICT department and other organisation’s units are working towards the same goals.
Achieving this alignment is a difficult and most organisations continue to demonstrate a
limited actual alignment.

1.6 Computer Systems /ICT Acquisition

The acquisition is the process of obtaining computer systems infrastructure. The acquisition
issue is complex for various reasons, such as:
i. There is a large variety of computer hardware, communication networks, and IT
applications available; and
ii. These computer components such as hardware, communication networks, and IT
applications keep changing over time.

1.6.1 Computer system(s)/ ICT Acquisition Process

The acquisition process must be based on the organisation’s computer systems or ICT
architecture. The process involves the steps as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: ICT Acquisition Process

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 10
The following strategies are important for the acquisition of ICT resources:
i. Analyse and understand the organisation’s ICT architecture,
ii. Develop ICT Operational Plan, and
iii. Acquisition process.

First, the analyse and understand the organisation’s ICT architecture give a broader scope
of the type of ICT resources that can suite a particular organisation’s needs.

Second, the ICT Operational Plan is a clear set of ICT projects that will be carried out by
the organisation to support ICT Strategic Plan. This plan consists of the following
elements:
i. Mission statement about the roles and functions of ICT in the organisation
ii. The organisation’s ICT environment
iii. Objectives of the ICT functions
iv. Constraints of the ICT functions
v. Long term ICT infrastructure requirement
vi. Short term ICT infrastructure requirement ICT acquisition projects to be
implemented during the current year.

Finally, the acquisition process is the approach to purchase the required ICT resources to
meet what the organisation needs. This stage is the transaction for exchange money with
ICT resources between the organisation setting up the ICT infrastructure and the one
providing the products.

1.7 Evaluating and justifying computer system(s) investment

Justifying computer systems investment is done by using cost-benefit analysis. This

analysis involves activities as described in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Cost-Benefit Analysis

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 11
One of the major issues is how to determine the cost of computer systems or IT investment.
The normal approach is to use the concept called total cost of investment. By using this
concept, the cost of computer systems investment is calculated by adding together the
following:
i. The acquisition cost for hardware and software
ii. The operation or maintenance cost
iii. The training cost
iv. The control cost, such as the cost of standardisation and security control.

There are a number of values that can be used to measure benefits:

i. Return of Capital Investment
ii. Improvement in efficiency of providing a service
iii. Improvement of customers and partners’ relationship
iv. Improvement of decision-making process
v. Improvement in employees’ satisfaction
vi. Reduction of defects and rejects

1.8 Strategies for Acquiring Computer/ICT/Computing Resources

There are several options for acquiring ICT resources. Some of them are:
i. Buy: Buy the ICT resources imply that the organisation has to put up a high initial
capital investment in order to pay for these resources. Apart from that, these
resources need to be maintained. An advantage of the buy option is that these
resources can be considered as assets and hence can increase the value of the
organisation.

ii. Lease: Instead of buying the ICT resources, organizations can lease these resources
from ICT leasing companies. Compared with the buy option, the lease option can
result in substantial cost saving. Furthermore, most of leasing agreements include
maintenance and this can reduce a lot of overhead especially for smaller
organizations.

iii. Outsource: The third option is to outsource the ICT services. In this approach, all
ICT services required by an organisation will be maintained and operated by the
outsourcing company.

In the case of software, there is another option available, that is, to develop the
software.

1.9 Importance of computer systems

Information has been considered the most important asset of an organisation or a

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 12
society. Without a proper and sufficient amount of information, an organisation or a
society will not be able to make the right decision. Computer systems enable an
organisation or a society to access large amount of information and/or data. Also,
computer systems enable us to communicate and transfer information from one place
to another at a very rapid rate. The development of computer systems or
advancement in computing has introduced four powerful worldwide changes that
have altered the business environment. Organisations or societies that do not respond
to these changes will not be able to survive and prosper in the new business
environment. These changes are listed in the Table below.

New environment Changes to business environment

Globalisation Global marketplace
Global markets
Global workgroups
Global delivery systems
Borderless world
Knowledge economy New product and services
Time-based competition
Shorter product life cycle
Transformation of Flatter organisations
business enterprises Decentralisation
Employees’ flexibility
Location independence
Empowerment
Collaborative work and teamwork
Emergence of the digital Extensive use of digital network
organisations Digital relationship with customers and
suppliers
Digital management
Rapid sensing and responding to
environmental changes

Globalisation has created a global marketplace and a global competition between

organisations. The success of any business organisation today and in the future
depends on the ability to operate in this global marketplace. ICT provides the
ability for an organisation to manage and use information, as well as to
communicate with various parties - customers, suppliers, and distributors all over
the world, 24 hours a day. ICT also enables business organisations to buy and sell
their products online. Thus, electronic commerce (e-commerce) allows trading to
be done more efficiently.

Business in this contemporary world operates in knowledge economy or digital

economy. In this economy, knowledge and information intense products and
Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 13
 services are becoming key ingredients in creating wealth. In developed countries,
for example the United States of America, knowledge and information intense
products and services now contribute 60% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and employ nearly 55% of the labour force. In order to be successful in this
knowledge economy, business organisations must be able to optimise the flow of
information and knowledge within the organisation as well as to maximise the
organisations knowledge resources. Ghana is experiencing this knowledge
economy via digitalisation who most of our workforces are controlled by digital
technologies.

The current business environment has changed a traditional business organisation

from a hierarchical, centralised, and structured arrangement. This strategy has
flattened and decentralised organisational activities with an easy access of
information. The traditional management group relies on formal plans, a rigid
division of labour and formal rules. The new management style relies on informal
commitments and network to establish goals, a flexible arrangement of teams
working in task forces, and a customer orientation, in order to achieve coordination
between employees. In order for this style of management to be successful, it has
to be supported by sufficient ICT infrastructure.

The intensive use of computers, ICT or computing in business organisations has

created the concept of digital organisations. A digital organisation can be defined
as an organisation where nearly all of the organisation’s significant business
activities are digitally enabled and mediated. In a digital organisation, any piece of
information required to support key business decisions is available at anytime and
anywhere in the organisation.

In the years between 2010 and 2020, I stated that the computer systems, computing
or ICT development in Ghana will focus on developing Ghana as a knowledge
society and we have seen the outcome. A knowledge society is a society in which
knowledge becomes major creative force. The establishment of Ghana as a
knowledge society is very important in order to enable us to be a leader in the
knowledge economy. Knowledge economy is where a country’s workforce is
controlled by digital technology.
ITY 1

Dr. Ohene-Bonsu Simmons, Ph.D. GCTU/ Intr. Comp. Systems Topic1 Concepts and Definitions Page 14