CHAPTER THREE
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
3.1 Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicle on Curves
When a vehicle is moving on a curved path, it is subjected to an outward force, commonly
known as centrifugal force. In order to resist this force, it is usual practice to super-elevate the
roadway cross-section. Figure 3.1(b) shows the forces acting on a vehicle at a super-elevated
section.
Figure 3.1: Forces acting on a vehicle on a curve
Let m = mass of vehicle
v = speed of the vehicle in m/sec.
R = radius of the curve in m.
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
P = side friction force resisting the centrifugal force = N μ
μ = coefficient of lateral friction
α = angle of super-elevation
e = rate of super-elevation, tanα
mv 2
The centrifugal force = R
For equilibrium, resolving forces parallel to the inclined plane,
mv 2
cos α = mg sin α + P
R
= mg sin α + Nμ
=
(
mg sin α + μ mg cosα +
mgv 2
R )
sin α
Obtained by resolving forces at right angles to the inclined plane.
v2 μ v2
= tan α + μ + tan α
Therefore, gR gR
μ v2
tan α
The term gR being too small, can be neglected. Thus,
v2
=e + μ
gR
Expressing speed as V in km/hr.,
V2
=e+μ
127 R 3.1
Equation 3.1 is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of the curve, the
super-elevation and the coefficient of lateral friction. This equation forms the basis for of design
of horizontal curves. If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by the super-elevation,
frictional force will not be called to play. Thus, μ = 0 in equation 3.1.In such a case, the
pressures of the inner and outer wheels will be equal.
3.2 Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction
The value of coefficient of lateral friction depends on a number of factors, such as vehicle speed,
type and condition of roadway surface, and type and condition of tyres. AASHTO recommends
the values given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Coefficient of lateral friction as recommended by AASHTO
Design speed (km/hr.) 50 65 80 100 120 130
Max. lateral friction value 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.1 0.12 0.11
3
3.3 Maximum Super-elevation Value
If equation 3.1 is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super-elevation that
can be permitted. The AASHTO practice limits it to 0.12, whereas UK practice limit it to 0.07.
3.4 Minimum radii of curves
Equation 3.1 can be rewritten as:
V2
R=
127 ( e + μ ) 3.2
Adopting e = 0.07 0r 0.10 and μ = 0.15, equation 3.2 becomes;
R = 0.0357 V2 (for plain and rolling terrain) 3.3
R = 0.0315 V2 (for hill roads that are not snow bound) 3.4
R = 0.0357 V2 (for hill roads that are snow bound) 3.5
Since current standards give two values of design speeds (ruling and minimum), equations 3.3 -
3.5 yield two values for radius, the ruling radius and the absolute minimum radius.
3.5 Super-elevation rates
Super-elevating on curves is intended to counteract a part of the centrifugal force, the remaining
part being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevating results in economies in
maintenance. This is because skidding and unequal pressures on the wheels of vehicles, which
result in high value of sideway force between the tyres and the roadway surface, necessitate
frequent attention to the surface.
Table 3.2: Minimum radii of horizontal curve
Classification Plain Rolling Mountainous terrain Steep terrain
of road terrain terrain No snow Snow No snow Snow
area area area area
Rul Abs Rul Abs Rul Abs Rul Abs Rul Abs Rul Abs
min min min min min min min min min min min min
1. National 360 230 230 155 80 50 90 60 50 30 60 33
and state
Highways
2. Major 230 155 105 90 50 30 60 33 30 14 33 16
district roads
3. Other 155 90 98 60 30 20 23 23 20 14 23 15
district roads
4. Village 90 60 60 45 20 14 23 15 20 14 23 15
roads
Super-elevation can be provided either to fully counteract the centrifugal force or to counteract a
fixed proportion of the centrifugal force. In the former case, the super-elevation needed would be
more than 1 in 15 on sharp curves causing inconvenience to slow moving vehicles. Since super-
elevation has to be limited to 0.07 or 0.10, maximum friction would have to be relied on when
the sharpest possible curve is traversed.
When a vehicle negotiates a flat curve, friction will not be developed to the maximum. This is
not a balanced design. It is desirable that the super-elevation should be such that a moderate
amount of friction is developed while negotiating flat curves and friction not exceeding the
maximum allowable value be developed at sharp curves. Therefore, designing the super-
elevations to fully counteract the centrifugal force developed at a friction of the design speed will
provide the necessary balance.
The above is achieved as per UK practice by providing full super-elevation for a speed of 63.2
percent of the design speed such that 40 percent of the centrifugal force is counteracted by super-
elevation. Thus,
0.632V 2 V2
e= =
127 R 314 R 3.6
As per Indian practice, super-elevation is calculated on the assumption that it should counteract
the centrifugal force developed at three-quarter the design speed. Thus,
0.75V 2 V2
e= =
127 R 225 R 3.7
The super-elevation calculated in equation 3.7 is restricted to 0.07 or 0.10 as indicated in section
3.4.
3.6 Radii of Curves for which no Super-elevation is Required
The normal cambered section of a highway can itself be continued on a curve where the super-
elevation calculated is less than the camber. From equation 3.7,
V2
R=
225 e 3.8
Substituting the value of camber for e in equation 3.8, the maximum radius beyond which super-
elevation is required is obtained. Table 3.3 gives the values for various design speeds and
cambers.
Table 3.3: Radii beyond which super-elevation is not essential for different cambers and speeds
Design speed Radius (m) beyond which no super-elevation is needed for values of camber
(km/hr) of
4% 3% 2.5% 2% 1.7%
20 50 60 70 90 100
25 70 90 110 140 150
30 100 130 160 200 240
35 140 180 220 270 320
40 180 240 280 350 420
50 280 370 450 550 650
65 470 620 750 950 1100
80 700 960 1100 1400 1700
100 1100 1500 1800 2200 2600
In such cases where the radius is greater than those given in Table 3.2, it is desirable to remove
the adverse crown in the outer half of the carriageway and super-elevate at the normal crown
slope.
3.7 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation
The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-elevated surface
in two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level
(Figure 3.2b).
Figure 3.2: First stage in attaining super-elevation equal to camber
Figure 3.3: Second stage in attaining super-elevation
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point of
the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not exceeding 1 in
150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full
super-elevation.
(i) The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually lowering
the inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline constant (Figure
3.3a).
(ii) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the outer edge
(Figure 3.3b).
(iii) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the inner
edge (Figure 3.3c).
Method (i) is generally used as it results in the least distortion of the pavement. Figure 3.4 shows
the method of attaining super-elevation using method (i).
Figure 3.4: Attaining super-elevation by resolving about the centre
Example 1
A horizontal curve is to be designed for a National Highway in Plain terrain. Calculate the ruling
minimum and absolute minimum radii. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution
Assumptions made:
1. Design speed (Ruling) = 100 km/hr.
2. Design speed (minimum) = 80 km/hr. (see Table 3.2)
3. Maximum super-elevation = e = 0.07
4. Coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15
V2
R=
From equation 3.2, 127 ( e + μ )
Substituting V = 100, e = 0.07, μ = 0.15
100 x 100
R= = 357.9 m
127 ( 0.07 + 0.15 )
Thus, the ruling minimum radius is 360 m.
For minimum design speed of V = 80,
80 x 80
R= = 229m
127 ( 0.07 + 0.15 )
Thus, the absolute minimum radius = 230 m
(Compare these values with those in Table 3.2).
Example 2
Calculate the safe driving speed on a curve with radius 200 m, the super-elevation being 0.07. Is
the curve meeting the standards of Major District Roads in plain terrain? If the pavement width is
7 m, how much should the pavement edges be raised or depressed abount the crown if the super-
elevation is provided by rotating about the centerline?
Solution
Maximum allowable coefficient of lateral friction, μ = 0.15
V2
R=
127 ( e + μ )
V 2 = 127 x R ( e + μ )
V = √ 127 x 200 x ( 0.07 + 0.15 ) = 74.8 km/hr
The ruling design speed for Major District Road in plain terrain is 80 km/hr. Hence, it does not
satisfy this. But the absolute minimum design speed for Major District Road in plain terrain is 65
km/hr., which the curve satisfies.
The total super-elevation to be provided = 0.07 x 7 = 0.49 m.
Half of this (0.245 m) is provided by depressing the inner edge and the remaining half (0.245 m)
is provided by raising the outer edge.
3.8 Transition Curves
3.8.1 Need for transition
When a vehicle travelling on a straight course (that is, infinite radius) enters a curve of finite
radius, it is suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force which causes shock and sway. In order to
avoid this, it is customary to provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve,
having a radius equal to infinity at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius to the
radius of the circular curve where the curve begins. Incidentally, the transition portion is also
used for the gradual application of the super-elevation and the curve widening and improvement
of general appearance.
3.8.2 The spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the one recommended is the
spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate of change of acceleration is uniform through
the length of the transition. Figure 3.5 shows the main elements of a circular curve provided with
spiral for transition at its two ends.
Figure 3.5: Main elements of a circular curve provided with transitions
Some of the important properties of the spiral are given as follows:
(i) Ls Rc = LR = constant 3.9
(ii) L = M√ θ , where M is a constant 3.10
M = √ 2 RL 3.11
Also, L = 2Rθ 3.12
(iii)
θ=
( )
L 2
Ls s
θ
3.13
Ls 28 . 65 Ls
θs = radians = deg rees
(iv) 2 Rc Rc 3.14
Ls Δ
Ts = + ( Rc + s ) tan
(v) 2 2 3.15
L2
s
s=
(vi) 24 R c 3.16
Δ
E s = ( R c + s ) sec − R c
(vii) 2 3.17
where,
θ s = Spiral angle
Δ c = Angle of the circular curve
Δ = External angle
Ls= Spiral length
Rc = Radius of circular curve
L = Length of spiral from starting point to any point
R = Radius of curvature of the spiral at the point distant L from starting point
θ = Deflection angle at any point of the spiral distant L from the starting point
Ts = Tangent distance
Es = Apex distance
s = Shift
HIP = Horizontal Intersection Point
BS = Beginning of spiral
BC = Beginning of circular curve
EC = End of circular curve
ES = End of spiral
3.8.3 Length of transition
The length of transition can be determined based on the following two considerations:
(i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C the rate of change of acceleration,
v2 v2 L v2
C= +t = + s =
Rc R c v Rc L s
where, Rc and Ls are as defined above, t = time in seconds to travel a distance of L s, v = speed in
m/sec.
Thus,
v3 0 . 0215 v 3
Ls = =
3 . 63 C R c C Rc
3.18
Note: v is in km/hr. C is given by;
80
C=
75 + v 3.19
(Subject to a maximum of 0.8 and minimum of 0.5)
(ii) The rate of change of super-elevation should be such as not to cause higher gradients and
unsightly appearances. This could be kept to 1 in 150 for roads in plain and rolling terrain and 1
in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-elevation can be given by rotating about the
centerline, inner or outer edge, the length of the transition will be governed by accordingly. In
calculating the length of the transition, the pavement width should include any widening that
may have been provided at the curve.
The higher of the values in method (i) and (ii) should be adopted.
Example 3
A two-lane (7.0 m wide) pavement on a National Highway has a curve of radius 400 m.
Determine the length of transition curve making suitable assumptions.
Solution
Assumptions:
(i) Design ruling speed = 100 km/hr.
80
C=
(ii) 75 + v 0.5<= C <= 0.8
(iii) e = 0.07 maximum
(iv) Rate of attainment of super-elevation = 1 in 150
Length of transition curve for satisfactory rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is
v3 0 . 0215 v 3
Ls = =
C Rc C R c (Equation 3.18)
80
C= = 0.46
175
Adopt minimum of 0.5
0.0215 x 1003
Ls =
0.5 x 400
(0.75V )2 0.75 x 0.75 x 100 x 100
e= = = 0.11
127 R 127 x 400
This is high and should be restricted to 0.07.
Since the radius is greater than 300 m, widening of pavement on curve is nil.
Raising the pavement due to super-elevation
= 0.07 x 7 = 0.49 m
Assuming rotation of super-elevation about the centerline, raising of outer edge involved
= 0.49/2 = 0.245 m
Assuming normal camber of 2.5%;
Camber to be nullified = 0.025 x 7/2 = 0.0875 m
Total raising of outer edge = 0.245/0.0875 = 0.3325 m
Length of transition needed = 0.3325 x 150 = 49.88 = 50 m
Adopt 107.5 m, which is the higher of the two values.
3.9 Widening on Curves
Widening of pavements is needed on curves for the following reasons:
(i) On curves, the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track inside the front
wheels as shown in Figure 3.6.
(ii) On curves, drivers have difficulty in steering their wheels to keep the centerline of the lane.
(iii) Drivers have psychological shyness to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves.
From Figure 3.6, consider the triangle OCB with right angle at B.
Figure 3.6: Widening of curves
l 2 + ( R−m )2 = R 2
l2 = 2 Rm − m2 = AB x ( 2 AO − AB )
= 2 Rm − m2
Neglecting m2, being too small,
l2
m=
2R 3.20
Assuming a wheel base of 6 m for a vehicle corresponding to AASHTO Single Unit (SU),
18
m=
Widening in metres, R 3.21
where, R = Radius in metres.
The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed to by the
V
0.1
empirical formula √R 3.22
where, V = speed in km/hr, R = radius in m.
The total widening for pavements is given by;
18 V
We= n + 0. 1 (in metres)
Rc √ Rc 3.23
where, n = number of lanes.
Table 3.4 gives the widening necessary for single lane and 2-lane pavements.
Table 3.4: Widening of single lane and two-lane pavements
Radius of curve Up to 20 21-40 41-60 61-100 101-300 Above 300
(m)
Extra width (m)
Two lanes 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 Nil
Single lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil Nil
Example 4
Calculate the extra widening necessary on a two-lane pavement for a curve radius of 100 m.
Assume the wheel base of design vehicle and design speed to be 6 m. and 65 km/hr.,
respectively.
Solution
18 V
We= n + 0.1
Rc √ Rc (Equation 3.23)
2 x 18 0.1 x 65
= + = 0.36 + 0.65 = 1.01 m , say 1.0 m
100 √100
3.10 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment
The following general controls for horizontal alignment should be kept in view to achieve a
sound design practice:
(i) Alignment should be as directional as possible.
(ii) Alignment should be consistent with the topography and should generally conform to the
natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves high fills and deep cuts, mars the
landscape and is difficult for maintenance.
(iii) The number of curves should be kept to a minimum.
(iv) The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Widening alignment consisting of short curves
should be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation.
(v) A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely hazardous and should be avoided.
(vi) Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided.
(vii) For a particular design speed, as large as radius as possible should be adopted.
(viii) The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills.
(ix) While abrupt reversal in curvature is to be avoided, the use of reverse curves becomes
unavoidable in hilly terrains.
(x) Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300-500 metres long, are called
broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are hazardous.
(xi) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to broken-back
arrangement.
(xii) The horizontal alignment should blend with the vertical alignment harmoniously.
