1.

Signal Conversion
2. Analogue to digital conversion
3. Digital to analogue conversion
4. Digital signal processing
Signal Conversion
➢ To process analog signals by digital means, it is
first necessary to convert them into digital form.
➢ Also, the output of most digital systems, is
converted from a digital signal into an analogue
voltage or current.
➢ Digital-to-analogue (D/A) and analogue-to-digital
(A/D) converters constitute an essential link when
digital devices interface with analogue devices,
and vice versa.
➢ They are important building blocks of any digital
system, besides having other applications.
 Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ An A/D converter takes at its input an analogue voltage
and after a certain amount of time produces a digital
output code representing the analogue input.
➢ An anti-aliasing filter and a sample-and-hold circuit are
two functions typically found in a digital signal
processing system.
➢ A/D conversion takes place in a three-step process:
sampling, quantization, and encoding.
 Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ Sampling is the conversion of a continuous-time signal into
a discrete time signal obtained by taking “samples’" of the
continuous-time signal at discrete-time instants.
➢ Sampling converts an analog signal into a series of
impulses, each representing the amplitude of the signal at
a given instant in time.
➢ If xa(t) is the input to the sampler, the output is xa(nT),
where T is called the sampling interval.
➢ The sampling theorem states that, in order to represent an
analogue signal, the sampling frequency, fsample, must be at
least twice the highest frequency component fa(max) of the
analog signal.
𝑓𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ≥ 2𝑓𝑎(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Analogue to Digital Conversion
Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ If there are any frequency components in the
analog signal that exceed the Nyquist frequency, an
unwanted condition known as aliasing will occur.
➢ An alias signal has a frequency that is less than the
highest frequency in the analog signal being
sampled and therefore falls within the spectrum or
frequency band of the input analog signal causing
distortion.
➢ A sampling circuit uses low-pass filtering to
remove all frequency components (harmonics) of
the analog signal that exceed the Nyquist
frequency.
Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ The holding operation is the second part of the
sample-and-hold function.
➢ After filtering and sampling, the sampled level
must be held constant until the next sample
occurs.
➢ This is necessary for the ADC to have time to
process the sampled value.
➢ This sample-and-hold operation results in a
“stairstep” waveform that approximates the
analog input waveform.
Analogue to Digital Conversion
Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ Quantization is the conversion of a discrete-time
continuous-valued signal into a discrete-time,
discrete-valued (digital) signal, xq(n).
➢ The value of each signal sample is represented by a
value selected from a finite set of possible values
➢ The amplitude of each sample is rounded to the
nearest value within a finite set of levels,
determined by the resolution of the ADC.
➢ It outputs a sequence of quantized values.
➢ Enoding is the process where each quantized value
xq(n) is represented by a b-bit binary sequence
Analogue to Digital Conversion
Types of ADC
Flash (Simultaneous) ADC
➢ The flash method utilizes special high-speed
comparators that compare reference voltages with
the analog input voltage.
➢ When the input voltage exceeds the reference
voltage for a given comparator, a HIGH is
generated.
➢ The reference voltage for each comparator is set
by the resistive voltage-divider circuit.
➢ The output of each comparator is connected to an
input of the priority encoder.
 Types of ADC
Flash (Simultaneous) ADC
➢ The large number of comparators necessary for a reasonable-
sized binary number is one of the disadvantages of the flash
ADC.
➢ Its chief advantage is that it provides a fast conversion time
because of a high throughput, measured in samples per
second (sps).
 Types of ADC
Dual-Slope ADC
➢ A ramp generator (integrator) is used to produce
the dual-slope characteristic.
➢ A dual-slope ADC is common in digital voltmeters
and other types of measurement instruments.
Types of ADC

Dual-Slope ADC
Types of ADC
Successive-Approximation ADC
➢ One of the most widely used methods of analog-
to-digital conversion is successive approximation.
➢ It has a much faster conversion time than the
dual-slope conversion, but it is slower than the
flash method.
➢ It also has a fixed conversion time that is the
same for any value of the analog input.
➢ It consists of a DAC, a successive-approximation
register (SAR), and a comparator.
➢ The input bits of the DAC are enabled (made
equal to a 1) one at a time, starting with the most
significant bit (MSB).
Types of ADC
Successive-Approximation ADC
➢ As each bit is enabled, the comparator produces an
output that indicates whether the input signal
voltage is greater or less than the output of the DAC.
➢ If the DAC output is greater than the input signal,
the comparator’s output is LOW, causing the bit in
the register to reset.
➢ If the output is less than the input signal, the 1 bit is
retained in the register.
➢ The system does this with the MSB first, then the
next significant bit, then the next, and so on.
➢ After all the bits of the DAC have been tried, the
conversion cycle is complete.
Types of ADC
Types of ADC
Sigma-Delta ADC
➢ Sigma-delta ADC is based on delta modulation
where the difference between two successive samples
(increase or decrease) is quantized; other ADC
methods were based on the absolute value of a
sample.
➢ Delta modulation is a 1-bit quantization method.
➢ The output of a delta modulator is a single-bit data
stream where the relative number of 1s and 0s
indicates the level or amplitude of the input signal.
➢ The number of 1s over a given number of clock
cycles establishes the signal amplitude during that
interval.
Types of ADC
Types of ADC
Sigma-Delta ADC
➢ The analog input signal and the analog signal from the
converted quantized bit stream from the DAC in the
feedback loop are applied to the summation (Σ) point.
➢ The difference (Δ) signal out of the Σ is integrated, and
the 1-bit ADC increases or decreases the number of 1s
depending on the difference signal.
➢ This action attempts to keep the quantized signal that is
fed back equal to the incoming analog signal.
➢ The 1-bit quantizer is essentially a comparator followed
by a latch.
➢ To complete the sigma-delta conversion process using
one particular approach, the single bit data stream is
converted to a series of binary codes
Types of DAC
Binary-Weighted-Input DAC
➢ It uses a resistor network with resistance values
that represent the binary weights of the input bits
of the digital code.
➢ Each of the input resistors will either have
current or have no current, depending on the
input voltage level.
➢ If the input voltage is zero (binary 0), the current
is also zero.
➢ If the input voltage is HIGH (binary 1), the
amount of current depends on the input resistor
value and is different for each input resistor.
Types of DAC
Binary-Weighted-Input DAC
➢ Since there is practically no current into the op-
amp inverting (-) input, all of the input currents
sum together and go through Rf.
➢ Since the inverting input is at 0 V (virtual
ground), the drop across Rf is equal to the output
voltage, so Vout = IfRf.
➢ The values of the input resistors are chosen to be
inversely proportional to the binary weights of
the corresponding input bits.
➢ The lowest-value resistor (R) corresponds to the
highest binary-weighted input. The other
resistors are multiples of R.
Types of DAC

Binary-Weighted-Input ADC
Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder ADC
➢ It overcomes one of the problems in the binary-
weighted-input DAC in that it requires only two
resistor values.
➢ Start by assuming that the D3 input is HIGH (+5
V) and the others are LOW (ground,0 V). This
condition represents the binary number 1000.
➢ No current goes through the 2R equivalent
resistance because the inverting input is at virtual
ground.
➢ Thus, all of the current (I = 5 V/2R) through R7
also goes through Rf, and the output voltage is -5
V.
Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder ADC
➢ The operational amplifier keeps the inverting (-)
input near zero volts (L0 V) because of negative
feedback.
➢ Therefore, all current goes through Rf rather than
into the inverting input.
Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder ADC
➢ It overcomes one of the problems in the binary-
weighted-input DAC in that it requires only two
resistor values.
 Performance Characteristics of DAC
➢ Resolution. is the reciprocal of the number of discrete steps in
the output. This, of course, is dependent on the number of
input bits. Resolution can also be expressed as the number of
bits that are converted.
➢ Accuracy. is derived from a comparison of the actual output of a
DAC with the expected output. It is expressed as a percentage
of a full-scale, or maximum, output voltage.
➢ Linearity. A linear error is a deviation from the ideal straight-
line output of a DAC.
➢ Monotonicity. A DAC is monotonic if it does not take any
reverse steps when it is sequenced over its entire range of input
bits.
➢ Settling time. Settling time is normally defined as the time it
takes a DAC to settle within ;1/2 LSB of its final value when a
change occurs in the input code.
Digital Signal Processing
➢ Digital signal processing converts signals that
naturally occur in analogue form, such as sound,
video, and information from sensors, to digital
form.
➢ A digital signal processing system first
translates a continuously varying analogue
signal into a series of discrete levels.
➢ Next, the “stairstep” approximation is quantized
into binary codes that represent each discrete
step on the “stairsteps” by a process called
analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.
Digital Signal Processing
➢ Once the analogue signal has been converted to a
binary coded form, it is applied to a DSP (digital
signal processor).
➢ The DSP can perform various operations on the
incoming data, such as removing unwanted
interference, increasing the amplitude of some
signal frequencies and reducing others, encoding
the data for secure transmissions, and detecting
and correcting errors in transmitted codes.
➢ After a DSP processes a signal, the signal can be
converted back to an enhanced version of the
original analog signal.
Digital Signal Processing
The Digital Signal Processor
A DSP is a special type of microprocessor that processes
data in real time. It finds application in:
➢ Telecommunications: DSP facilitates multiplexing many
signals onto one transmission channel.
➢ Music processing: The DSP is used in the music industry
to provide filtering, signal addition and subtraction, and
signal editing in music preparation and recording.
➢ Speech generation and recognition: DSPs are used in
speech generation and recognition to enhance the quality
of man/machine communication.
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