Midsem Notes

Basic Fundamentals
R is an environment for data manipulation, statistical computing, graphic display
and data analysis. Effective data handling and storage of output is possible.
Simple as well as complicated calcu possible.

Introduction to R: R is a programming language and environment designed for

statistical computing and graphics. Developed by Ross Ihaka and Robert
Gentleman in the 1990s, it's widely used in data analysis, statistical modeling,
and visualization.

History and Applications: R has its roots in the S language created at Bell
Laboratories. It's used in various fields such as academia, healthcare, and
finance for data analysis and visualization.

Key Features
Comprehensive collection of statistical tools.

Rich graphical capabilities.

Extensible through packages.

Community support and active development.

Advantages of R
Open-source and free to use.

Wide variety of libraries and packages for data analysis and visualization.

Active community and extensive online resources.

Platform-independent (works on Windows, macOS, and Linux).

Excellent for statistical analysis and data manipulation.

Integration with other programming languages like Python and C++

R is an interpreted computer language.

Midsem Notes 1
 Installation and Use of Software
Downloading R: You can download R from the Comprehensive R Archive
Network (CRAN) at https://cran.r-project.org/. Follow the instructions on the
website to install R for your operating system (Windows, macOS, Linux).

Installing RStudio: RStudio is an integrated development environment (IDE) for

R. It provides a user-friendly interface for writing and executing R code.
Download RStudio from https://rstudio.com/.

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Midsem Notes 3
 Creating a vector

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 Vector entries can be calculations or previously stored items including vectors
themselves

myvec←c(1,3,4,2,4)
myvec
foo<-32.1
newvec<-(1,2,3,4,foo)
myvec3<-(myvec,newvec)

Slicing

3:27
foo=5.3
bar=foo:(-47+1.5)
bar

Sequences with seq

seq(from=3,to=27,by=3)
seq(from=3,to=27,length.out=40)

length.out means the gaps it will form…which means here 39 gaps will be formed

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 Repetition with rep

rep(x=1,times=4)
x=c((3,4,2),times=3)
#342342342
rep(x,each=2)
#3 3 4 4 2 2
rep(x,each=2,times=3)

Sorting with sort

sort(x=c(2,4,5,19,33),decreasing=FALSE)
#for ascending order

foo=seq(from=4.3,to=5.5,length.out=8)
bar=sort(x=foo,decreasing=TRUE)

Vector length

length(x=c(1,2,3,4))

Subsetting and Element Extraction

myvec<-c(5,-2,3,4,4,4,-8)
length(x=myvec)
#7
myvec[1]
#5

foo<-myvec[2]
foo
#-2

Midsem Notes 6
 myvec[length(myvec)]
#-8

Command line Vs Script

Execution of commands in R is not menu driven.

we need to type the commands

single line and multi lines commands are possible to write

when writing multi line program it is useful to use a text editor rather than
executing everythn directly at the command line.

there are 2 options-

1.One may use R’s own built in editor. it is accessible from R gui menu bar.

2. Use R studio software.

Introduction to R studio
it is an interface b/w R and us.

it is more useful for beginners.

it makes coding easier.

there r 4 windows in R studio

Window 1- script selection, Win 2- console (calculation takes place here),

Win 3- Environment window ( all the variables and objects used
in the prog appear here), Win 4- Output window (output appears here).

Cleaning up the windows

We assign names to variables when analysing any data.

It is good practice to remove variable names given to any dataframe at the end
of each session in R

“rm()” to remove variables (environment gets empty on removing using rm)

Midsem Notes 7
 “detach()” command - it removes it from the search path from the available R
object.

It is usually a dataframe which has been attached or a package that was

attached by the library.

To get rid of everything including dataframes, type- rm(list=ls())

x=3
y=4
rm(x,y)

To get rid of everythn including data frames, type rm(list=ls())

library(splines) #loads the packages splines

detach(package:splines) #detaches the package splines

To plot the Histograms

hist(v, main, xlab, xlim, ylim, breaks, col, border)

v: Numerical values used in the histogram.

main: Title of the chart.

xlab: Label for the horizontal axis.

xlim: Range of values for the x-axis.

ylim: Range of values for the y-axis.

breaks: Width of each bar.

col: Color of the bars.

border: Border color of each bar

R software commands

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 1. Installing packages:

install.packages("package_name")

1. HOW TO USE IT AS CALCULATOR

2. R software is case sensitive , hence capitals and small letters are different

3. is multiplication, ** is power

4. EXPONENTIAL OF VECTOR:

a. > c(2,3,4,5)^2

b. [1] 4 9 16 25

c. > c(2,3,4,5)**2

d. [1] 4 9 16 25

5. ONE VECTOR TO THE POWER OF ANOTHER:

a. > c(2,3,5,7)^c(2,3)

b. [1] 4 27 25 343

6. In the above concept, the power vector length needs to be a multiple of the
length of the base vector otherwise, it will give the

7. On multiplying two vectors, each and every element is multiplied by its own
respective position

a. > c(2,3,45,90)*c(2,3)

b. [1] 4 9 90 270

8. > c(2,3,45,90)*c(2,3,1,4)

9. [1] 4 9 45 360

10. When the multiplying vector should be of length of multiple of the first
otherwise it would give a warning but still generate the output:

a. > c(2,3,4,5)*c(2,3)

b. [1] 4 9 90

c. Warning message:

Midsem Notes 9
 d. In c(2, 3, 45) * c(2, 3) :

e. longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length

Division
Integer Division
division in which the fractional part (remainder) is discarded.

c(2,3,4,5,7)%/%c(2,3)
#2/2 , 3/3, 5/2, 7/3
#1,1,2,2

Modulo Division
modulo division finds the remainder after the division of one num by the other.

c(2,3,5,7)%%2
#0,1,1,1,1

Maximum:max

max(1,2,3,-7)

Inbuilt fxns
abs() absolute value

sqrt() square root

round(),floor(),Ceiling() Rounding,up and down

sum(),prod() sum nd product

log(),log10(),log2() exponential fxn

Midsem Notes 10
 sin(),cos(),tan(),acos(),asin() trigno fxns

sinh(),cosh(),tanh(),asin(),acosh() hyperbolic trigno fxn

mode(x) gives the datatype of x

Functions
Fxns are a bunch of commands grouped together in a sensible unit. Fxns take
input arguments ,do calculations and produce some output and return result in a
variable. The return variable can be of complex construct, like a list.

Syntax

Name<-function(Arg1,Arg2)
{
expression
}
#where syntax is a single command or a grp of command.

Fxns arguments can be given a meaningful name.

fxn args can be set to default values

Fxns can have the special args ‘__’

Matrix
in R a 4x2 matrix can be created with the following command.

x<-matrix(nrow=4,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8))

byrow=TRUE can be used to fill the data rowise.

Row and col binding

Midsem Notes 11
 rbind(1:3,4:6)
#1 2 3
#4 5 6
cbind(c(1,4),c(2,5),c(3,6))

The rbind function, short for row-bind, can be used to combine vectors, matrices
and data frames by rows. The cbind function, short for column-bind, can be used
to combine vectors, matrices and data frames by columns.

dim(mat)—>dimensions of mat

nrow(mat)—> num of rows

ncol(mat)—> num of cols
dim(mat)[2]—> [1] —>means no. of rows, [2]—>num of col…( it is upto two places
only,,1,2)
diag(x=mat)—>print the diagonal matrix

Omitting and Overwriting

a[,-2] #deleting second col

#2nd coldeleted
a[-1,3:2] #first row deleted
#-1 is the row deleted, 3:2 wil be col swaped
a[-1,-2] #1st row and 2nd col will be deleted

#pehle comma (,1) is col….baad m comma(1,) is row

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 To overwrite

B[-2]<-1:3
B[c(1,3),2]<-900 #row 1 and 3 mein 2nd el ko 900 krdega
B[,3]<-B[3,] #to assign the values of col 3 to row 3
diag(x=B)<-rep(x=0,lines3) #rep means repeat
a<-diag(x=3) #prints identity matrix

Matrix Transpose
Write a program to print the transpose of a matrix
#Use t(a)
#Use t(t(a)) to show that the transpose is equal to the original matrix.

Scalar Multiplication of matrix

Midsem Notes 13
 x<-matrix(nrow=2,ncol=2,data=c(1,2,3,4)
x*5

Operations on two matrices

addition and subtraction happens on each elements

A%*%B to do proper multiplication of both matrix ( row =col)

a<-rbind(c(2,5,2),c(6,1,4))
a
dim(a)
#2 3
b<-cbind(c(3,-1,1),c(-3,1,5))
dim(b)
#3 2
a%*%b
#3 9
# 21 3

Inverse of a matrix
find the inverse of matrix thru solve(a) fxn and verify by multiplying inverse with
the original matrix and get an identity matrix.

Multidimensional Array
Just as a matrix is considered to be a collection of vectors of equal length, a 3d
array can be considered to be a collection of equally dimensioned matrices.

arr<-array(data=1:24,dim=c(3,4,2))
arr

Midsem Notes 14
 arr<-array(data=rep(1:24,times=3),dim=c(3,4,2,3))
arr

Midsem Notes 15
 Subsets, Extraction, Replacements
arr[a,b,c] where a is row, b is col, c is layer.

Midsem Notes 16
Midsem Notes 17
 3. Data Editing
Use the data.frame or matrix structure to store tabular data.

Example:

data <- data.frame(Name = c("Alice", "Bob"), Age = c(25, 30))

print(data)

Use edit(data) to edit data interactively.

4. Using R as a Calculator
Basic arithmetic:

5 + 3 # Addition
5 - 3 # Subtraction
5 * 3 # Multiplication
5 / 3 # Division
5 ^ 3 # Exponentiation

Functions for math operations:

sqrt(16) # Square root

log(10) # Natural logarithm
log10(100) # Base-10 logarithm

5. Functions and Assignments

Midsem Notes 18
 Defining Functions
Creating reusable blocks of code (functions)

add <- function(a, b) {

return(a + b)
}
result <- add(5, 3)
print(result)

Assignments
Use <- or = to assign values: assigning values to variables for computation
and data manipulation.

x <- 10
y = 20
z <- x + y
print(z)

6. R Packages
Collections of pre-built functions and datasets in R that extend its functionality for
specialized tasks

Extend R’s capabilities with packages.

To install a package:

install.packages("ggplot2")

Load a package:

library(ggplot2)

Check installed packages:

Midsem Notes 19
 installed.packages()

7. Expressions, Objects, Symbols, and Functions

Expressions
Any syntactically valid collection of R code. Any valid combination of code that
produces a result

x <- 5 + 3 # Expression

Objects
Everything in R is an object (e.g., vectors, matrices, lists).

Data entities in R, such as vectors or lists, that store information.

Create objects using assignments.

my_vector <- c(1, 2, 3)

Symbols
Names assigned to objects.

x <- 10 # 'x' is a symbol for the value 10

Functions
Built-in or user-defined reusable operations that perform specific tasks.

mean(c(1, 2, 3)) # Built-in function

8. Special Values

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 Special Constants

Unique constants in R (e.g.,

NA , NULL , Inf , NaN ) that represent missing data, absence of value, or undefined

operations.

NA : Missing value.

NULL : Absence of value.

Inf : Infinity (e.g., 1/0).

NaN : Not a Number (e.g., 0/0).

Examples

x <- c(1, 2, NA, 4)

mean(x, na.rm = TRUE) # Remove NA for calculations

Midsem Notes 21