MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

1. The specimen must be of constant cross-section.

2.0 THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM 2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform
stress.
The strength of a material is not the only criterion that
must be considered in designing structures. The Note that since strain represents a change in length
stiffness of a material is frequently of equal divided by the original length, strain is a dimensionless
importance. To a lesser degree, mechanical properties quantity. However, it is common to use units of meters
such as hardness, toughness and ductility determine per meter (m/m) or inches per inch (in/in) when
the selection of the material. These properties are referring to strain.
determined by making tests on the materials and
comparing the results with established standards.
2.2 PROPORTIONAL LIMITS

From the origin O to a point called the proportional

limit, the figure shows the stress-strain diagram to be
a straight line. From this we deduce the well-known
relation, first postulated by Robert Hooke in 1678, that
stress is proportional to strain. Notice carefully that
this proportionality does not extend throughout the
diagram; it ends at the proportional limit.

The proportional limit is important because all

subsequent theory involving the behavior of elastic
bodies is based on a stress-strain proportionality.
Other concepts developed from the stress-strain
diagram curve are the following:

2.1 STRAIN 1. The elastic limit is the stress beyond which the
material will not return to its original shape when
unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation
To obtain the unit deformation or strain, ε, we divide called permanent set.
the elongation δ by the length L in which it was
measured, thereby obtaining 2. The yield point is the point at which there is an
appreciable elongation or yielding of the material
without any corresponding increase of load.

3. The yield strength is closely associated with the

yield point.

The strain so computed, however, measures only the 4. The ultimate stress, or ultimate strength as it is
average value of strain. The correct expression for more commonly called, is the highest ordinate on the
strain at any position is stress-strain curve.

5. The rupture strength is the stress at failure.

where dδ is the differential elongation of the 2.3 WORKING STRESS AND FACTOR OF
differential length dL. SAFETY
The working stress, also called the allowable stress, is
the maximum safe stress a material can carry. In
Under certain conditions, the strain may be assumed design, the working stress σ 𝑤 should be limited to
constant and these conditions are as follows:
values not exceeding the proportional limit so as not to

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

invalidate the stress-strain relation of Hooke’s law on modulus of elasticity E. Note that it is subject to all the
which all subsequent theory is based. However, since restrictions previously discussed in connection with
the proportional limit is difficult to determine the equations it combines. For convenience, let us
accurately, it is customary to base the working stress restate these restrictions:
on either the yield point or the ultimate strength,
divided by a suitable number F.S., called the factor of 1. The load must be axial.
safety: 2. The bar must have a constant-cross section and be
homogeneous.
2.1 HOOKE’S LAW: AXIAL AND 3. The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
SHEARING DEFORMATIONS
2.4 SHEARING FORCES
The slope of the straight-line portion of the
stress-strain diagram is the ratio of stress to strain. It
Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as
is called the modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E:
axial forces cause elongations, but with an important
difference. An element subject to tension undergoes
an increase in length; an element subject to shear does
not change the length of its sides, but it undergoes a
change in shape from a rectangle to a parallelogram.
which is usually written in the form

In this form, it is known as Hooke’s law. Originally,

Hooke’s law specified merely that stress was
proportional to strain, but Thomas Young in 1807
introduced a constant of proportionality that came to
be known as Young’s modulus. Eventually, this name
was superseded by the phrase modulus of elasticity.

The units for modulus of elasticity E are identical to

the units for stress σ – recall that strain ε is a The action may be visualized as equivalent to the
dimensionless quantity. As an illustration, the modulus infinitesimal sliding of infinitely thin layers past each
9
of elasticity for steel in SI is approximately 200 × 10 other, thereby resulting in the total shearing
𝑁 9
(200 × 10 𝑃𝑎 ). deformation δ 𝑠 in the length L.
2
𝑚
A convenient variation of Hooke’s law is obtained by
𝑃 δ The average shearing strain is found by dividing δ 𝑠
by
replacing σ by its equivalent 𝐴 and replacing ε by . 𝐿 δ𝑠
L. In the figure, this defines tan γ = 𝐿
. However,
since the angle γ is usually very small, tan γ ≈ γ and we
obtain

More precisely, the shearing strain is defined as the

angular change between two perpendicular faces of a
differential element.
The deformation equation shown expresses the
relation among the total deformation d, the applied
load P, the length L, the cross-sectional area A, and the The relation between shearing stress and shearing

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

120−40
strain, assuming Hooke’s law to apply to shear, is 2 𝑦
3 = 𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 0. 004𝑥
10(10 )

Area of the strip (Area perpendicular to the force)

in which G represents the modulus of elasticity in

shear, more commonly called the modulus of rigidity.
The relation between the shearing deformation and
applied shearing forces is then expressed by

𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑏(𝑥) × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐴(𝑥) = (40 + 2𝑦)20 ⇒ (40 + 0. 004𝑥)20
in which V is the shearing force acting over the
shearing area As. 𝐴(𝑥) = 800 + 0. 16𝑥

Formula:
SAMPLE PROBLEM | 2.1 𝑃𝑑𝐿
𝑑δ = 𝐴𝐸

Compute the total elongation caused by an axial load 10000

of 100 kN applied to a flat bar 20 mm thick, tapering 3
100(10 )𝑑𝑥
δ= ∫ = 3. 433 𝑚𝑚
from a width of 40 mm to 120 mm in a length of 10 m 0 (800+0.16𝑥)(200)(10 )
3

as shown below. Assume E = 200 GPa.

SAMPLE PROBLEM | 2.2

(Same concept problem)
The rigid bar BC in Fig. (a) is supported by the steel rod
AC of cross-sectional area 0.25 in². Find the vertical
displacement of point C caused by the 2000-lb load.
Use E = 29 ×10⁶ psi for steel.

Solution:

By similar triangle:

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

Find the axial force in AC using the method of joints. SAMPLE PROBLEM | 2.3

An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5

in² carries the axial loads applied at the position
shown. Compute the total change in length of the bar if
E = 10×10⁶ psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to
prevent lateral buckling.

Length of AC using triangle ABC:

Compute for the forces by cutting through the
sections:

𝑃𝐿
Computing for the elongation using: δ = 𝐴𝐸

Computing for the displacement of point C caused by

the elongation of the member:

The member will rotate slightly downward. The

difference between the initial position of point C and
its final position will be its displacement.

Forces:
FAB = 6000 lb (Tension)
FBC = 1000 lb (Compression)
FCD = 4000 lb (Tension)

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

Deformation of each segments:

12 𝑖𝑛.
6000 𝑙𝑏 × 3 𝑓𝑡 × 1 𝑓𝑡.
δAB= 2 6 = 0. 0432 𝑖𝑛.
(0.5 𝑖𝑛. )(10×10 𝑝𝑠𝑖)

12 𝑖𝑛.
−1000 𝑙𝑏 × 5 𝑓𝑡 × 1 𝑓𝑡.
δBC= 2 6 = − 0. 012 𝑖𝑛.
(0.5 𝑖𝑛. )(10×10 𝑝𝑠𝑖)

12 𝑖𝑛.
4000 𝑙𝑏 × 4 𝑓𝑡 × 1 𝑓𝑡.
δCD= 2 6 = 0. 0384 𝑖𝑛.
(0.5 𝑖𝑛. )(10×10 𝑝𝑠𝑖)

δT= 0. 0432 − 0. 012 + 0. 0384 = 0. 0696 𝑖𝑛.

SAMPLE PROBLEM | 2.4

The rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD.

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a
cross-sectional area of 500 mm². Link CD is made of (a).Deflection of B.
steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
600 mm². For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, and (c) of E.

(b.)Deflection of D.

(c.)Deflection of E.
By analyzing the proportion of triangles formed in the
figure, The deflection of E can be calculated.

Free Body Diagram

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading

σ𝑦 = σ𝑧 = 0

2.6 MULTIAXIAL LOADING

2.2 POISSON’S RATIO: GENERALIZED
HOOKE’S LAW
BIAXIAL LOADING

Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for

2.5 UNIAXIAL LOADING uniaxial loading to biaxial and triaxial loadings.
Consider an element of the material that is subjected
simultaneously to normal stresses in the x- and y
Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an
directions.
axial force, there is a contraction in the transverse
dimensions.

In 1811, Siméon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of

the transverse strain to the axial strain is constant for
stresses within the proportional limit. This constant,
called Poisson’s ratio, is denoted by ν (lowercase
Greek nu). For uniaxial loading in the x-direction,
Poisson’s ratio is ν =− ε𝑡/ε𝑥, where ε𝑡 is the
transverse strain. The minus sign indicates that a
positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction
causes a negative strain (contraction) in the which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in the xy-plane
transverse directions. The transverse strain is uniform (σz = 0).
throughout the cross-section and is the same in any
direction in the plane of the cross-section. Therefore, The first two of Eq. (2.4b.1) can be inverted to express
we have for uniaxial loading the stresses in terms of the strains:

Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges

between 0.25 and 0.33 for metals.
Two-dimensional views of the stresses and the
Using σ𝑥 = 𝐸ε𝑥 in the previous equation yields the resulting deformation in the xy-plane are shown below.

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BSCE 2-3CEXTY°
 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
ENSC 019 | SEM 2 | S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 WEEK 4: SIMPLE STRAIN

Note that Eq. (2.4b.1) show that for biaxial loading ez

is not zero; that is, the strain is triaxial rather than
biaxial.

TRIAXIAL LOADING

All the equations are valid for both tensile and

compressive effects. It is only necessary to assign
positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses and,
conversely, negative signs to contractions and
compressive stresses. An important relations among
the constants E, G, and ν for a given material is
expressed by

which is useful for computing values of v when E and

G have been determined. Common values of Poisson’s
ratio are 0.25 to 0.30 for steel, approximately 0.33 for
most other metals, and 0.20 for concrete.

References:

Beer, Ferdinand P., E. Russell Johnston, John T. DeWolf,

and David F. Mazurek. Mechanics of Materials. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.

Pytel, Andrew, and Jaan Kiusalaas. Mechanics of

Materials. Cengage Learning, 2011.

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