1 st march 2 to 5 DIPLOMA IN ELETRONIC/electrical ENGG.

SEMESTER 4 LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEM

Ans 1
Control engineering or control systems engineering is the engineeringdiscipline that applies control theory to design systems with desired behaviors. The practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a vehicle) and those measurements can be used to givefeedback to the input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance. When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs for correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for regulating a car's speed). Multi disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

Control theory
Main article: Control theory There are two major divisions in control theory, namely, classical and modern, which have direct implications over the control engineering applications. The scope of classical control theory is limited to single-input and single-output (SISO) system design. The system analysis is carried out in time domain using differential equations, in complex-s domain with Laplace transform or in frequency domain by transforming from the complex-s domain. All systems are assumed to be second order and single variable, and higher-order system responses and multivariable effects are ignored. A controller designed using classical theory usually requires onsite tuning due to design approximations. Yet, due to easier physical implementation of classical controller designs as compared to systems designed using modern control theory, these controllers are preferred in most industrial applications. The most common controllers designed using classical control theory are PID controllers. In contrast, modern control theory is carried out in the state space, and can deal with multi-input and multi-output (MIMO) systems. This overcomes the limitations of classical control theory in more sophisticated design problems, such as fighter aircraft control. In modern design, a system is represented as a set of first order differential equations defined using state variables. Nonlinear, multivariable, adaptiveand robust control theories come under this division. Being fairly new, modern control theory has many areas yet to be explored. Scholars like Rudolf E. Kalman and Aleksandr Lyapunov are well-known among the people who have shaped modern control theory. [edit]Control

systems

Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanicalsystems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering. However, the falling price of microprocessors is making the [citation needed] actual implementation of a control system essentially trivial . As a result, focus is shifting back to the mechanical engineering discipline, as intimate knowledge of the physical system being controlled is often desired. Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be used to implement Control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modernautomobiles. In most of the cases, control engineers utilize feedback when designing control systems. This is often accomplished using a PID controllersystem. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system, which adjusts the motor's torque accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is achieved.

Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of sensors. [edit]Control

engineering education

At many universities, control engineering courses are taught in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Mechatronics Engineering, Mechanical engineering, and Aerospace engineering; in others it is connected to computer science, as most control techniques today are implemented through computers, often as embedded systems (as in the automotive field). The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program, and employs many of the same principles in control engineering. Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering, as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived. Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behavior. Students of control engineering may start with a linear control system course dealing with the time and complex-s domain, which requires a thorough background in elementary mathematics and Laplace transform (called classical control theory). In linear control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control and nonlinear control courses require z transformation and algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. From here onwards there are several sub branches.

Ans 2 A signal-flow graph (SFG) is a special type of block diagram [1] and directed graphconsisting of nodes and branches. Its nodes are the variables of a set of linear algebraic relations. An SFG can only represent multiplications and additions. Multiplications are represented by theweights of the branches; additions are represented by multiple branches going into one node. A signal-flow graph has a one-to-one relationship with a system of linear equations. [2] In addition to this, it can also be used to represent the signal flow in a physical system; i.e., it can represent relations of cause and effect.
A possible SFG for the asymptotic gain model for a negative feedback amplifieris shown in Figure 3, and leads to the equation for the gain of this amplifier as

The interpretation of the parameters is as follows: T = return ratio, G = direct amplifier gain, G0 = feedforward (indicating the possible bilateral nature of the feedback, possibly deliberate as in the case of feedforward compensation). Figure 3 has the interesting aspect that it resembles Figure 2 for the twoport network with the addition of the extra feedback relation x2 = T y1. From this gain expression an interpretation of the parameters G0 and G is evident, namely:

There are many possible SFG's associated with any particular gain relation. Figure 4 shows another SFG for the asymptotic gain model that can be easier to interpret in terms of a circuit. In this graph,

parameter is interpreted as a feedback factor and A as a "control parameter", possibly related to a dependent source in the circuit. Using this graph, the gain is

To connect to the asymptotic gain model, parameters A and cannot be arbitrary circuit parameters, but must relate to the return ratio Tby:

and to the asymptotic gain as:

Substituting these results into the gain expression,

which is the formula of the asymptotic gain model. Signal flow graphs are used in many different subject areas besides control and network theory, for example, stochastic signal processing.

Ans 3 Mason's gain formula (MGF) is a method for finding the transfer function of a linear signal-flow graph (SFG). The formula was derived bySamuel Jefferson Mason [1] and is named after its discoverer. MGF is an alternate method to finding the transfer function algebraically by labeling each signal, writing down the equation for how that signal depends on other signals, and then solving the multiple equations for the output signal in terms of the input signal. MGF provides a step by step method to obtain the transfer function from a SFG. Often, MGF can be determined by inspection of the SFG. The method can easily handle SFGs with many variables and loops including loops with inner loops. MGF comes up often in the context of control systems and digital filters because control systems and digital filters are often represented by SFGs. Formula
The gain formula is as follows:

where:

= the determinant of the graph. y in = input-node variable y out = output-node variable G = complete gain between y in and y out N = total number of forward paths between y in and y out G k = gain of the kth forward path between y in and y out L i = loop gain of each closed loop in the system L i L j = product of the loop gains of any two non -touching loops (no common nodes) L i L j L k = product of the loop gains of any three pairwise nontouching loops k = the cofactor value of for the k forward path, with the loops touching th the k forward path removed. I.e. Remove those parts of the graph which form the loop, while retaining the parts needed for the forward path.
th

[edit] Procedure To use this technique, 1. 2. Make a list of all forward paths, and their gains, and label these G k . Make a list of all the loops and their gains, and label these L i (for i loops). Make a list of all pairs of non-touching loops, and the products of their gains ( L i L j ). Make a list of all pairwise non-touching loops taken three at a time (L i L j L k ), then four at a time, and so forth, until there are no more. Compute the determinant and cofactors k . Apply the formula.

3. 4.

Ans 4
The RouthHurwitz stability criterion is a necessary and sufficient method to establish the stability of a single-input, single-output (SISO),linear time invariant (LTI) control system. More generally, given a polynomial, some calculations using only the coefficients of that polynomial can lead to the conclusion that it is not stable. For the discrete case, see the Jury test equivalent. The criterion establishes a systematic way to show that the linearized equations of motion of a system have only stable solutions exp(pt), that is where all p have negative real parts. It can be performed using either polynomial divisions or determinant calculus. The criterion is derived through the use of the Euclidean algorithm and Sturm's theorem in evaluating Cauchy indices.

Using Euclid's algorithm

p is the number of roots of the polynomial (z) with negative Real Part; q is the number of roots of the polynomial (z) with positive Real Part (let us remind ourselves that is supposed to have no roots lying on the imaginary line); w(x) is the number of variations of the generalized Sturm chain obtained from P0(y) and P1(y) (by successive Euclidean divisions) wheref(iy) = P0(y) + iP1(y) for a real y.

By the fundamental theorem of algebra, each polynomial of degree n must have n roots in the complex plane (i.e., for an with no roots on the imaginary line, p + q = n). Thus, we have the condition that is a (Hurwitz) stable polynomial if and only if p q = n (the proof is given below). Using the RouthHurwitz theorem, we can replace the condition on p and q by a condition on the generalized Sturm chain, which will give in turn a condition on the coefficients of . [edit]Using

matrices

Let f(z) be a complex polynomial. The process is as follows: 1. Compute the polynomials P0(y) and P1(y) such that f(iy) = P0(y) + iP1(y) where y is a real number. 2. Compute the Sylvester matrix associated to P0(y) and P1(y). 3. Rearrange each row in such a way that an odd row and the following one have the same number of leading zeros. 4. Compute each principal minor of that matrix. 5. If at least one of the minors is negative (or zero), then the polynomial f is not stable.

Ans 7
Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same (i.e. same defined) event / phenomenon (or the continuation / development of the original phenomenon) in the present or future. When an event is part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop, then the event is said to "feed back" into itself. Feedback is also a synonym for:

Feedback signal - the information about the initial event that is the basis for subsequent modification of the event Feedback loop - the causal path that leads from the initial generation of the feedback signal to the subsequent modification of the event Audio feedback - the special kind of positive feedback that occurs when a loop exists between an audio input and output.

Feedback is a mechanism, process or signal that is looped back to control a system within itself. Such a loop is called a feedback loop. In systems containing an input and output, feeding back part of the output so as to increase the input is positive feedback (regeneration); feeding back part of the output in such a way as to partially oppose the input is negative feedback (degeneration). Generally, a control system has input from an external signal source and output to an external load; this defines a natural sense (or direction) or path of propagation of signal; the feedforward sense or path describes the signal propagation from input to output; feedback describes signal propagation in the reverse sense. When a sample of the output of the system is fed back, in the reverse sense, by a distinct feedback path into the interior of the system, to contribute to the input of one of its internal feedforward components, especially an active device or a substance that is consumed in an irreversible reaction, it is called the "feedback". The propagation of the signal around the feedback loop takes a finite time because it is causal. The natural sense of feedforward is defined chemically by some irreversible reaction, or electronically by an active circuit element that has access to an auxiliary power supply, so as to be able to provide power gain to amplify the signal as it propagates from input to output. For example, an amplifier can use power from its controlled power reservoir, such as its battery, to provide power gain to amplify the signal; but the reverse is not possible: the signal cannot provide power to re-charge the battery of the amplifier. Feedforward, feedback and regulation are self related. The feedforward carries the signal from source to load. Negative feedback helps to maintain stability in a system in spite of external changes. It is related to homeostasis. For example, in a population of foxes (predators) and rabbits (prey), an increase in the number of foxes will cause a reduction in the number of rabbits; the smaller rabbit population will sustain fewer foxes, and the fox population will fall back. In an electronic amplifier feeding back a negative copy of the output to the input will tend to cancel distortion, making the output a more accurate replica of the [1] input signal. Positive feedback amplifies possibilities of divergences (evolution, change of goals); it is the condition to change, evolution, growth; it gives the system the ability to access new points of equilibrium. For example, in an organism, most positive feedback provides for fast autoexcitation of elements of endocrine and nervous systems (in particular, in stress responses conditions) and are believed to play a key role in morphogenesis, growth, and development of organs, all processes that are, in essence, a [citation needed] rapid escape from the initial state. Homeostasis is especially visible in the nervous andendocrine systems when considered at organism level. Chemical potential energy for irreversible reactions or electrical potential energy for irreversible cell-membrane current powers the feedforward sense of the process. However, in the case of morphogenesis, feedback may only be enough to explain the increase in momentum of the system, and may not be sufficient in itself to account [citation needed] for the movement or direction of its parts. When a public-address system is used with a microphone to amplify speech, the output from a random sound at the microphone may produce sound at a loudspeaker that reaches the microphone such as to reinforce and amplify the original signal (positive feedback), building up to a howl (of frequency dependent upon the acoustics of the hall). A similar process is used deliberately to produce oscillating electrical signals. Feedback is distinctly different from reinforcement that occurs in learning, or in conditioned reflexes. Feedback combines immediately with the immediate input signal to drive the responsive power gain element, without changing the basic responsiveness of the system to future signals. Reinforcement changes the basic responsiveness of the system to future signals, without combining with the immediate input signal. Reinforcement is a permanent change in the responsiveness of the system to all future signals. Feedback is only transient, being limited by the duration of the immediate signal.