ACCORDING TO HEC SYLLABUS

TOOLS FOR REASONING SKILLS

QUANTITATIVE
REASONING
II
2024

Dr. Aamir Shahzad Muhammad Usman Hamid

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 Published by:
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Written by:
Muhammad Usman Hamid
Superior Group of Colleges
Sillanwali, Sargodha

Special Thanks to:

Prof. Munawar Khokhar Prof. Shahbaz Minhas
Prof. Iqra Anum Prof. Rahila Umar
Prof. Javeria Iftakhar Prof. Zunaira Jamil
Prof. Aneela Saeed Prof. Zara Fatima

Edition:
First Edition 2024

All Rights Reserved:

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 Preface
In an era where data is abundant and insights are scarce, the ability to reason quantitatively
has become a vital skill for navigating the complexities of modern life. From the scientist
evaluating evidence to the business leader making informed decisions, quantitative
reasoning is the foundation upon which wise choices are built.
"Tools for Quantitative Reasoning" is designed to equip readers with the conceptual
frameworks, practical methods, and critical thinking skills necessary to excel in a data-
driven world. This book provides a comprehensive toolkit for working with numbers,
understanding statistical analysis, and applying quantitative techniques to real-world
problems.
Through its pages, readers will discover how to:
Evaluate evidence and arguments using quantitative criteria
Apply statistical methods to understand complex phenomena
Make informed decisions based on data-driven insights
Communicate quantitative ideas with clarity and precision
Whether you are a student, professional, or simply someone seeking to enhance your
analytical abilities, "Tools for Quantitative Reasoning" is your guide to unlocking the
power of quantitative thinking. Join us on this journey to develop the skills and knowledge
necessary to succeed in an increasingly quantitative world.

Muhammad Usman Hamid

Superior Group of Colleges
Sillanwali, Sargodha

This course is based on quantitative reasoning I course. It will enhance the quantitative
reasoning skills learned in quantitative reasoning 1 course. Students will be introduced to
more tools necessary for quantitative reasoning skills to live in the fast paced 21st century.
Students will be introduced to importance of statistical and mathematical skills in different
professional settings, social and natural sciences. These quantitative reasoning skills will
help students to better participate in national and international issues like political and
health issues. This course will prepare the students to apply quantitative reasoning tools
more efficiently in their professional and daily life activities. This course will help them to
better understand the information in form of numeric, graphs, tables, and functions.
Dr. Aamir Shahzad
Baba Guru Nanak University
Nankana Sahab

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 Sr # Pg #
No. Chapter Name No.

1 Introduction to Numeracy and basic definitions

 Introduction to quantitative reasoning
 Overview of contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians especially Muslim
scholars. 5
 Types of standard numbers system & basic arithmetic operations
 Inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, Logical fallacies and abductive
Reasoning
2 Logic and Its Applications
 Logical reasoning, importance and their application in modern age
 Propositions, Prepositional Variables, Induction, deduction, logical
connectives, Compound statements, Truth Values, Truth Tables and
Applications, Negation, conjunction, disjunction.
 Logic Statements, Quantifiers and Predicates, Equivalent Statements 33
 Tautologies, Contradiction and contingencies.
 The Conditional and Related Statements, truth sets, Arguments
 Venn Diagram and Euler Diagrams
 Applications of Propositional logics.
3 Linear and non – Linear Models
 Population growth models
 Rectangular Coordinates and Linear Functions
 Finding Linear and non – linear Models 98
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
 Quantitative reasoning exercises using mathematical modeling.
i.e. linear and exponential models
4 Linear Equations and Inequalities
 Analytical approach to solve simultaneous equations
 Inequalities and their application 153
 Comparing quantities using analytical tools
5 Derivatives
 Elementary introduction to derivatives in mathematical modeling 174
 Instantaneous rates
 Graphical presentation of derivatives
6 Statistics and Data Handlings
 Introduction, Probabilistic models, Statistical models.
 Data and distribution of data, tabulation.
 Graph, Charts, Bivariate analysis
 Data tendencies via measure of location 194
 Variability and Measure of dispersion
 Measuring relationships via Regression analysis and correlation. i.e.
Linear Regression and Correlation
 Statistical inference: sampling techniques, estimation techniques and
hypothesis testing for decision and policy making

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 MODEULE 1
Logic: Logical and Critical Reasoning
CH#01: INTRODUCTION TO NUMERACY AND BASIC DEFINITIONS
 Introduction to quantitative reasoning.
 Overview of contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians
especially Muslim scholars.
 Types of standard numbers system & basic arithmetic
operations
 Inductive, deductive and abductive approach of Reasoning
 Logical fallacies
CH#02: LOGIC AND ITS APPLICATIONS
 Introduction and importance of logic
 Propositions, arguments, logical connectives, truth tables and
propositional equivalences.
 Predicates and quantifiers.
 Euler diagrams to check validity of arguments.
 Venn diagrams.
 Quantitative reasoning exercises using logical reasoning
concepts and techniques.

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 CHAPTER

1
INTRODUCTION
TO NUMERACYAND ITS APPLICATION

Welcome to Quantitative Skills and Reasoning! Just what are quantitative skills and
reasoning? The simple answer is working with numbers, making sense of data, and using
your brain to figure things out. This will cover fundamental concepts from problem
solving, statistics, probability, graphs, logic, sets, measurements, and finance.

In this chapter we will learn about;

 Introduction to quantitative reasoning
 Types of quantitative reasoning
 Overview of contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians
especially Muslim scholars.
 Types of standard numbers system & basic arithmetic operations
 Inductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning
 Logical fallacies
 Abductive Reasoning

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 What is Reasoning?
Reasoning is the ability to assess things rationally by applying logic based on new or
existing information when making a decision or solving a problem. It allows you to
weigh the benefits and disadvantages of two or more courses of action before choosing
the one with the most benefit or the one that suits your needs.

Types of Reasoning

 Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning that uses formal logic and observations to prove a
theory or hypothesis. It can be used to apply a general law to a specific case or test an
induction. Its results typically have a logical certainty.
 Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples. It uses theories and assumptions to validate
observations. It can be used to apply a specific law to a general. Its results are not always
certain because it uses conclusions from observations to make generalizations. It is
helpful for extrapolation, prediction and part – to – whole arguments.
 Analogical Reasoning: Form of thinking that finds similarities between two or more
things and then use those characteristics to find other qualities common to them. It is
based on brain tendency. It can help you expand your understanding by looking for
similarities between different things.
 Abductive Reasoning: Type of reasoning that uses an observation or set of observations
to reach a logical conclusion. It is similar to inductive reasoning; however it permits
making best guesses to arrive at the simplest conclusions.
 Cause and Effect Reasoning: Type of thinking in which you show the linkage between
two events. It explains what may happen if an action takes place or why things happen
when some conditions are present.
 Critical Thinking: It involves extensive rational thought about a specific object in order
to come to a definitive conclusion. It is helpful in logic, computing and social sciences.
 Decompositional Reasoning: It is the process of breaking things into constituent parts
to understand the function of each component and how it contributes to the operation of
the item as a whole. It is helpful in logic, computing, game theory, product development,
marketing and social sciences.

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 Quantitative Skills

Any skills that use or manipulate numbers are called quantitative skills. They help to make
sense of numerical, categorical or ordinal data and scientific concepts. It is helpful in
statistics, economics, algebra, finance, business, logic and social sciences.

Quantitative Reasoning / Quantitative Literacy / Numeracy

Quantitative Reasoning is the ability to assess mathematical ideas or things rationally by

applying logic based on new or existing information when making a decision or solving a
problem. It is application of mathematical concepts or skills to solve real world problems.

Importance of Quantitative Skills / Numeracy

Numeracy is simply the application of critical thinking skills like analysis and interpretation
along with mathematical basics like algebra to quantitative information. It refers to the ability
to solve quantitative reasoning problems, or to making judgment derived from quantitative
reasoning in a variety of context. It helps to make sense of numerical, categorical or ordinal
data and scientific concepts. It is helpful in statistics, economics, algebra, finance, business,
logic and social sciences.

Quantitative Reasoning Examples

 Statistical Analysis: Analysts apply quantitative reasoning when they assess large dataset
to derive meaningful conclusions. They use statistical methods like regression analysis and
hypothesis testing to interpret data and distinguish patterns.
 Financial Planning: A financial planner utilizes quantitative reasoning for a client‘s
investment strategy. This involves analyzing expected returns, tax implications and risk
factors.

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 What is Mathematics?

The branch of science that deals with the numbers is called Mathematics. The world
―Mathematics‖ is derived from the Greek word ―Mathematikos‖ which means ―inclined to
learn‖

Mathematics is based on deductive reasoning though man's first experience with mathematics
was of an inductive nature. This means that the foundation of mathematics is the study of
some logical and philosophical notions. We elaborate in simple terms that the deductive
system involves four things:

Known Branches of Mathematics

 Logi: The Study of Principles of Reasoning.

 Arithmetic: Method for operating on numbers.
 Algebra: Method for working with unknown quantities.
 Geometry: The study of size and shape.
 Trigonometry: The study of triangles and their uses.
 Probability: The study of chance.
 Statistics: Method for analyzing data.
 Calculus: The study of quantities that change.

Remember

 * +
 * +
 * +
 2 3

 2 3
 ∪
 * +


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 Number System

A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, & label. It is the mathematical
notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a
consistent manner. It provides a unique representation of every number and represents the
arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures.

Number System: A system of writing to express numbers. It presents a unique

representation of numbers

Types

 Binary Number system has only two digits that 0 & 1

 Octal Number System has only eight digits from 0 to 7
 Decimal Number System has only ten digits from 0 to 9
 Hexadecimal Number System has sixteen alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 & A to F

Types of Standard Numbers

1. Natural Numbers

Common counting numbers. Natural numbers are also called ―counting numbers‖ which
contains the set of positive integers that start at 1 and continue infinitely. The set of natural
numbers is represented by the letter ―N‖ or the symbol ℕ

N = {1,2,3,4,5….}

2. Whole Numbers

In math, whole numbers are positive integers, including zero, that do not have any decimal or
fractional parts. The symbol for whole numbers is ―W‖

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...}

3. Integers

Integers, also known as whole numbers or round numbers, are positive or negative numbers
that don't have fractional or decimal parts. The symbol for integers is Z

Z = {−1,−2,0,1,2,...}

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 4. Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers includes all the integers, each of which can be written as a
quotient with the integer as the numerator and 1 as the denominator. rational number, in
arithmetic, a number that can be represented as the quotient p/q of two integers such that
q ≠ 0. i.e. 2 3

Q = {3/2,⅕, ¾…}

5. Irrational Numbers

An irrational number is a real number that cannot be written as a fraction of two integers, or
in the form of p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0

*√ √ √ +

6. Real Numbers

Real numbers can be positive or negative & include fractions, integers& irrational numbers.
They can be used in arithmetic operations and represented on a number line

R = {23, 12, 6.99, 5/2, π, √ , 12.6}

7. Prime or Composite Numbers

A prime number is a whole number that is greater than 1 and can only be divided by itself
and 1 without a remainder. For example, 19 is a prime number because it can only be divided
by 1 and 19 these are P ={2,3,5,7,11…}

8. Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number that has both real and imaginary parts, and is written in the
form * +. For example * +

9. Even & Odd Numbers

Even numbers are numbers that can be divided into two equal parts, while odd numbers are
numbers that cannot

Even numbers: End in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8

Odd numbers: End in 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9

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 Arithmetic

Arithmetic is a field of mathematic that studies the characteristics of classical operations on

numbers, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation and root
extraction.

Arithmetic Operations

Arithmetic is the fundamental of mathematics that includes the operations of numbers. These
operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Arithmetic is one of the
important branches of mathematics that lays the foundation of the subject 'Mathematics', for
students.

Addition

Combines objects into a larger collection, or increases a value. It is represented by the plus
sign (+) and the answer is called the sum. For example, 4 + 7 = 11.

Subtraction

Finds the difference between numbers or quantities, or decreases a value. It is represented by

the minus sign (-) and the answer is called the difference. For example, 9 - 7 = 2.

Multiplication

Multiplication is represented by the multiplication signs ( ) or (*), and division is

represented by the division signs (÷) or (/4, 5, 6). For example, 8 multiplied by 4 is equal to
32, which can be written as 8 4 = 32.

Division

Division is a method of dividing or distributing a number into equal parts. For example, 16
divided by 4 is equal to 4, which can be written as 16 ÷ 4 = 4.

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 Contributions of Mathematicians and Statisticians
Especially Muslim Scholars
Here is the list with era, date of birth, and date of death:

Mathematicians:

Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

Developed calculus, laws of motion, and universal gravitation
Published "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687)
Laid the foundation for classical mechanics and modern physics

Archimedes (c. 287 BC - c. 212 BC)

Discovered the principle of buoyancy and developed fluid mechanics
Made significant contributions to geometry and the study of spheres,
cylinders, and cones
Invented various machines, including the Claw of Archimedes and
the Archimedes' screw

Euclid(fl. 300 BC)

Authored the famous book "Elements," systematizing geometry and
establishing axioms
Developed the concept of theorems and proofs
Introduced the concept of irrational numbers

Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)

Developed probability theory and the concept of expected value
Made significant contributions to celestial mechanics and the study of
planetary motion
Published "A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities" (1812)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Developed the theory of special relativity and the famous equation E = mc2
Introduced the concept of spacetime and the speed of light as a
universal constant
Made significant contributions to the development of quantum mechanics

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 Statisticians:

Ronald Fisher (1890-1962)

Developed modern statistical inference and experimental design
Introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing
Made significant contributions to the development of maximum
likelihood estimation

Karl Pearson (1857-1936)

Developed the correlation coefficient and principal component analysis
Introduced the concept of the p-value
Published "The Grammar of Science" (1892)

William Gosset (1876-1937)

Developed the t-distribution and statistical hypothesis testing
Introduced the concept of the t-test
Made significant contributions to quality control and statistical process control

John Tukey (1915-2000)

Developed exploratory data analysis and the Fast Fourier Transform
Introduced the concept of the box plot
Made significant contributions to statistical graphics and visualization

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

Developed statistical graphics and applied statistics to medicine
Introduced the concept of the polar area chart
Made significant contributions to hospital sanitation and public health

Note: "fl." stands for "floruit," meaning "he/she flourished" and

indicates the period of activity or prominence.

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 Muslim Scholars

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780AD–850AD) was a Persian mathematician,
astronomer, astrologer geographer and a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. He
was born in Persia of that time around 780. Al-Khwarizmi was one of the learned men
who worked in the House of Wisdom. The House of Wisdom was a scientific research and
teaching center. Al-Khwarizmi developed the concept of the algorithm in mathematics Al-
Khwarizmi‘s algebra is regarded as the foundation and cornerstone of the sciences .He is
known as the ―father of algebra‖, a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi died in c. 850 being remembered as one of the most
seminal scientific minds of early Islamic culture.
Ibn al-Haytham

Ibn al-Haytham Latinised as Alhazen (965AD–1040AD) was a medieval mathematician,

astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq. Referred to as
"the father of modern optics".he made significant contributions to the principles of optics
and the use of scientific experiments. His most influential work is titled Kitāb al-Manāẓir
"Book of Optics" in Latin Edition. Ibn al-Haytham, who lived a thousand years ago, is
finally being recognized as the world's first true scientist.

Omar Khayyam

Omar Khayyam (1048AD–1131AD) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet.

He made great contributions to these areas. He lived during the period of the Seljuk
dynasty, around the time of the First Crusade. As a mathematician, he is most notable for
his work on the classification and solution of cubic equations. He is best known for his
work in geometric algebra, the Jalil calendar, and his poetry collected as, The Rubaiyat.

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 Ibrahim ibn Sinan

Ibrahim ibn Sinan (908AD-946AD) was born in Baghdad. He was a mathematician and
astronomer who belonged to a family of scholars originally from Harran in northern
Mesopotamia. He belonged to a religious sect of star worshippers known as the Sabians of
Harran. Ibrahim ibn Sinan studied geometry, in particular tangents to circles. He made
advances in the quadrature of the parabola and the theory of integration, generalizing the
work of Archimedes, which was unavailable at the time. Ibrahim ibn Sinan is often
considered to be one of the most important mathematicians of his time.

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi

Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi (1135AD-1213AD) was an Iranian mathematician and astronomer of

the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages). Sharaf al-Tusi was an Islamic
mathematician who wrote a treatise on cubic equations. Al-Tusi is best known for his
mathematically impressive study of the conditions under which cubic equations have a
positive real root and of numerical methods for finding a solution of such equations. He
made significant contributions to development of Algebraic geometry & cubic equation.

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973AD–1050AD) known as al-Biruni, was
a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been
called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy", Founder
of Indology and the first anthropologist. Al-Biruni was well versed in physics,
mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a
historian, chronologist, and linguist. In 1017, he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and
wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind ("The History of India"). Al-
Biruni developed many instruments for astronomy and geography measurements. He was
also a very good encyclopedia writer. His famous achievements were, studying geography
of India, accurately measuring Earth's radius, comparing different calendars & He enabled
direction of Qibla.

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 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific

examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

assumptions, procedures, or principles.

1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the most probable next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in
the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

2. Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?
Solution
a. Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the next number in the list is 5 larger than 25, which is 30.
b. The first two numbers differ by 3. The second and third numbers differ by 5. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 2 more than the
preceding difference. Since 17 and 26 differ by 9, we predict that the next
number will be 11 more than 26, which is 37

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 3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result
of 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the
resulting number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the
given procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times the original
number.

4. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15
to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution
If the original number is 2, then which is three times the original
number. If the original number is 7, then which is three times the
original number.
If the original number is then which is three times the
original number. It appears, by inductive reasoning, that the procedure produces a
number that is three times the original number.

17
 5. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.

Solution
With this problem we see that the pattern to get the next number in the sequence is
to multiply the previous term in the sequence by 3. So to find the 6th, 7th, and 8th
terms in the sequence we will use this pattern. The 5th term is 81. The 6th term is
, the 7th term is , and the 8th term is .

6. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.

Solution
With this problem we see that the pattern to get the next number in the sequence is
to subtract 12 from the previous term in the sequence. To find the 6th, 7th, and 8th
terms in the sequence we will use this pattern. The 5th term is 10. The 6th term is
, 7th term is , and 8th term is .

7. Examine the table below. Identify a pattern and then use that pattern to find the
missing terms in the sequence.

Solution
With this sequence we see to go from 5 to 10 we multiply by 2. To go from 10 to 30
we multiply by 3. To go from 30 to 120 we multiply by 4. Then we see that this
pattern repeats to get the next three terms in the sequence. ,
, and . So we will use this same pattern to get the
th th th th
8 , 9 , and 10 terms. The 8 term is , the 9th term is
, and the 10th term is .

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 8. Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application
Use the data in the table on the preceding page and inductive reasoning to answer
each of the following.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 25 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus
we conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 25 units will have a period of 5
heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period
that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling
the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

9. A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an under-water earthquake. The velocity of a

tsunami as it approaches land depends on the height of the tsunami. Use the table at
the left and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
Solution
a. It appears that when the velocity of a tsunami is doubled, it height is quadrupled.
b. A tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second will have a height that is four
times that of a tsunami with a speed of 15 feet per second. Thus, we predict a
height of feet for a tsunami with a velocity of 30 feet per second.

10.The last four times I have driven downtown at 6pm there has been traffic. use
inductive reasoning to draw your conclusion.
Solution
My conclusion is that there is always traffic downtown around 6pm.

11.Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:

" Every month has 30 days in it. July is a month. Therefore it has 30 days in it. "
Solution:
This statement starts with a generalization and it‘s then applied to a specific case.
This follows the pattern of deductive reasoning. The statements are not necessarily
true, but if every month had 30 days in it, then it would be true.

19
 12.Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces
a number that is four times the original number.

13.Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 5. Hint: Let n represent the original number.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.

The procedure always produces a number that is three times the original number.

20
 Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

 For Inductive Reasoning we start with examples or cases, and then draw general
conclusions.
 For Deductive Reasoning we start with a general statement and apply it to examples
or cases.
In next Example we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or
deductive reasoning.
14.Determine Types of Reasoning
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year
the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated my
home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more
than $35,000.
Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument
is an example of deductive reasoning.

21
 15. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive
reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel To the Nines is a Janet
Evanovich novel. Thus To the Nines is worth reading.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because it has
not paid out any money during the last 45 tries.
Solution
a. The conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, so the argument is an
example of deductive reasoning.
b. The argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so the argument
is an example of inductive reasoning.

16. Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:

" Pizza Hut has a lunch buffet. Stevi B‘s has a lunch buffet. Therefore all pizza
restaurants have a lunch buffet."
Solution
This statement starts with two examples about pizza restaurants having lunch
buffets. Based on these examples a generalization is made. This follows the pattern
of inductive reasoning.

17. Consider the statement and determine if it is inductive or deductive:

" All pro wrestlers have a catch phrase. Macho Man Randy Savage was a pro
wrestler. Therefore he had a catch phrase. ‖
Solution
This statement starts with a generalization about pro wrestlers having catch phrases.
It‘s then applied to the specific case of Macho Man Randy Savage. This follows the
pattern of deductive reasoning.

22
 Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of an argument,
leading to misleading or false conclusions. These fallacies occur when arguments are
based on flawed assumptions, invalid inferences, or misleading evidence.
In logic, the term argument refers to a reasoned or thoughtful process. Specifically, an
argument uses a set of facts or assumptions, called premises, to support a conclusion. A
fallacy is a deceptive argument, an argument in which the conclusion is not well supported
by the premises.

Types of Logical Fallacies

 Formal Fallacies (error in the content of an argument)

 Ad Hominem: Attacking the person, not the argument.
 Straw Man: Misrepresenting or exaggerating an opposing argument.
 False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist.
 Slippery Slope: Assuming a chain of events without evidence.
 Begging the Question: Assuming the truth of the conclusion.
 Informal Fallacies (error in the logical structure of an argument)
 Appeal to Authority: Using authority to support an unjustified claim.
 Appeal to Emotion: Using emotions rather than logic.
 Appeal to Popularity: Arguing that popularity validates an argument.
 False Cause: Assuming causation without evidence.
 Slanting: Selectively presenting information.
 Fallacies of Presumption
 Assuming the Conclusion: Using a conclusion as a premise.
 Shifting the Burden of Proof: Requiring others to disprove an argument.
 Lack of Evidence: Arguing from ignorance.
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
 Equivocation: Using ambiguous language.
 Vagueness: Using unclear language.
 Fallacies of Relevance
 Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant information.
 Non Sequitur: Drawing unrelated conclusions.

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 Characteristics of Logical Fallacies

 Misleading or false premises

 Flawed assumptions
 Invalid inferences
 Misleading evidence
 Emotional appeals

Consequences of Logical Fallacies

 Misleading conclusions
 Invalid arguments
 Poor decision-making
 Miscommunication
 Erosion of critical thinking

Examples and Countermeasures

 Ad Hominem: "John's argument is wrong because he's biased."

Countermeasure: Address the argument, not the person.
 Strawman: "You want to raise taxes, so you want socialism."
Countermeasure: Clarify and address the actual argument.
 False Dilemma: "You're either with us or against us."
Countermeasure: Identify and propose alternative options.

Recognizing Logical Fallacies

 Identify assumptions.
 Evaluate evidence.
 Check for ambiguity.
 Ensure relevance.
 Consider alternative perspectives.

Avoiding Logical Fallacies

 Use clear language.

 Support claims with evidence.
 Address counterarguments.
 Avoid emotional appeals.
 Encourage critical thinking.

24
 18.Ad Hominem Fallacy: John claims that 2 + 2 = 4, but his math teacher says,

"John's argument is wrong because he's a poor student."

Solution

This argument commits the Ad Hominem fallacy. The teacher's attack on John's

character does not address the validity of the mathematical statement. The correct

evaluation: 2 + 2 = 4 (True, based on mathematical evidence)

19.Strawman Fallacy: Sarah argues that the average height of adults is 5'9". Her

opponent responds, "So, you think everyone is exactly 5'9"?

Solution

This response commits the Strawman fallacy. Sarah's original argument did not

claim everyone is exactly 5'9". The correct evaluation:

Average height = (Sum of heights) / Number of people = 5'9" (based on data)

20.False Dilemma Fallacy: "Either we increase funding for math education or our
students will fall behind internationally."
Solution
This statement commits the False Dilemma fallacy. There may be alternative
solutions, such as optimizing existing resources or implementing cost-effective
programs.
Let x = funding increase, y = student performance
x ≠ 0 ∨ y ≠ 0 (Other options exist)

25
 21.Appeal to Authority Fallacy: Renowned mathematician, Dr. Smith, claims that

. Therefore, it must be true.

Solution

This argument commits the Appeal to Authority fallacy. The validity of the

mathematical statement should be evaluated based on evidence, not Dr. Smith's

authority. (True, based on limit definition).

22. Non Sequitur Fallacy: "The number π is irrational. Therefore, the Earth orbits the
Sun."
Solution
This argument commits the Non Sequitur fallacy. The conclusion about the Earth's
orbit is unrelated to the premise about π.
π = 3.14159... (irrational number)
Earth's orbit: separate astronomical fact
23.Begging the Question Fallacy: "God exists because the Holy book says so, and the
Holy book is true because God inspired it."
Solution
This argument commits the Begging the Question fallacy. The conclusion assumes
the truth of the premise.
Let G = God exists, B = Holy book is true
G → B ∧ B → G (Circular reasoning)

24.Appeal to Emotion Fallacy: "Think of all the children who will suffer if we don't
increase funding for math education. Therefore, we must increase funding."
Solution
This argument commits the Appeal to Emotion fallacy. Emotions should not replace
logical reasoning.
Let x = funding increase, y = student performance
x → y (Needs evidence, not emotional appeal)

26
 25.False Cause Fallacy: "Since the number of math teachers increased, student test
scores improved. Therefore, hiring more teachers causes better scores."
Solution
This argument commits the False Cause fallacy. Other factors may contribute to
improved scores.
Let T = teachers, S = test scores
T → S (Needs evidence of causation)

26.Slippery Slope Fallacy: "If we allow calculators on math tests, next we'll allow
computers, and soon students won't learn math at all."
Solution
This argument commits the Slippery Slope fallacy. Each step needs evidence, not
assumptions.
Let C = calculators, T = test scores
C → T (Needs evidence for each step)

27. Equivocation Fallacy: "The function f (x) = 2x is continuous because it's

continuous in everyday life."
Solution
This argument commits the Equivocation fallacy. Mathematical continuity differs
from everyday usage.
f (x) = 2x (mathematical continuity definition)

28.Red Herring Fallacy: "Shouldn't we focus on teaching math fundamentals instead

of wasting time on useless topics like topology?"
Solution
This argument commits the Red Herring fallacy. Topology's relevance is unrelated
to fundamentals.
Topology ≠ useless (evaluate based on math context)

29.Burden of Proof Fallacy: "Prove that this mathematical statement is false. If you
can't, it must be true."
Solution
This argument commits the Burden of Proof fallacy. The original claimant must
provide evidence.
Let S = mathematical statement
∀x (S → evidence) (burden on claimant)

27
 Abductive Reasoning
Type of reasoning that uses an observation or set of observations to reach a logical
conclusion. It is similar to inductive reasoning; however it permits making best guesses to
arrive at the simplest conclusions. It is a form of logical reasoning that involves making an
educated guess or hypothesis based on incomplete or limited information. It involves:
1. Observing a phenomenon or pattern
2. Identifying possible explanations
3. Selecting the most plausible explanation
4. Testing and refining the hypothesis
Abductive reasoning is essential in mathematics, science, and problem-solving.

30.What is the next number in the sequence: 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution: 32 (recognizing a geometric progression)

31.A bakery sells 250 loaves of bread per day. If each loaf costs $2, how much money
does the bakery make daily?
Solution: $500 (assuming each loaf sells at the given price)

32.A car travels 250 miles in 5 hours. What is its average speed?
Solution: 50 mph (using distance = rate × time)

33.What is the sum of the interior angles of a triangle?

Solution: 180° (using geometric properties)

34. A survey shows 3/5 of students prefer pizza. If 100 students participated, how many
prefer pizza?
Solution: 60 (applying proportionality)

35. Solve for x: 2x + 5 = 11

Solution: x = 3 (using algebraic manipulation)

36. A rectangle has a perimeter of 24 cm. If its length is 8 cm, what is its width?
Solution: 4 cm (using perimeter = 2(length + width))

37. What is the probability of rolling a 6 on a fair six-sided die?

Solution: 1/6 (using probability theory)
38. A water tank fills at 0.5 liters/minute. How long to fill a 30-liter tank?
Solution: 60 minutes (using rate × time)

39.Find the missing value: 3, 6, 12, ?, 48

Solution: 24 (recognizing a geometric progression)

28
 40.What is the next number in the sequence: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, ?
Solution: 16 (recognizing a quadratic progression)

41.A snail moves 3 cm/hour. How far will it move in 5 hours?

Solution: 15 cm (using rate × time)

42.Solve for x: + 5x - 6 = 0
Solution: x = 6 or x = 1 (using quadratic formula)

43.A circle has a circumference of 20π cm. What is its radius?

Solution: 10 cm (using circumference = 2πr)

44.What is the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon?

Solution: 360° (using geometric properties)

45.A survey shows 2/3 of students prefer math. If 150 students participated, how many
prefer math?
Solution: 100 (applying proportionality)

46.Find the missing value: 2, 6, 12, 20, ?

Solution: 30 (recognizing a quadratic progression)

47.A cylinder has a volume of 40π c . If its height is 10 cm, what is its radius?
Solution: 2 cm (using volume = π h)

48.What is the probability of drawing an ace from a standard deck of cards?

Solution: 4/52 = 1/13 (using probability theory)

49.Solve for x: 3x 2 = 14
Solution: x = 16/3 (using algebraic manipulation)

29
 50.Explain the concept of abductive reasoning and its significance in mathematical
problem-solving.
Solution
Abductive reasoning involves making educated guesses or hypotheses based on
incomplete information. In mathematics, it's essential for:
1. Pattern recognition: Identifying relationships between numbers or shapes.
2. Hypothesis formation: Proposing solutions to problems.
3. Logical inference: Drawing conclusions from available data.
Abductive reasoning facilitates mathematical discovery, fosters critical thinking, and
enhances problem-solving skills.

51.Discuss how abductive reasoning differs from deductive and inductive reasoning.
Solution
Abductive reasoning differs from:
1. Deductive reasoning: Abductive reasoning involves uncertainty, whereas
deductive reasoning draws definitive conclusions.
2. Inductive reasoning: Abductive reasoning focuses on hypothesis formation,
whereas inductive reasoning seeks generalizations.
Abductive reasoning bridges the gap between deductive and inductive reasoning,
enabling mathematicians to navigate uncertainty.

52.Describe a real-world scenario where abductive reasoning is essential.

Solution
Medical diagnosis: Doctors use abductive reasoning to:
1. Identify symptoms
2. Formulate hypotheses
3. Test and refine diagnoses
Abductive reasoning enables doctors to make informed decisions amidst
uncertainty, saving lives.

53.Analyze the role of abductive reasoning in resolving mathematical paradoxes.

Solution
Abductive reasoning helps resolve paradoxes by:
1. Identifying underlying assumptions
2. Formulating alternative hypotheses
3. Evaluating evidence
Examples: Russell's Paradox, the Liar Paradox. Abductive reasoning facilitates
deeper understanding and resolution.

30
 Exercise
1. Is the following statement inductive or deductive reasoning? Explain why. " All Noble
prize winners get a monetary award. Jennifer Doudna won a Noble Prize, so she must
have received money."
2. Is the following statement inductive or deductive reasoning? Explain why. " My friend
and my brother graduated from Harvard and immediately got great jobs. Therefore,
everyone who graduates from Harvard will immediately get a great job. "
3. Find a counter example to disprove the hypothesis: If two even numbers are divided,
the quotient is a whole number.
4. Find a counter example to disprove the hypothesis: If a number is added to itself, the
sum is greater than the original number.
5. Describe the pattern found in the following sequence of numbers and then find in the
next two values: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16.
6. Describe the pattern found in the following sequence of days and then find in the next
two values: Monday, Thursday, Sunday, Wednesday, Saturday.
7. In Exercises i–x, use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in
each list.
i. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ?
ii. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ?
iii. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ?
iv. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
v. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ?
vi. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ?
vii.
viii.
ix. 2,7, 3,2, 8, 3, 13, 8, 18, ?
x. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, ?
8. Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.
i. Andrea enjoyed reading the Dark Tower series by Stephen King, so I know she
will like his next novel.
ii. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure
A has exactly five sides.
iii. Every English setter likes to hunt. Duke is an English setter, so Duke likes to
hunt.
iv. Cats don‘t eat tomatoes. Scat is a cat. Therefore, Scat does not eat tomatoes.
v. A number is a ―neat‖ number if the sum of the cubes of its digits equals the
number. Therefore, 153 is a ―neat‖ number.
vi. The Atlanta Braves have won five games in a row.

31
 CHAPTER

2
LOGIC
AND ITS APPLICATION
In today‘s complex world, it is not so easy to summarize the topic of logic. For lawyers
and business people, logic is the science of correct reasoning. They often use logic to
construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and solve complicated problems. The
principles of logic can also be used as a production tool. For example, programmers use
logic to design computer software, engineers use logic to design the electronic circuits in
computers, and mathematicians use logic to solve problems and construct mathematical
proofs.
In this chapter we will learn about;
 Logical reasoning, importance and their application in modern age
 Propositions, Prepositional Variables
 Induction, deduction, logical connectives
 Compound statements, Truth Values, Truth Tables and Applications
 Negation, conjunction, disjunction.
 Logic Statements, Quantifiers and Predicates
 Equivalent Statements
 Tautologies, Contradiction and contingencies.
 The Conditional and Related Statements
 Truth Sets, A link between Set Theory and Logic.
 Arguments
 Venn Diagram and Euler Diagrams
 Applications of Propositional logics.

32
 The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements. These rules are used
to distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments. Because a major goal of
this chapter is to teach the reader how to understand and how to construct correct
mathematical arguments, we begin our study of discrete mathematics with an introduction
to logic. Besides the importance of logic in understanding mathematical reasoning, logic
has numerous applications to computer science. These rules are used in the design of
computer circuits, the construction of computer programs, the verification of the
correctness of programs, and in many other ways. Furthermore, software systems have
been developed for constructing some, but not all, types of proofs automatically. We will
discuss these applications of logic in this and later chapters.

Logic: Logic is the discipline that deals with the method of reasoning.
In this chapter, we will encounter several facets of logic. Specifically, we will use logic to
 Analyze information and relationships between statements.
 Determine the validity of arguments and theorems.
 Determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions, and
 Analyze electronic circuits.
 In computer science to verify the correctness of programs.
 In physical science to draw conclusion from experiments.
Propositions/Statements
A proposition/statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both
simultaneously.
It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true or false to determine
whether it is a statement. For instance, the following sentence is either true or false:
Every even number greater than 2 can be written as the sum of two prime numbers.
At this time mathematicians have not determined whether the sentence is true or false, but
they do know that it is either true or false and that it is not both true and false. Thus the
sentence is a statement.
Arguments: Arguments are a set of statements.
Premises: The premises are the statements being offered in support for the conclusion.
Conclusion: The statements being argued for.

33
 1. Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. The word dog has four letters.
c. How are you?
d. ( ) is a prime number.
e.
Solution
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a
statement.
b. The word dog consists of exactly three letters, so this sentence is false and it is a
statement.
c. The sentence ―How are you?‖ is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus it
is not a statement.
d. You may not know whether ( ) is a prime number; however, you do know
that it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a
prime number. The sentence is either true or false, and it is not both true and false
simultaneously, so it is a statement.
e. is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for and
it is false for any other value of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not
both.

2. Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Open the door.
b. 7055 is a large number.
c.
d. In the year 2019, the president of the United States will be a woman.
e.
Solution
a. The sentence ―Open the door‖ is a command. It is not a statement.
b. The word large is not a precise term. It is not possible to determine whether the
sentence ―7055 is a large number‖ is true or false and thus the sentence is not a
statement.
c. The sentence is a false statement.
d. At this time we do not know whether the given sentence is true or false, but we
know that the sentence is either true or false and that it is not both true and
false. Thus the sentence is a statement.
e. The sentence is a statement because for any given value of x, the
inequality is true or false, but not both.

34
 More about Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact) that is either
true or false, but not both.
All the following declarative sentences are propositions.
1. Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.
2. Toronto is the capital of Canada.
3. 1 + 1 = 2. 4. 2 + 2 = 3.
Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.
Some sentences that are not propositions are given in Example. Consider the following
sentences.
1. What time is it?
2. Read this carefully.
3. x + 1 = 2.
4. x + y = z.
Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative sentences.
Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true nor false. Note that
each of sentences 3 and 4 can be turned into a proposition if we assign values to the
variables.
We use letters to denote propositional variables (or sentential variables), that is,
variables that represent propositions, just as letters are used to denote numerical variables.
The conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s,… . The truth value
of a proposition is true, denoted by T, if it is a true proposition, and the truth value of a
proposition is false, denoted by F, if it is a false proposition. Propositions that cannot be
expressed in terms of simpler propositions are called atomic propositions. The area of
logic that deals with propositions is called the propositional calculus or propositional
logic. It was first developed systematically by the Greek philosopher Aristotle more than
2300 years ago. Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more
propositions. New propositions, called compound propositions, are formed from existing
propositions using logical operators.

35
 Proportional Variables
The letters ( ) that can be replaced by statements are called proportional variables.
e.g. p: Today is Friday, q: It is raining, r: I am going to a movie.
Induction
To draw general conclusion from limited number of observations or experiences is called
induction.
e.g. A person gets penicillin injection once or twice and experiences reaction soon
afterwards. He generalizes that he is allergic to penicillin.
‫رسدردیکدوایئڈارٹکےکےنہکرپانیل‬
Deduction deduction
To draw general conclusion from well known facts is called deduction.
‫رسدردیکدوایئولیکےکےنہکرپانیل‬
e.g. All men are mortal. We are men. Therefore, we are all mortal. induction

Logical Connectives
Symbols that are used to combine statements or proportional variables.
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent statements and the symbols
∧∨ and to represent connectives. See Table,

Compound Statements
Two or more sentences are connected to form a compound statement. Connecting
statements with words and phrases such as and, or, not, if ... then, and if and only if creates
a compound statement. For instance, ―I will attend the meeting or I will go to school‖ is a
compound statement. It is composed of the two component statements ―I will attend the
meeting‖ and ―I will go to school.‖ The word or is a connective for the two component
statements.

36
 3. What connective is used in a conjunction?
Answer
The connective and
Truth Value and Truth Tables
The truth value of a statement is true (T) if the statement is true and false (F) if the
statement is false. A truth table is a table that shows the truth values of a statement for all
possible truth values of its components.
Negation
The negation of the statement ―Today is Friday‖ is the statement ―Today is not Friday.‖ In
symbolic logic, the tilde symbol is used to denote the negation of a statement. If a
statement is true, its negation is false, and if a statement is false, its negation
is true. See the table. The negation of the negation of a statement is the original statement.
Thus, ( ) can be replaced by in any statement.
The Truth Table for
4. Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. The number 10 is a prime number.
c. The Dolphins lost the game.
Solution
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. The number 10 is not a prime number.
c. The Dolphins did not lose the game.

5. Write the negation of each statement.

a. 1001 is divisible by 7.
b. 5 is an even number.
c. The fire engine is not red.
Solution
a. 1001 is not divisible by 7.
b. 5 is not an even number.
c. The fire engine is red.

37
 6. Consider the following statements.
p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
Solution

7. Consider the following statements.

p: Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
r: I am going to a movie.
s: I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.
a. Today is not Friday and I am going to a movie.
b. I am going to the basketball game and I am not going to a movie.
c. I am going to a movie if and only if it is raining.
d. If today is Friday, then I am not going to a movie
Solution

8. Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.
q: The game will be shown on CBS.
r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
s: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

Solution
a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown on ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in
Atlanta.

38
 Remark

The notation for the negation operator is not standardized. Although ¬p and ̅ are the most
common notations used in mathematics to express the negation of p, other notations you
might see are p, −p, p′ ,Np, and !p.

9. Find the negation of the proposition

―Michael‘s PC runs Linux‖
and express this in simple English.
Solution
The negation is ―It is not the case that Michael‘s PC runs Linux.‖
This negation can be more simply expressed as
―Michael‘s PC does not run Linux.‖

10.Find the negation of the proposition

―Vandana‘s smartphone has at least 32 GB of memory‖
and express this in simple English.
Solution: The negation is
―It is not the case that
Vandana‘s smartphone has at least 32 GB of memory.‖
This negation can also be expressed as
―Vandana‘s smartphone does not have at least 32 GB of memory‖
or even more simply as
―Vandana‘s smartphone has less than 32 GB of memory.‖

39
 Conjunction/ The logic of AND
The conjunction of two statements p and q is true if and only if both p and q are true
otherwise false. It is denoted by ∧ and read as p and q.
Disjunction/ The logic of OR
The disjunction of two statements p and q is false only if and only if both p and q are false
otherwise true. It is denoted by ∨ and read as p or q. The disjunction ∨ is true if p is
true, if q is true, or if both p and q are true.

11.Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a.
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution
a. means or . Because is true, the statement is a true
statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
c. This is a true statement because each component statement is true.

12.Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 21 is a rational number and 21 is a natural number.
b.
c.
Solution
a. True. A conjunction is true provided both components are true.
b. True. A disjunction is true provided at least one component is true.
c. False. If both components of a disjunction are false, then the disjunction is false.

40
 13.Find the conjunction of the propositions p and q where p is the proposition
―Rebecca‘s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space‖ and q is the proposition
―The processor in Rebecca‘s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.‖
Solution
The conjunction of these propositions, p ∧ q, is the proposition ―Rebecca‘s PC has
more than 16 GB free hard disk space, and the processor in Rebecca‘s PC runs faster
than 1 GHz.‖ This conjunction can be expressed more simply as ―Rebecca‘s PC has
more than 16 GB free hard disk space, and its processor runs faster than 1 GHz.‖
For this conjunction to be true, both conditions given must be true. It is false when
one or both of these conditions are false.

14.Translate the statement ―Students who have taken calculus or introductory computer
science can take this class‖ in a statement in propositional logic using the
propositions p: ―A student who has taken calculus can take this class‖ and q:
―A student who has taken introductory computer science can take this class.‖
Solution
We assume that this statement means that students who have taken both calculus
and introductory computer science can take the class, as well as the students who
have taken only one of the two subjects. Hence, this statement can be expressed as
p ∨ q, the inclusive or, or disjunction, of p and q.

15.What is the disjunction of the propositions p and q, where p is the proposition

―Rebecca‘s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space‖ and q is the proposition
―The processor in Rebecca‘s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.‖
Solution
The disjunction of p and q, p ∨ q, is the proposition
―Rebecca‘s PC has at least 16 GB free hard disk space, or the processor in
Rebecca‘s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.‖
This proposition is true when Rebecca‘s PC has at least 16 GB free hard disk space,
when the PC‘s processor runs faster than 1 GHz, and when both conditions are true.
It is false when both of these conditions are false, that is, when Rebecca‘s PC has
less than 16 GB free hard disk space and the processor in her PC runs at 1 GHz or
slower.

41
 Quantifiers
The word or symbol, which conveys the idea of quantity or numbers, is called quantifier.
In mathematics and logic, quantifiers specify the scope of a predicate or statement.
 Universal Quantifier (∀): "For all"
 Existential Quantifier (∃): "There exists"
 In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called
existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the
existence of something.
 In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers.
 The universal quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the
universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set
satisfies some condition.
Universal Quantification
The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement
―P(x) for all values of x in the domain.‖
The notation ∀xP(x) denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here ∀ is called the
universal quantifier. We read ∀xP(x) as ―for all xP(x)‖ or ―for every xP(x).‖ An element
for which P(x) is false is called a counterexample to ∀xP(x).

16.Let P(x) be the statement ―x + 1 > x.‖ What is the truth value of the quantification
∀xP(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution
Because P(x) is true for all real numbers x, the quantification ∀xP(x) is true.
Remark
 Generally, an implicit assumption is made that all domains of discourse for
quantifiers are nonempty. Note that if the domain is empty, then ∀xP(x) is true for
any propositional function P(x) because there are no elements x in the domain for
which P(x) is false.
 A statement ∀xP(x) is false, where P(x) is a propositional function, if and only if
P(x)isnot always true when x is in the domain. One way to show that P(x) is not
always true when x is in the domain is to find a counterexample to the statement
∀xP(x). Note that a single counterexample is all we need to establish that ∀xP(x) is
false.

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 17.Let Q(x) be the statement ―x < 2.‖ What is the truth value of the quantification
∀xQ(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution
Q(x) is not true for every real number x, because, for instance, Q(3) is false. That is,
x = 3 is a counterexample for the statement ∀xQ(x). Thus, ∀xQ(x) is false.

18. Suppose that P(x)is―x2 > 0.‖ To show that the statement ∀xP(x) is false where the
universe of discourse consists of all integers.
Solution
Suppose that P(x)is―x2 > 0.‖ To show that the statement ∀xP(x) is false where the
universe of discourse consists of all integers, we give a counterexample. We see that
x = 0 is a counterexample because x2= 0 when x = 0, so that x2 is not greater than 0
when x = 0.

19.What does the statement ∀xN(x) mean if N(x) is ―Computer x is connected to the
network‖ and the domain consists of all computers on campus?
Solution
The statement ∀xN(x) means that for every computer x on campus, that computer x
is connected to the network. This statement can be expressed in English as ―Every
computer on campus is connected to the network.‖

20.What is the truth value of ∀x(x2 ≥ x) if the domain consists of all real numbers?
What is the truth value of this statement if the domain consists of all integers?
Solution
The universal quantification ∀x(x2 ≥ x), where the domain consists of all real
numbers, is false. For example, . / . /.
Note that x2 ≥ x if and only if x2 − x = x(x − 1) ≥ 0. Consequently, x2 ≥ x if and only
if x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1. It follows that ∀x(x2 ≥ x) is false if the domain consists of all real
numbers (because the inequality is false for all real numbers x with 0 < x < 1).
However, if the domain consists of the integers, ∀x(x2 ≥ x) is true, because there are
no integers x with 0 < x < 1.
Existential Quantification
The existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition
―There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).‖
We use the notation ∃xP(x) for the existential quantification of P(x).
Here ∃ is called the existential quantifier.

43
 21.Let P(x) denote the statement ―x > 3.‖ What is the truth value of the quantification
∃xP(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution
Because ―x > 3‖ is sometimes true—for instance, when x = 4—the existential
quantification of P(x), which is ∃xP(x), is true.
Observe that the statement ∃xP(x) is false if and only if there is no element x in the
domain for which P(x) is true. That is, ∃xP(x) is false if and only if P(x) is false for every
element of the domain. We illustrate this observation in next Example.
22.Let Q(x) denote the statement ―x = x + 1.‖What is the truth value of the
quantification ∃xQ(x), where the domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution
Because Q(x) is false for every real number x, the existential quantification of Q(x),
which is ∃xQ(x), is false.
The Uniqueness Quantifier

We have now introduced universal and existential quantifiers. These are the most
important quantifiers in mathematics and computer science. However, there is no
limitation on the number of different quantifiers we can define, such as ―there are exactly
two,‖ ―there are no more than three,‖ ―there are at least 100,‖ and so on. Of these other
quantifiers, the one that is most often seen is the uniqueness quantifier, denoted by ∃! or
∃1. The notation ∃!xP(x)[or ∃1xP(x)] states ―There exists a unique x such that P(x) is true.‖
(Other phrases for uniqueness quantification include ―there is exactly one‖ and ―there is
one and only one.‖) For instance, ∃!x(x − 1 = 0), where the domain is the set of real
numbers, states that there is a unique real number x such that x − 1 = 0. This is a true
statement, as x = 1is the unique real number such that x − 1 = 0. Observe that we can use
quantifiers and propositional logic to express uniqueness (see Exercise 52 in Section 1.5),
so the uniqueness quantifier can be avoided. Generally, it is best to stick with existential
and universal quantifiers so that rules of inference for these quantifiers can be used.

44
 Predicates
In mathematics and logic, a predicate is a statement that contains variables and asserts a
property or relationship about those variables. Predicates are used to define sets, functions,
and relationships.
Types of Predicates
 Universal predicate (∀): "For all"
 Existential predicate (∃): "There exists"
 Equality predicate (=): "Equal to"

23.Let P(x) be the predicate "x is an even number." What is P(4)?

Solution: True

24.Let Q(x) be the predicate "x > 5." What is Q(3)?

Solution: False

25. ∃x ( = 16)
Solution: True (x = ±4)

26. ∀x (x + 0 = x)
Solution: True (additive identity)

27.Let P(x) denote the statement ―x > 3.‖ What are the truth values of P(4) and P(2)?
Solution
We obtain the statement P(4) by setting x = 4 in the statement ―x > 3.‖ Hence, P(4),
which is the statement ―4 > 3,‖ is true. However, P(2), which is the statement
―2 > 3,‖ is false.

28.Let A(x) denote the statement ―Computer x is under attack by an intruder.‖ Suppose
that of the computers on campus, only CS2 and MATH1 are currently under attack
by intruders. What are truth values of A(CS1), A(CS2), and A(MATH1)?
Solution
We obtain the statement A(CS1) by setting x = CS1 in the statement ―Computer x is
under attack by an intruder.‖ Because CS1 is not on the list of computers currently
under attack, we conclude that A(CS1) is false. Similarly, because CS2 and MATH1
are on the list of computers under attack, we know that A(CS2) and A(MATH1) are
true.

45
 We can also have statements that involve more than one variable. For instance, consider
the statement ―x = y + 3.‖We can denote this statement by Q(x, y), where x and y are
variables and Q is the predicate. When values are assigned to the variables x and y, the
statement Q(x, y) has a truth value.

29.Let Q(x, y) denote the statement ―x = y + 3.‖ What are the truth values of the
propositions Q(1, 2) and Q(3, 0)?
Solution
To obtain Q(1, 2), set x = 1 and y = 2 in the statement Q(x, y). Hence, Q(1, 2) is the
statement ―1 = 2 + 3,‖ which is false. The statement Q(3, 0) is the proposition
―3 = 0 + 3,‖ which is true.

30.Let A(c, n) denote the statement ―Computer c is connected to network n,‖ where c is
a variable representing a computer and n is a variable representing a network.
Suppose that the computer MATH1 is connected to network CAMPUS2, but not to
network CAMPUS1. What are the values of A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) and
A(MATH1, CAMPUS2)?
Solution
BecauseMATH1 is not connected to the CAMPUS1 network, we see that
A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) is false. However, because MATH1 is connected to the
CAMPUS2 network, we see that A(MATH1, CAMPUS2) is true.
Similarly, we can let R(x, y, z) denote the statement ―x + y = z.‖ When values are
assigned to the variables x, y, and z, this statement has a truth value.

31.What are the truth values of the propositions R(1, 2, 3) and R(0, 0, 1)?
Solution
The proposition R(1, 2, 3) is obtained by setting x = 1, y = 2, and z = 3 in the
statement R(x, y, z). We see that R(1, 2, 3) is the statement ―1 + 2 = 3,‖ which is
true. Also note that R(0, 0, 1), which is the statement ―0 + 0 = 1,‖ is false.

Key Concepts
1. Quantifiers (∀, ∃)
2. Variables (x, y, z)
3. Predicates (P(x), Q(x), R(x, y))
4. Logical operators (∧, ∨, ¬)
5. Set notation ({x | P(x)})

46
 32.Write the negation of each of the following statements.
a. Some baseball players are worth a million dollars.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Solution
a. No baseball player is worth a million dollars.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2

33. Write the negations of the following statements.

a. All bears are brown.
b. No math class is fun.
c. Some vegetables are not green.
Solution
a. Some bears are not brown.
b. Some math classes are fun.
c. All vegetables are green.

34.Construct a table for ( ∨ )∨

Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ( ∨ ) ∨ , given
that p is true and q is false.
Solution

In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when p is true and q is false, the
statement ( ∨ ) ∨ in the rightmost column is true.

47
 35.Construct a truth table for ( ∧ )∨( ∨ )
Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value
Of ( ∧ )∨( ∨ ) given that p is true and q is false.
Solution

p is true and q is false in row 2 of the above truth table. The truth value of
( ∧ )∨( ∨ )
in row 2 is T (true).

36. Construct a table for ( ∧ ) ∧ ( ∨ )

Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value of
( ∧ )∧( ∨ ), given that p is true, q is true and r is false.
Solution

In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that ( ∧ ) ∧ ( ∨ ) is true when p is

true, q is true, and r is false.

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 37.Construct a table for ( ∧ )∨( ∧ )
Use the truth table that you constructed in part a to determine the truth value
Of ( ∧ ) ∨ ( ∧ ) given that p is false, q is true, and r is false.
Solution

p is false, q is true, and r is false in row 6 of the above truth table. The truth value of
( ∧ ) ∨ ( ∧ ) in row 6 is T (true).

38. Construct a truth table for ∨ , ( ∧ )-

Solution
The given statement ∨ , ( ∧ )- has the two simple statements p and q. Thus
we start with a standard form that has rows.
In each column, enter the truth values for the statements p and as show in the
columns numbered 1, 2, and 3 of the following table. Use the truth values in
columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values to enter under the ―and‖ connective.
See the column numbered 4. Now negate the truth values in the column numbered 4
to produce the truth values in the column numbered 5. Use the truth values in the
columns numbered 1 and 5 to determine the truth values to enter under the ―or‖
connective. See the column numbered 6, which is the truth table for given.

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 39.Construct a truth table for ∨( ∧ )
Solution
The given statement has two simple statements. Thus you should use a standard
form that has rows. Step 1: Enter the truth values for each simple statement
and their negations. See columns 1, 2, and 3 in the table following step 3. Step 2:
Use the truth values in columns 2 and 3 to determine the truth values to enter under
the ―and‖ connective. See column 4 in the table following step 3. Step 3: Use the
truth values in columns 1 and 4 to determine the truth values to enter under the ―or‖
connective. See column 5 in the table below.

The truth table for ∨ ( ∧ ) is displayed in column 5.

Equivalent Statements
Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth values for all possible truth
values of their component statements. Equivalent statements have identical truth values in
the final columns of their truth. The notation is used to indicate that the statements
p and q are equivalent.
40.Show that ( ∨ ) and ∧ are equivalent statements.
Solution
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth tables below show that
( ∨ ) and ∧ have the same truth values for all possible truth values of
their component statements. Thus the statements are equivalent.

50
 41.Show that and ( ∧ ) are equivalent statements.
Solution

This shows that ∧

De Morgan’s Laws for Statements

For any statements p and q,
( ∨ ) ∧ & ( ∧ ) ∨

42. Use one of De Morgan‘s laws to restate the following sentence in an equivalent
form. It is not the case that I graduated or I got a job.
Solution
Let p represent the statement ―I graduated.‖ Let q represent the statement ―I got a job.‖ In
symbolic form, the original sentence is ( ∨ ). One of De Morgan‘s laws states that
this is equivalent to ∧ . Thus a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is
―I did not graduate and I did not get a job.‖

43.Use one of De Morgan‘s laws to restate the following sentence in an equivalent

form. It is not true that I am going to the dance and I am going to the game.
Solution
Let d represent ―I am going to the dance.‖ Let g represent ―I am going to the game.‖ The
original sentence in symbolic form is ( ∧ ), Applying one of De Morgan‘s laws, we
find that ( ∧ ) ∨ . Thus an equivalent form of ―It is not true that I am going
to the dance and I am going to the game‖ is ―I am not going to the dance or I am not going
to the game.‖

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 Tautologies
A tautology is a statement that is always true. For example

Contradiction / Self-Contradiction / Absurdity

A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false. For example

Contingency
A statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth values of the variables
involved in it is called a contingency e.g., ( ) ∧ ( ∨ ) is a contingency.

44. Is the statement a tautology or a self-contradiction?

Answer
Neither. The statement is not true for all values of x, and it is not false for all values
of x.

45. Show that ∨ ( ∨ ) is a tautology.

Solution
The table shows that ∨ ( ∨ )
is always true. Thus ∨ ( ∨ )
is a tautology.

46.Show that ∧( ∧ ) is a self-contradiction.

Solution

Table shows that ∧( ∧ ) is always false. Thus ∧( ∧ ) is a self-contradiction.

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 Logically Equivalent
The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology.
The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are logically equivalent.

47.Show that ¬(p ∨ q) and ¬p ∧¬q are logically equivalent.

Solution
The truth tables for these compound propositions are displayed in Table . Because
the truth values of the compound propositions ¬(p ∨ q) and ¬p ∧¬q agree for all
possible combinations of the truth values of p and q, it follows that
¬(p ∨ q) ↔ (¬p ∧¬q) is a tautology and that these compound propositions are
logically equivalent.

48.Show that p → q and ¬p ∨ q are logically equivalent. (This is known as the

conditional- disjunction equivalence.)
Solution
We construct the truth table for these compound propositions in Table. Because the
truth values of ¬p ∨ q and p → q agree, they are logically equivalent.

53
 49.Show that p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) are logically equivalent. This is the
distributive law of disjunction over conjunction.
Solution
We construct the truth table for these compound propositions in Table. Because the
truth values of p ∨ (q ∧ r) and (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) agree, these compound propositions
are logically equivalent.

Logical Equivalences Logical Equivalences

Involving Involving
Conditional Statements. Biconditional Statements

54
 Implication or Conditional Statement
A compound statement of the form if p then q, also written p implies q, is called a
conditional or an implication, denoted by . p is called the antecedent or
hypothesis and q is called the consequent or the conclusion.
For instance, in the conditional statement,
If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week, the antecedent is ―our
school was this nice‖ and the consequent is ―I would go there more than once a week.‖
Conditional statements can be written in if p, then q form or in if p, q form. For instance,
all of the following are conditional statements.
 If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.
 If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner.
 If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd number.
Truth Value of the Conditional
The conditional is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all other cases.
A conditional is regarded as false only when the antecedent is true and consequent is false.
In all other cases it is considered to be true. Its truth table is, therefore, of the adjoining
form;

50.Determine the truth value of each of the following.

a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 7 then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false
statement.

55
 51. Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If then 2 + 5 = 6
b. If 5 > 9 then 4 > 9
c. If Tuesday follows Monday, then April follows March.
Solution
a. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, the statement is a false
statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, the statement is a true statement.
c. Because the consequent is true, the statement is a true statement.

52.Construct a Truth Table for a Statement Involving a Conditional

, ∧( ∨ )-
Solution

53.Construct a Truth Table for a Statement Involving a Conditional

, ∧( )-
Solution

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 54. Let p be the statement ―Maria learns discrete mathematics‖ and q the statement
―Maria will find a good job.‖ Express the statement p → q as a statement in English.
Solution
From the definition of conditional statements, we see that when p is the statement
―Maria learns discrete mathematics‖ and q is the statement
―Maria will find a good job,‖ p → q represents the statement
―If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she will find a good job.‖
There are many other ways to express this conditional statement in English.
Among the most natural of these are
―Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete mathematics.‖
―For Maria to get a good job, it is sufficient for her to learn discrete mathematics.‖
And
―Maria will find a good job unless she does not learn discrete mathematics.‖

55.What is the value of the variable x after the statement

if 2 + 2 = 4 then x := x + 1
if x = 0 before this statement is encountered?
(The symbol := stands for assignment.
The statement x := x + 1 means the assignment of the value of x + 1to x.)
Solution
Because 2 + 2 = 4 is true, the assignment statement x := x + 1 is executed.
Hence, x has the value 0 + 1 = 1 after this statement is encountered.

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 Equivalent Forms of the Conditional
Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. It is not even
necessary to state the antecedent before the consequent. For instance, the conditional ―If I
live in Boston, then I must live in Massachusetts‖ can also be stated as
I must live in Massachusetts, if I live in Boston.
Table lists some of the various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement.
Common Forms of

56. Write a Statement in an Equivalent Form

Write each of the following in ―If p, then q‖ form.
a. The number is an even number provided it is divisible by 2.
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution
a. The statement ―The number is an even number provided it is divisible by 2‖ is in
―q provided p‖ form. The antecedent is ―it is divisible by 2,‖ and the consequent
is ―the number is an even number.‖ Thus its
―If p, then q‖ form is If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.
b. The statement ―Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday‖ is in ―p only if
q‖ form. The antecedent is ―today is Friday.‖ The consequent is ―yesterday was
Thursday.‖ Its ―If p, then q‖ form is
If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday

57.Write each of the following in ―If p, then q‖ form.

a. Every square is a rectangle.
b. Being older than 30 is sufficient to show I am at least 21.
Solution
a. If it is a square, then it is a rectangle.
b. If I am older than 30, then I am at least 21.

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 The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive
Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the converse, the
inverse, and the contrapositive.
The converse of is
The inverse of is
The contrapositive of is
The above definitions show the following:
 The converse of is formed by interchanging the antecedent p with the
consequent q.
 The inverse of is formed by negating the antecedent p and negating the
consequent q.
 The contrapositive of is formed by negating both the antecedent p and the
consequent q and interchanging these negated statements.

58.Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of

If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.
Solution
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.

59.Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of

If we have a quiz today, then we will not have a quiz tomorrow.
Solution
Converse: If we are not going to have a quiz tomorrow, then we will have a quiz
today.
Inverse: If we don‘t have a quiz today, then we will have a quiz tomorrow.
Contrapositive: If we have a quiz tomorrow, then we will not have a quiz today.

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 60. Determine whether the given statements are equivalent.
a. If a number ends with a 5, then the number is divisible by 5.
If a number is divisible by 5, then the number ends with a 5.
b. If two lines in a plane do not intersect, then the lines are parallel.
If two lines in a plane are not parallel, then the lines intersect
Solution
a. The second statement is the converse of the first. The statements are not
equivalent.
b. The second statement is the contrapositive of the first. The statements are
equivalent.

61. Determine whether the given statements are equivalent.

a. If then
If then
b. If I live in Nashville, then I live in Tennessee.
If I do not live in Tennessee, then I do not live in Nashville.
Solution
a. The second statement is the inverse of the first statement. Thus the statements are
not equivalent. This can also be demonstrated by the fact that the first statement is
true for c = 0 and the second statement is false for c = 0.
b. The second statement is the contrapositive of the first statement. Thus the
statements are equivalent.

Remark
In mathematics, it is often necessary to prove statements that are in ―If p, then q‖
form. If a proof cannot readily be produced, mathematicians often try to prove the
contrapositive, ―If then ‖ Because a conditional and its contrapositive are
equivalent statements, a proof of either statement also establishes the proof of the
other statement.

62. A mathematician wishes to prove the following statement about the integer x.
If is an odd integer, then x is an odd integer. (I)
If the mathematician is able to prove the statement, ―If x is an even integer, then
is an even integer,‖ does this also prove statement (I)?
Answer
Yes, because the second statement is the contrapositive of (I).

60
 63.Write the contrapositive of each statement and use the contrapositive to determine
whether the original statement is true or false.
a. If is not divisible by 5, then a and b are not both divisible by 5.
b. If is an odd integer, then x is an odd integer. (Assume x is an integer.)
c. If a geometric figure is not a rectangle, then it is not a square.
Solution
a. If a and b are both divisible by 5, then is divisible by 5. This is a true
statement, so the original statement is also true.
b. If x is an even integer, then is an even integer. This is a true statement, so the
original statement is also true.
c. If a geometric figure is a square, then it is a rectangle. This is a true statement, so
the original statement is also true.

64. Write the contrapositive of each statement and use the contrapositive to determine
whether the original statement is true or false.
a. If 3 + x is an odd integer, then x is an even integer. (Assume x is an integer.)
b. If two triangles are not similar triangles, then they are not congruent triangles.
Note: Similar triangles have the same shape. Congruent triangles have the same
size and shape.
c. If today is not Wednesday, then tomorrow is not Thursday.
Solution
a. Contrapositive: If x is an odd integer, then 3 + x is an even integer. The
contrapositive is true and so the original statement is also true.
b. Contrapositive: If two triangles are congruent triangles, then the two triangles are
similar triangles. The contrapositive is true and so the original statement is also
true.
c. Contrapositive: If tomorrow is Thursday, then today is Wednesday. The
contrapositive is true and so the original statement is also true.

65.Find the contrapositive, the converse, and the inverse of the conditional statement
―The home team wins whenever it is raining.‖
Solution: Because ―q whenever p‖ is one of the ways to express the conditional
statement p → q, the original statement can be rewritten as
―If it is raining, then the home team wins.‖
Consequently, the contrapositive of this conditional statement is
―If the home team does not win, then it is not raining.‖
The converse is ―If the home team wins, then it is raining.‖
The inverse is ―If it is not raining, then the home team does not win.‖
Only the contrapositive is equivalent to the original statement.

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 Biconditional
The statement is called a biconditional and is read as ―p if and only if q.‖ It is
equivalent to the following form;
,( )∧( )-

66. State whether each biconditional is true or false.

a. if and only if .
b. if and only if .
Solution
a. Both components are true when and both are false when . Both
components have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true
statement.
b. If the first component is true and the second component is false. Thus,
this is a false statement.

67. State whether each biconditional is true or false.

c. if and only if .
d. if and only if .
Solution
a. Let x = 6.5. Then the first component of the biconditional is false and the second
component of the biconditional is true. Thus the given biconditional statement is
false.
b. Both components of the biconditional are true for x > 2, and both components are
false for . Because both components have the same truth value for any real
number x, the given biconditional is true.

68.Let p be the statement ―You can take the flight,‖ and let q be the statement ―You buy
a ticket.‖ Then find p ↔ q.
Solution
Then p ↔ q is the statement
―You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.‖
This statement is true if p and q are either both true or both false, that is, if you buy a
ticket and can take the flight or if you do not buy a ticket and you cannot take the
flight. It is false when p and q have opposite truth values, that is, when you do not
buy a ticket, but you can take the flight (such as when you get a free trip) and when
you buy a ticket but you cannot take the flight (such as when the airline bumps you).

62
 Truth Sets, A link between Set Theory and Logic.
Logical propositions p, q etc., are formulae expressed in terms of some variables. For the
sake of simplicity and convenience we may assume that they are all expressed in terms of
a single variable x where x is a real variable. Thus ( ) where, . All those
values of x which make the formula p(x) true form a set, say P. Then P is the truth set of p.
Similarly, the truth set, Q, of q may be defined. We can extend this notion and apply it in
other cases.
i) Truth set of ~p: Truth set of ~p will evidently consist of those values of the variable for
which p is false i.e., they will be members of , the complement of P.
ii) p ∨ q: Truth set of ∨ ( ) ∨ ( ) consists of those values of the variable for
which p(x) is true or q(x) is true or both p(x) and q(x) are true.
Therefore, truth set of p v q will be: ∨ ∪ * ( ) ( ) +
iii) p∧q: Truth set of p(x)∧q(x) will consist of those values of the variable for which both
p(x) and q(x) are true. Evidently truth set of
∧ ∩ * ( ) ∧ ( ) +
iv) p q: We know that p q is equivalent to ~p ∨ q therefore truth set of p q will be
∪
v) p q: We know that p q means that p and q are simultaneously true or false.
Therefore, in this case truth sets of p and q will be the same i.e. P = Q
Note
(1) Evidently truth set of a tautology is the relevant universal set and that of an absurdity is
the empty set .
(2) With the help of the above results we can express any logical formula in set- theoretic
form and vice versa.

69. Give logical proofs of the following theorems:

( ∪ ) ∩
Solution
The corresponding formula of logic is ( ∨ ) ∧
We construct truth table of the two sides.

The last two columns of the table establish the equality of the two sides of equation.

63
 70. Give logical proofs of the following theorems:

∩( ∪ ) ( ∩ )∪( ∩ )

Solution

Logical form of the theorem is

∧( ∨ ) ( ∧ )∨( ∧ )

We construct the table for the two sides of this equation

Comparison of the entries of columns 5 and 8 is sufficient to establish the desired

result.

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 Argument and Valid Argument
An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement called
the conclusion. An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises
are assumed to be true. An argument is invalid if it is not a valid argument.
Remember
In the argument about Aristotle, the two premises and the conclusion are shown below. It
is customary to place a horizontal line between the premises and the conclusion.
First Premise: If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
Second Premise: Aristotle was human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
Arguments can be written in symbolic form. For instance, if we let h represent the
statement ―Aristotle was human‖ and m represent the statement ―Aristotle was mortal,‖
then the argument can be expressed as

The three dots are a symbol for ―therefore.‖

71.Write the following argument in symbolic form.

The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh. Therefore I will order it.
Solution
Let f represent the statement ―The fish is fresh.‖ Let o represent the statement ―I will
order it.‖ The symbolic form of the argument is

72. Write the following argument in symbolic form.

If she doesn‘t get on the plane, she will regret it. She does not regret it.
Therefore, she got on the plane
Solution
Let p represent the statement ―She got on the plane.‖ Let r represent the statement
―She will regret it.‖ Then the symbolic form of the argument is

65
 Arguments and Truth Tables
The following truth table procedure can be used to determine whether an argument is valid
or invalid.
Truth Table Procedure to Determine the Validity of an Argument
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and the truth value
of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the component statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all the
premises are true, the argument is invalid.

73. If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal. Aristotle was human.
Therefore, Aristotle was mortal. Using procedure show that argument is valid or
not?
Solution
Let h represent the statement ―Aristotle was human‖ and m represent the statement
―Aristotle was mortal.‖ In symbolic form, the argument is

Construct a truth table as shown below.

Row 1 is the only row in which all the premises are true, so it is the only row that
we examine. Because the conclusion is true in row 1, the argument is valid.

66
 74.Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not raining. Therefore, the game
will be played.
Solution
If we let r represent ―it rains‖ and g represent ―the game will be played,‖ then the
symbolic form is

The truth table for this argument is as follows:

Because the conclusion in row 4 is false and the premises are both true, we know the
argument is invalid.

75. Why do we need to examine only rows 3 and 4?

Solution
Rows 3 and 4 are the only rows in which all of the premises are true.

76.Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.

If the stock market rises, then the bond market will fall.
The bond market did not fall.
The stock market did not rise.
Solution
Let r represent the statement ―The stock market rises.‖ Let f represent the statement
―The bond market will fall.‖ Then the symbolic form of the argument is

67
 The truth table for this argument is as follows:

Row 4 is the only row in which all the premises are true, so it is the only row that
we examine.
Because the conclusion is true in row 4, the argument is valid.

77.Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.

If I am going to run the marathon, then I will buy new shoes.
If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.
If I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.
Solution
Label the statements
m: I am going to run the marathon.
s: I will buy new shoes.
t: I will buy a television.
The symbolic form of the argument is given as;
The truth table for this argument is as follows:

The only rows in which both premises are true are rows 2, 6, 7, and 8. Because the
conclusion is true in each of these rows, the argument is valid.

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 78. Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid.
If I arrive before 8 A.M., then I will make the flight.
If I make the flight, then I will give the presentation.
If I arrive before 8 A.M., then I will give the presentation.
Solution
Let represent the statement ―I arrive before 8 A.M.‖ Let f represent the statement
―I will make the flight.‖ Let p represent the statement ―I will give the presentation.‖
Then the symbolic form of the argument is

The truth table for this argument is as follows:

The only rows in which all the premises are true are rows 1, 5, 7, and 8. In each of
these rows the conclusion is also true. Thus the argument is a valid argument.

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 Standard Forms
Some arguments can be shown to be valid if they have the same symbolic form as an
argument that is known to be valid. For instance, we have shown that the argument

is valid. This symbolic form is known as modus ponens or the law of detachment.
All arguments that have this symbolic form are valid. Table shows four symbolic forms
and the name used to identify each form. Any argument that has a symbolic form identical
to one of these symbolic forms is a valid argument.

The law of syllogism can be extended to include more than two conditional premises. For
example, if the premises of an argument are then a valid conclusion
for the argument is .We will refer to any argument of this form with more than two
conditional premises as the extended law of syllogism. Table shows two symbolic forms
associated with invalid arguments. Any argument that has one of these symbolic forms is
invalid.

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 79. Use a standard form to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
The program is interesting or I will watch the basketball game.
The program is not interesting.
I will watch the basketball game.
Solution
Label the statements.
i: The program is interesting.
w: I will watch the basketball game.
In symbolic form the argument is:

This symbolic form matches the standard form known as disjunctive syllogism.
Thus the argument is valid.

80. Use a standard form to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
If I go to Florida for spring break, then I will not study.
I did not go to Florida for spring break.
I studied.
Solution
Let f represent ―I go to Florida for spring break.‖ Let represent ―I will not
study.‖ Then the symbolic form of the argument is

This argument has the form of the fallacy of the inverse. Thus the argument is
invalid.

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 81. Determine whether the following argument is valid.
If the movie was directed by George Lucas (l), then I want to see it (w). If I want to
see a movie, then the movie‘s production costs must have exceeded 20 million
dollars (c). The movie‘s production costs were less than 20 million dollars.
Therefore, the movie was not directed by George Lucas.
Solution
In symbolic form the argument is:

Applying the law of syllogism to Premises 1 and 2 produces

Combining the above conclusion with Premise 3 gives us

This sequence of valid arguments has produced the conclusion given in the original
argument. Thus the original argument is a valid argument.

82.Determine whether the following argument is valid.

I start to fall asleep if I read a math book. I drink a soda whenever I start to fall
asleep. If I drink a soda, then I must eat a candy bar. Therefore, I eat a candy bar
whenever I read a math book.
Solution
Let r represent ―I read a math book.‖ Let f represent ―I start to fall asleep.‖ Let d
represent ―I drink a soda.‖ Let e represent ―I eat a candy bar.‖ Then the symbolic
form of the argument is

The argument has the form of the extended law of syllogism. Thus the argument is
valid.

72
 Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are very useful in depicting visually the basic concepts of sets and
relationships between sets. They were first used by an English logician and mathematician
John Venn (1834 to 1883 A.D).
In a Venn diagram, a rectangular region represents the universal set and regions bounded
by simple closed curves represent other sets, which are subsets of the universal set. For the
sake of beauty these regions are generally shown as circular regions.

83.Draw a Venn diagram that represents V, the set of vowels in the English alphabet.
Solution
We draw a rectangle to indicate the universal set U, which is the set of the 26 letters
of the English alphabet. Inside this rectangle we draw a circle to represent V. Inside
this circle we indicate the elements of V with points (see Figure).

Subset
The set A is a subset of B, and B is a superset of A, if and only if every element of A is
also an element of B. We use the notation A B to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
If, instead, we want to stress that B is a superset of A, we use the equivalent notation
B ⊇ A.(So, A B and B ⊇ A are equivalent statements.)
For example; The set of all odd positive integers less than 10 is a subset of the set of all
positive integers less than 10, the set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real
numbers, the set of all computer science majors at your school is a subset of the set of all
students at your school, and the set of all people in China is a subset of the set of all people
in China (that is, it is a subset of itself). Each of these facts follows immediately by noting
that an element that belongs to the first set in each pair of sets also belongs to the second
set in that pair.

73
 84. Draw a Venn diagram showing that A is a subset of B.
Solution

Equal Sets
To show that two sets A and B are equal, show that A B and B A.
Sets may have other sets as members. For instance, we have the sets
A ={∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} and B ={x ∣ x is a subset of the set {a, b}}.
Note that these two sets are equal, that is, A = B. Also note that {a} A, but a ∉ A.

The Size of a Set

Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer,
we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of S is denoted
by |S|.
Remark
 The term cardinality comes from the common usage of the term cardinal number as
the size of a finite set.
 A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
Examples
 Let A be the set of odd positive integers less than 10. Then |A| = 5.
 Let S be the set of letters in the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26.
 Because the null set has no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0.
 The set of positive integers is infinite. ◂

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 Power Set
Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S. The power set of S
is denoted by P(S).
If a set has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements.

85. What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2}?

Solution
The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1, 2}. Hence,
P ({0, 1, 2}) ={∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this set of subsets.

86.What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set of the set {∅}?
Solution
The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself. Consequently,
P (∅) = {∅}.
The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the set {∅} itself. Therefore,
P ({∅}) ={∅, {∅}}.

Union of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
That is A ∪ B ={x ∣ x A ∨ x B}

87. Find the union of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}

Solution
{1, 3, 5}∪{1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}.

88. Draw a Venn diagram of union of two sets.

Solution

75
 Intersection of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set
containing those elements in both A and B.
That is A ∩ B ={x ∣ x A ∧ x B}

89. Find the intersection of the sets {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3}

Solution
{1, 3, 5}∩{1, 2, 3} = {1, 3}

90. Draw a Venn diagram of intersection of two sets.

Solution

Disjoint Sets
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

91. Give an example of disjoint sets.

Solution
Let A ={1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B ={2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Because A ∩ B = ∅,
Therefore A and B are disjoint.

Difference of Sets
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set containing
those elements that are in A but not in B. The difference of A and B is also called the
complement of B with respect to A. i.e. A − B ={x ∣ x A ∧ x ∉ B}.
For example;
The difference of {1, 3, 5} and {1, 2, 3} is the set {5}; that is, {1, 3, 5}−{1, 2, 3}={5}.
This is different from the difference of {1, 2, 3} and {1, 3, 5}, which is the set {2}.

76
 92.Draw a Venn diagram of difference of two sets.
Solution

Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by ̅ , is the
complement of A with respect to U. Therefore, the complement of the set A is U − A.
That is ̅ = {x U ∣ x ∉ A}.
Remember that A − B = A ∩ ̅.

93.Give two examples of complement of sets.

Solution
 Let A ={a, e, i, o, u} (where the universal set is the set of letters of the English
alphabet). Then ̅ = {b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z}.
 Let A be the set of positive integers greater than 10 (with universal set the set of
all positive integers). Then ̅ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

94.Draw a Venn diagram of complement of a set A.

Solution

77
 Summary

78
 Euler Diagrams
Many arguments involve sets whose elements are described using the quantifiers all,
some, and none. The mathematician Leonhard Euler used diagrams to determine
whether arguments that involved quantifiers were valid or invalid.
The following figures show Euler diagrams that illustrate the four possible
relationships that can exist between two sets.

Euler used diagrams to illustrate logic concepts. Some 100 years later, John
Venn extended the use of Euler‘s diagrams to illustrate many types of mathematics.
In this section, we will construct diagrams to determine the validity of arguments.
We will refer to these diagrams as Euler diagrams.

95.Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or

invalid.
All college courses are fun.
This course is a college course.
This course is fun.
Solution
The first premise indicates that the set of college courses is a subset of the set of fun
courses. We illustrate this subset relationship with an Euler diagram, as shown in
Figure 1. The second premise tells us that ―this course‖ is an element of the set of
college courses. If we use c to represent ―this course,‖ then c must be placed inside
the set of college courses, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 illustrates that c must also be an element of the set of fun courses. Thus the
argument is valid.

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 96.Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
All lawyers drive BMWs.
Susan is a lawyer.
Susan drives a BMW.
Solution
The following Euler diagram shows that the argument is valid.

Note
If an Euler diagram can be drawn so that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from
the premises, then the argument is invalid.

97.Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or

invalid.
Some impressionist paintings are Renoirs.
Dance at Bougival is an impressionist painting.
Dance at Bougival is a Renoir.
Solution
The Euler diagram in Figure 1 illustrates the premise that some impressionist
paintings are Renoirs. Let d represent the painting Dance at Bougival. Figures 2 and
3 show that d can be placed in one of two region.

Although Figure 2 supports the argument, Figure 3 shows that the conclusion does
not necessarily follow from the premises, and thus the argument is invalid.

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 98.Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
No prime numbers are negative.
The number 7 is not negative.
The number 7 is a prime number.
Solution
From the given premises we can conclude that 7 may or may not be a prime number.
Thus the argument is invalid.

99. If one particular example can be found for which the conclusion of an argument is
true when its premises are true, must the argument be valid?
Answer
No. To be a valid argument, the conclusion must be true whenever the premises are
true. Just because the conclusion is true for one specific example, it does not mean
the argument is a valid argument.

100. Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
No psychologist can juggle.
All clowns can juggle.
No psychologist is a clown.
Solution
The Euler diagram in Figure 1 shows that the set of psychologists and the set of
jugglers are disjoint sets. Figure 2shows that because the set of clowns is a subset of
the set of jugglers, no psychologists p are elements of the set of clowns. Thus the
argument is valid.

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 101. Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
No mathematics professors are good-looking.
All good-looking people are models.
No mathematics professor is a model.
Solution
From the given premises we can construct two possible Euler diagrams.

From the rightmost Euler diagram we can determine that the argument is invalid.
Euler Diagrams and the Extended Law of Syllogism
102. Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
All fried foods are greasy.
All greasy foods are delicious.
All delicious foods are healthy.
All fried foods are healthy.
Solution
The figure at the left illustrates that every fried food is an element of the set of
healthy foods, so the argument is valid.

103. Use an Euler diagram to determine whether the following argument is valid or
invalid.
All squares are rhombi.
All rhombi are parallelograms.
All parallelograms are quadrilaterals.
All squares are quadrilaterals.

82
 Solution
The following Euler diagram illustrates that all squares are quadrilaterals, so the
argument is a valid argument.

Using Euler Diagrams to Form Conclusions

104. Use an Euler diagram and all of the premises in the following argument to
determine a valid conclusion for the argument.
All Ms are Ns.
No Ns are Ps.
?
Solution
The first premise indicates that the set of Ms is a subset of the set of Ns. The second
premise indicates that the set of Ns and the set of Ps are disjoint sets. The following
Euler diagram illustrates these set relationships. An examination of the Euler
diagram allows us to conclude that no Ms are Ps.

83
 105. Use an Euler diagram and all of the premises in the following argument to
determine a valid conclusion for the argument.
Some rabbits are white.
All white animals like tomatoes.
?

Solution
The following Euler diagrams illustrate two possible cases. In both cases we see that
all white rabbits like tomatoes.

84
 Applications of Propositional Logic

Logic has many important applications to mathematics, computer science, and numerous
other disciplines. Statements in mathematics and the sciences and in natural language often
are imprecise or ambiguous. To make such statements precise, they can be translated into
the language of logic. For example, logic is used in the specification of software and
hardware, because these specifications need to be precise before development begins.
Furthermore, propositional logic and its rules can be used to design computer circuits, to
construct computer programs, to verify the correctness of programs, and to build expert
systems. Logic can be used to analyze and solve many familiar puzzles. Software systems
based on the rules of logic have been developed for constructing some, but not all, types of
proofs automatically.

Translating English Sentences

There are many reasons to translate English sentences into expressions involving
propositional variables and logical connectives. In particular, English (and every other
human language) is often ambiguous. Translating sentences into compound statements
(and other types of logical expressions, which we will introduce later in this chapter)
removes the ambiguity. Note that this may involve making a set of reasonable assumptions
based on the intended meaning of the sentence. Moreover, once we have translated
sentences from English into logical expressions, we can analyze these logical expressions
to determine their truth values, we can manipulate them, and we can use rules of inference
to reason about them.

106. How can this English sentence be translated into a logical expression?
―You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science major
or you are not a freshman.‖
Solution
There are many ways to translate this sentence into a logical expression. Although it
is possible to represent the sentence by a single propositional variable, such as p,
this would not be useful when analyzing its meaning or reasoning with it. Instead,
we will use propositional variables to represent each sentence part and determine the
appropriate logical connectives between them. In particular, we let a, c, and f
represent ―You can access the Internet from campus,‖ ―You are a computer science
major,‖ and ―You are a freshman,‖ respectively. Noting that ―only if‖ is one way a
conditional statement can be expressed, this sentence can be represented as
a → (c ∨¬f ).

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 107. How can this English sentence be translated into a logical expression?
―You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older
than 16 years old.‖
Solution
Let q, r, and s represent ―You can ride the roller coaster,‖ ―You are under 4 feet
tall,‖ and ―You are older than 16 years old,‖ respectively. Then the sentence can be
translated to
(r ∧¬s) → ¬q
There are other ways to represent the original sentence as a logical expression, but
the one we have used should meet our needs.

System Specifications

Translating sentences in natural language (such as English) into logical expressions is an

essential part of specifying both hardware and software systems. System and software
engineers take requirements in natural language and produce precise and unambiguous
specifications that can be used as the basis for system development. Example shows how
compound propositions can be used in this process.

108. Express the specification ―The automated reply cannot be sent when the file
system is full‖ using logical connectives.
Solution
One way to translate this is to let p denote ―The automated reply can be sent‖ and q
denote ―The file system is full.‖ Then ¬p represents ―It is not the case that the
automated reply can be sent,‖ which can also be expressed as ―The automated reply
cannot be sent.‖ Consequently, our specification can be represented by the
conditional statement q → ¬p.

86
 Remark

System specifications should be consistent, that is, they should not contain conflicting
requirements that could be used to derive a contradiction. When specifications are not
consistent, there would be no way to develop a system that satisfies all specifications.

109. Determine whether these system specifications are consistent:

―The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is retransmitted.‖
―The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.‖
―If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is retransmitted.‖
Solution
To determine whether these specifications are consistent, we first express them using
logical expressions. Let p denote ―The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer‖
and let q denote ―The diagnostic message is retransmitted.‖ The specifications can
then be written as p ∨ q, ¬p, and p → q. An assignment of truth values that makes
all three specifications true must have p false to make ¬p true. Because we want p∨q
to be true but p must be false, q must be true. Because p → q is true when p is false
and q is true, we conclude that these specifications are consistent, because they are
all true when p is false and q is true. We could come to the same conclusion by use
of a truth table to examine the four possible assignments of truth values to p and q.

110. Do the system specifications in Previous Example remain consistent if the

specification ―The diagnostic message is not retransmitted‖ is added?
Solution
By the reasoning in Previous Example, the three specifications from that example
are true only in the case when p is false and q is true. However, this new
specification is ¬q, which is false when q is true. Consequently, these four
specifications are inconsistent.

87
 Exercise
1. In Exercises a – j, determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a) West Virginia is west of the Mississippi River.
b) 1031 is a prime number.
c) The area code for Storm Lake, Iowa, is 512.
d) Some negative numbers are rational numbers.
e) Have a fun trip.
f) Do you like to read?
g) All hexagons have exactly five sides.
h) If x is a negative number, then x2 is a positive number.
i) Mathematics courses are better than history courses.
j) Every real number is a rational number.
2. In Exercises a – d, write the negation of each statement.
a) The Giants lost the game.
b) The lunch was served at noon.
c) The game did not go into overtime.
d) The game was not shown on ABC.
3. Which of these sentences are propositions? What are the truth values of those that
are propositions?
a) Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. b) Miami is the capital of Florida.
c) 2 + 3 = 5.
d) 5 + 7 = 10.
e) x + 2 = 11.
f) Answer this question.
4. Which of these are propositions? What are the truth values of those that are
propositions?
a) Do not pass go.
b) What time is it?
c) There are no black flies in Maine.
d) 4 + x = 5.
e) The moon is made of green cheese.
f) 2n ≥ 100.
5. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Linda is younger than Sanjay.
b) Mei makes more money than Isabella.
c) Moshe is taller than Monica.
d) Abby is richer than Ricardo.
6. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Janice has more Facebook friends than Juan.
b) Quincy is smarter than Venkat.
c) Zelda drives more miles to school than Paola.
d) Briana sleeps longer than Gloria.

88
 7. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Mei has an MP3 player.
b) There is no pollution in New Jersey. c) 2 + 1 = 3.
d) The summer in Maine is hot and sunny.
8. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Jennifer and Teja are friends.
b) There are 13 items in a baker‘s dozen.
c) Abby sent more than 100 text messages yesterday.
d) 121 is a perfect square.
9. What is the negation of each of these propositions?
a) Steve has more than 100 GB free disk space on his laptop.
b) Zach blocks e-mails and texts from Jennifer.
c) 7 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 13 = 999.
d) Diane rode her bicycle 100 miles on Sunday.
10.Suppose that Smartphone A has 256 MB RAM and 32 GB ROM, and the resolution
of its camera is 8 MP; Smartphone B has 288 MB RAM and 64 GB ROM, and the
resolution of its camera is 4 MP; and Smartphone C has 128 MB RAM and 32 GB
ROM, and the resolution of its camera is 5 MP. Determine the truth value of each of
these propositions.
a) Smartphone B has the most RAM of these three smartphones.
b) Smartphone C has more ROM or a higher resolution camera than Smartphone B.
c) Smartphone B has more RAM, more ROM, and a higher resolution camera than
Smartphone A.
d) If Smartphone B has more RAM and more ROM than Smartphone C, then it also
has a higher resolution camera.
e) Smartphone A has more RAM than Smartphone B if and only if Smartphone B
has more RAM than Smart phone A.
11.Suppose that during the most recent fiscal year, the annual revenue of Acme
Computer was 138 billion dollars and its net profit was 8 billion dollars, the annual
revenue of Nadir Software was 87 billion dollars and its net profit was 5 billion
dollars, and the annual revenue of Quixote Media was 111 billion dollars and its net
profit was 13 billion dollars. Determine the truth value of each of these propositions
for the most recent fiscal year.
a) Quixote Media had the largest annual revenue.
b) Nadir Software had the lowest net profit and Acme Computer had the largest
annual revenue.
c) Acme Computer had the largest net profit or Quixote Media had the largest net
profit.
d) If Quixote Media had the smallest net profit, then Acme Computer had the largest
annual revenue.
e) Nadir Software had the smallest net profit if and only if Acme Computer had the
largest annual revenue.

89
 12. Let p and q be the propositions
p: You drive over 65 miles per hour.
q: You get a speeding ticket.
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives (including
negations).
a) You do not drive over 65 miles per hour.
b) You drive over 65 miles per hour, but you do not get a speeding ticket.
c) You will get a speeding ticket if you drive over 65 miles per hour.
d) If you do not drive over 65 miles per hour, then you will not get a speeding ticket.
e) Driving over 65miles per hour is sufficient for getting a speeding ticket.
f) You get a speeding ticket, but you do not drive over 65 miles per hour.
g) Whenever you get a speeding ticket, you are driving over 65 miles per hour.
13. State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of each of these conditional
statements.
a) If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
b) I come to class whenever there is going to be a quiz.
c) A positive integer is a prime only if it has no divisors other than 1 and itself.
14. State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of each of these conditional
statements.
a) If it snows tonight, then I will stay at home.
b) I go to the beach whenever it is a sunny summer day.
c) When I stay up late, it is necessary that I sleep until noon.
15.Construct truth table of converse, inverse and contra positive of given conditional.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contra Positive

16.Construct truth table for the following statements.

a) ( )∨( )
b) ( ∧ )
c) ( ) ( ∧ )

17.Determine whether each of the following is a tautology or not?

a) ( ∧ )
b) ( ∨ )
c) ( )
d) ∧( )

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 18. Show that each of these conditional statements is a tautology by using truth tables.
a) (p ∧ q) → p b) p → (p ∨ q)
c) ¬p → (p → q) d) (p ∧ q) → (p → q)
e) ¬(p → q) → p f) ¬(p → q) → ¬q
19.Show that each of these conditional statements is a tautology by using truth tables.
a) [¬p ∧ (p ∨ q)] → q
b) [(p → q) ∧ (q → r)] → (p → r)
c) [p ∧ (p → q)] → q
d) [(p ∨ q) ∧ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)] → r
20.Determine whether each of the following is a tautology, a contingency or an
absurdity?
a) ∧
b) ( )
c) ∨ ( ∨ )
21.Prove that ∨ ( ∧ ) ∨ ( ∧ ) ∨( ∧ )
22. Show that p ↔ q and (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬p ∧¬q) are logically equivalent.
23.Show that ¬(p ↔ q)and p ↔ ¬q are logically equivalent.
24.Show that p → q and ¬q → ¬p are logically equivalent.
25.Show that ¬p ↔ q and p ↔ ¬q are logically equivalent.
26.Show that ¬(p ⊕ q)and p ↔ q are logically equivalent.
27.Show that ¬(p ↔ q)and ¬p ↔ q are logically equivalent.
28.Show that (p → q) ∧ (p → r) and p → (q ∧ r) are logically equivalent.
29.Show that (p → r) ∧ (q → r) and (p ∨ q) → r are logically equivalent.
30.Show that (p → q) ∨ (p → r) and p → (q ∨ r) are logically equivalent.
31.Show that (p → r) ∨ (q → r) and (p ∧ q) → r are logically equivalent.
32.Show that ¬p → (q → r) and q → (p ∨ r) are logically equivalent.
33.Show that p ↔ q and (p → q) ∧ (q → p) are logically equivalent.
34.Show that p ↔ q and ¬p ↔ ¬q are logically equivalent.
35.Show that (p → q) ∧ (q → r) → (p → r) is a tautology.
36.Show that (p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r) → (q ∨ r) is a tautology.
37.Show that (p → q) → r and p → (q → r) are not logically equivalent.
38.Show that (p ∧ q) → r and (p → r) ∧ (q → r) are not logically equivalent.
39. Show that (p → q) → (r → s) and (p → r) →(q → s) are not logically equivalent.
40.Let P(x) denote the statement ―x ≤ 4.‖ What are these truth values?
a) P(0) b) P(4) c) P(6)
41.Let P(x) be the statement ―The word x contains the letter a.‖ What are these truth
values?
a) P(orange) b) P(lemon)
c) P(true) d) P(false)
42.Let Q(x, y) denote the statement ―x is the capital of y.‖ What are these truth values?
a) Q(Denver, Colorado) b) Q(Detroit, Michigan)
c) Q(Massachusetts, Boston) d) Q(New York, New York)

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 43. State the value of x after the statement if P(x) then x := 1 is executed, where P(x) is
the statement ―x > 1,‖ if the value of x when this statement is reached is
a) x = 0. b) x = 1. c) x = 2.

44.Let P(x) be the statement ―x spends more than five hours every weekday in class,‖
where the domain for x consists of all students. Express each of these quantifications
in English.
a) ∃xP(x) b) ∀xP(x)
c) ∃x ¬P(x) d) ∀x ¬P(x)

45.Let N(x) be the statement ―x has visited North Dakota,‖ where the domain consists
of the students in your school. Express each of these quantifications in English.
a) ∃xN(x) b) ∀xN(x) c) ¬∃xN(x)
d) ∃x¬N(x) e) ¬∀xN(x) f) ∀x¬N(x)

46.Construct the following theorems to logical form and prove them by constructing
truth tables.
a) ( ∩ ) ∪
b) ( ∪ ) ∪ ∪( ∪ )
c) ( ∩ ) ∩ ∩( ∩ )
d) ( ∪ ) ∩ ( ∪ )∩( ∪ )

47. In Exercises i–viii, use a truth table to determine whether the argument is valid or
invalid.
i ii

iii iv

v vi

vii viii

92
 48.In Exercises a–f, use the indicated letters to write the argument in symbolic form.
Then use a truth table to determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.
a) If you finish your homework ( ) you may attend the reception ( ). You did not
finish your homework. Therefore, you cannot go to the reception.
b) The X Games will be held in Oceanside ( ) if and only if the city of Oceanside
agrees to pay $100,000 in prize money ( ). If San Diego agrees to pay $200,000
in prize money ( ), then the city of Oceanside will not agree to pay $100,000 in
prize money. Therefore, if the X Games were held in Oceanside, then San Diego
did not agree to pay $200,000 in prize money.
c) If I can‘t buy the house ( ) then at least I can dream about it ( ). I can buy the
house or at least I can dream about it. Therefore, I can buy the house.
d) If the winds are from the east ( ) then we will not have a big surf ( ). We do
not have a big surf. Therefore, the winds are from the east.
e) If I master college algebra ( ) then I will be prepared for trigonometry I am
prepared for trigonometry ( ). Therefore, I mastered college algebra.
f) If it is a blot ( ) then it is not a clot ( ). If it is a zlot ( ) then it is a clot. It is a
blot. Therefore, it is not a zlot.

49.Using Venn diagram, verify the followings.

a) ∩ iff ∩
b) ( )∪ ∪
c) ( )∩
d) ∪ ∪( ∩ )

50. In Exercises a–d, draw an Euler diagram that illustrates the relationship between the
given sets. Also use a dot to show an element of the first set that satisfies the given
relationship.
a) All cats (C) are nimble (N).
b) Some mathematicians (M) are extroverts (E).
c) Some actors (A) are not famous (F).
d) No alligators (A) are trustworthy (T).
51.In Exercises i–xvi, use an Euler diagram to determine whether the argument is valid
or invalid.
i. All frogs are poetical.
Kermit is a frog.
Kermit is poetical.
ii. All Oreo cookies have a filling.
All Fig Newtons have a filling.
All Fig Newtons are Oreo cookies.
iii. Some plants have flowers.
All things that have flowers are beautiful.
Some plants are beautiful.

93
 iv. No squares are triangles.
Some triangles are equilateral.
No squares are equilateral.
v. No rocker would do the Mariachi.
All baseball fans do the Mariachi.
No rocker is a baseball fan.
vi. Nuclear energy is not safe.
Some electric energy is safe.
No electric energy is nuclear energy.
vii. Some birds bite.
All things that bite are dangerous.
Some birds are dangerous.
viii. All fish can swim.
That barracuda can swim.
That barracuda is a fish.
ix. All men behave badly.
Some hockey players behave badly.
Some hockey players are men.
x. All grass is green.
That ground cover is not green.
That ground cover is not grass.
xi. Most teenagers drink soda.
No CEOs drink soda.
No CEO is a teenager.
xii. Some students like history.
Vern is a student.
Vern likes history.
xiii. No mathematics test is fun.
All fun things are worth your time.
No mathematics test is worth your time.
xiv. All prudent people shun sharks.
No accountant is imprudent.
No accountant fails to shun sharks.
xv. All candidates without a master‘s degree will not be considered for the
position of director.
All candidates who are not considered for the position of director should
apply for the position of assistant.
All candidates without a master‘s degree should apply for the position of
assistant.
xvi. Some whales make good pets. Some good pets are cute.
Some cute pets bite.
Some whales bit

94
 MODEULE 2
Mathematical Modeling and Analysis
CH#03: MODELS: LINEAR AND NON – LINEAR
 Introduction to deterministic models.
 Use of linear functions for modeling in real world situations.
 Linear and exponential growth and decay models.

CH#04: LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

 Modeling with the system of linear equations and their
solutions.
 Inequalities and their solutions.

CH#05: DERIVATIVES AND MATHEMATICAL MODELING

 Introduction and importance of derivatives.
 Derivatives and mathematical modeling.
 Quantitative reasoning exercises using mathematical modeling.

95
 CHAPTER

3
MODELS
LINEAR & NON - LINEAR
All around us, we observe relationships in which some quantities are determined by others.
The temperature outside changes with the time of day, different prices of gasoline can be
matched to different dates in the past, and the value of a used car may depend on how long
ago it was built. In mathematics, many of these relation-ships are considered functions.
One of the most common types of functions is a linear function, in which consistent
changes in one value cause consistent changes in the related value.
For example, a rule of thumb that is often used to predict the maximum heart rate for
women who exercise is to subtract the age from 226. So if A is the age of a woman, her
maximum predicted heart rate R is R = 226 A. According to this rule, every time a
woman gets one year older, her maximum heart rate decreases by one beat per minute.
This consistent change is the defining characteristic of a linear function. We will see many
additional examples of linear functions in this chapter.
In this chapter we will learn about;
 Deterministic Models
 Population growth models
 Rectangular Coordinates and Linear Functions
 Finding Linear and non – Linear Models
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 Linear and exponential growth and decay models.

 Quantitative reasoning exercises using mathematical modeling. i.e. linear and
exponential models

96
 Deterministic Models

Deterministic model is a mathematical model that predicate the outcome of the system
based on a set of fixed inputs. That is Deterministic model describes systems where the
output is uniquely determined by the input, with no randomness or uncertainty. For
example Y = a + bx and Area = are examples of deterministic models. Solved
examples are as follows.

Characteristics

1. Predictable outcomes
2. No randomness or uncertainty
3. Unique solution
4. Cause-and-effect relationships

1. Find the output of the system y = 2x + 3 when x = 4.

Solution: y = 11

2. Solve the differential equation dy/dx = 2x, given y(0) = 1.

Solution: y = + 1

3. Evaluate the function f (x) = 3 2x + 1 at x = 2.

Solution: f (2) = 9

4. Find the equilibrium point of the system .

Solution: x = 3/2

5. Solve the system of linear equations:

2x + 3y = 7 ; x 2y = 3
Solution: x = 1, y = 2

6. Find the derivative of (x) = .

Solution: ( )

7. Find the critical points of ( ) .

Solution: x = -1, x = 1, x = 5

97
 Population Growth Models

Population growth models describe the change in population size over time.

Types of Models

 Exponential Growth Model

 Logistic Growth Model
 Malthusian Growth Model
 Verhulst Model

8. Exponential Growth Model: Find the population size after 5 years, given an initial
population of 1000, growth rate of 0.05, and exponential growth.
Solution
The exponential growth model is given by P(t) = P0 , where P0 is the initial
population, r is the growth rate, and t is time.
P(5) = 1000 ( )
≈ 1276.78

9. Logistic Growth Model: Solve the logistic growth equation ( ), with

r = 0.2, K = 1000, and P(0) = 500.
Solution
The logistic growth model accounts for carrying capacity (K). The solution involves
separating variables and integrating.
()
( )
10. Malthusian Growth Model
Evaluate the Malthusian growth model P(t) = P0 , with P0 = 500, r = 0.03, and
t = 10.
Solution
The Malthusian growth model assumes exponential growth without limits.
P(10) ≈ 674.03
11.Verhulst Model: Solve the Verhulst equation . / , with r = 0.2,
K = 1000, and P(0) = 500.
Solution
The Verhulst model modifies the logistic growth model with a quadratic term.
()
( ( ) )

98
 12. Population Doubling Time: Find the population doubling time for an exponential
growth model with r = 0.04.
Solution
( )
The population doubling time is calculated using the formula .
( )
years

13.Comparative Growth Rates: Compare the growth rates of two populations, one
growing exponentially (r = 0.05) and one logistically (r = 0.05, K = 1000).
Solution
Exponential growth is faster initially, but logistic growth slows due to carrying
capacity. Exponential growth initially faster, but logistic growth slows as population
approaches carrying capacity.

14.Equilibrium Population Size: Find the equilibrium population size for a logistic
growth model with r = 0.1 and K = 500.
Solution
The equilibrium population size occurs when .
P = K = 500

15.Differential Equation Solution: Solve the differential equation

, with P(0) = 100.
Solution
The solution involves separating variables and integrating.
()
( )

16. Model Comparison: Compare the predictions of exponential, logistic, and

Malthusian growth models.
Solution
Exponential growth overestimates, logistic growth accounts for carrying capacity,
and Malthusian growth underestimates.

99
 Introduction to Rectangular Coordinate Systems
In mathematics we encounter a problem of locating a point in a plane. One way to solve
the problem is to use a rectangular coordinate system.
A rectangular coordinate system is formed by two number lines, one horizontal and one
vertical, that intersect at the zero point of each line. The point of intersection is called the
origin. The two number lines are called the coordinate axes, or simply the axes.
Frequently, the horizontal axis is labeled the x-axis and the vertical axis is labeled
the y-axis. In this case, the axes form what is called the xy-plane.
The two axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants, which are numbered
counterclockwise, using Roman numerals, from I to IV, starting at the upper right.

100
 Each point in the plane can be identified by a pair of numbers called an ordered pair. An
ordered pair is a pair of coordinates, and the order in which the coordinates are listed
matters. The first number of the ordered pair measures a horizontal change from the y-axis
and is called the abscissa, or x-coordinate. The second number of the ordered pair
measures a vertical change from the x-axis and is called the ordinate, or y-coordinate.
The ordered pair ( ) associated with a point is also called the coordinates of the point.

To graph, or plot, a point means to place a

dot at the coordinates of the point. For
example, to graph the ordered pair ( ) start
at the origin. Move 4 units to the right and then
3 units up. Draw a dot. To graph ( )
start at the origin. Move 3 units left and then
4 units down. Draw a dot.
The graph of an ordered pair is the dot
drawn at the coordinates of the point in the
plane. The graphs of the ordered pairs ( )
and ( ) are shown at the upper right.
The graphs of the points whose coordinates
Are ( ) and ( ) are shown at the right. Note
that they are different points. The order in
which the numbers in an ordered pair are listed
is important.
If the axes are labeled with letters other than x and y, then we refer to the ordered pair
using the given labels. For instance, if the horizontal axis is labeled t and the vertical axis
is labeled d, then the ordered pairs are written as ( ). We sometimes refer to the first
number in an ordered pair as the first coordinate of the ordered pair and to the second
number as the second coordinate of the ordered pair.

101
 One purpose of a coordinate system is to draw a picture
of the solutions of an equation in two variables.
Examples of equations in two variables are shown at the right.
A solution of an equation in two variables is an ordered pair that makes the equation a
true statement. For instance, as shown below, ( ) is a solution of but ( )
is not a solution of the equation.

1. Is ( ) a solution of ?
Answer
Yes, because ( ) .

The graph of an equation in two variables is a drawing of all the ordered-pair solutions
of the equation. Many equations can be graphed by finding some ordered-pair solutions of
the equation, plotting the corresponding points, and then connecting the points with a
smooth curve.

2. Graph
Solution
To find ordered-pair solutions, select various values of x and calculate the
corresponding values of y. Plot the ordered pairs. After the ordered pairs have been
graphed, draw a smooth curve through the points. It is convenient to keep track of the
solutions in a table.
When choosing
values of x,we
often choose
integer values
because the
resulting ordered
pairs are easier
to graph.

102
 3. Graph
Solution

Note
The graph of is shown below. Note that the ordered pair . / is a solution of
the equation and is a point on the graph. The ordered pair ( ) is not a solution of the
equation and is not a point on the graph. Every ordered-pair solution of the equation is
a point on the graph, and every point on the graph is an ordered-pair solution of the
equation.

103
 4. Graph
Solution
Select various values of x and calculate the corresponding values of y. Plot the ordered
pairs. After the ordered pairs have been graphed, draw a smooth curve through the
points. The following table shows some ordered pair solutions.

5. Graph
Solution

104
 6. Graph ( )
Solution

7. Graph ( )
Solution

105
 8. Graph ( )
Solution

106
 Introduction to Functions
A function is a correspondence, or relationship, between two sets called the domain and
range such that for each element of the domain there corresponds exactly one element of
the range.
Or Let A and B be two non-empty sets such that:
i) f is a relation from A to B that is , f is a subset of A B
ii) Dom f = A
iii) First element of no two pairs of f are equal, then f is said to be a function
from A to B.
The function f is also written as:
which is read: f is a function from A to B .
If (x, y) in an element of f when regarded as a set of ordered pairs,
we write y = f (x). y is called the dependent value of f for x that is independent value or
image of x under f.
The process of finding f (x) for a given value of x is called evaluating the function.
Examples
The ordered pairs, the graph, and the equation are all different ways of expressing the
correspondence, or relationship, between the two variables. These are called a function.
Here are some additional examples of functions, along with a specific example of each
correspondence.

An important fact about each of these correspondences is that each result is unique. For
instance, for the real number 5, there is exactly one square, 25.

9. Evaluate ( ) when .
Solution
()
( ) ( ) ( )

107
 10.Evaluate ( ) when .
Solution
()
( ) ( ) ( )

11.The surface area of a cube (the sum of the areas of each of the six faces) is given by
( ) where ( ) is the surface area of the cube and s is the length of one side
of the cube. Find the surface area of a cube that has a side of length 10 centimeters.
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
The surface area of the cube is 600 square centimeters.

12.A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment from one vertex to a nonadjacent vertex, as
shown. The total number of diagonals of a polygon is given by ( ) where
( ) is the total number of diagonals and s is the number of sides of the polygon. Find
the total number of diagonals of a polygon with 12 sides.
Solution
( )
( ) ( )
( )
A polygon with 12 sides has 54 diagonals.

108
 Linear Functions and Linear Growth Models
A linear function is one that can be written in the form ( ) , where m is the
coefficient of x and b is a constant.
Here are some other examples of linear functions.

13. Are the given functions linear functions?

Solution
a. Because ( ) has an term, f is not a linear function.
b. Because ( ) can be written in the form ( ) as
( ) (m = and b = 1),, g is a linear function.

Note
Note that the graph of a linear function is a straight. Observe that when the graph
crosses the x-axis, the y-coordinate is 0. When the graph crosses the y-axis, the x-
coordinate is 0. The table confirms these observations.
14.Graph ( )
Solution

109
 15.Find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph ( )
Solution
For x – intercept: Put ( )
( ) The x-intercept is . /
For y – intercept: Put
( ) ( ) ( ) The y-intercept is ( )

16.Find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph ( )

Solution
For x – intercept: Put ( )
( ) The x-intercept is ( )
For y – intercept: Put
( ) ( ) ( ) The y-intercept is ( )

17.After a parachute is deployed, a function that models the height of the parachutist
above the ground is ( ) where ( ) is the height, in feet, of the
parachutist t seconds after the parachute is deployed. Find the intercepts on the vertical
and horizontal axes and explain what they mean in the context of the problem.
Solution
For Horizontal – intercept: Put ()
()
The intercept on the horizontal axis is ( ). This means that the parachutist reaches
the ground 280 seconds after the parachute is deployed.
For Vertical – intercept: Put
() ( ) ( )
The intercept on the vertical axis is ( ). This means that the parachutist is 2800
feet above the ground when the parachute is deployed.
Note that the parachutist reaches the ground when ( ) .

110
 18.A function that models the descent of a certain small airplane is given by
() where ( ) is the height, in feet, of the airplane t seconds after it
begins its descent. Find the intercepts on the vertical and horizontal axes, and explain
what they mean in the context of the problem.
Solution
For Horizontal – intercept: Put ()
()
The intercept on the horizontal axis is ( ). This means that the plane reaches the
ground 400 seconds after beginning its descent.
For Vertical – intercept: Put
() ( ) ( )
The intercept on the vertical axis is ( ). This means that the plane is at an altitude
of 8000 feet when it begins its descent.

Slope of Graph of linear Function

For a linear function given by the slope of the graph of the function ( ) is m,
the coefficient of the variable.

19.What is the slope of each of the following?

Solution

Slope of a Line
Let ( ) and ( ) be two points on a nonvertical line. Then the slope of the line
through the two points is the ratio of the change in the y-coordinates to the change in
the x-coordinates.

20.Why is the restriction required in the definition of slope?

Answer
If then the difference . This would make the denominator 0, and
division by 0 is not defined.

111
 21.Find the slope of the line between the two points.

Solution

The slope is . A positive slope indicates that the line

slopes upward to the right. For this particular line,
the value of y increases by when x increases by 1.

The slope is . A negative slope indicates

that the line slopes downward to the right. For
this particular line, the value of y decreases by
2 when x increases by 1.

The slope is 0. A zero slope indicates that the

line is horizontal. For a horizontal line, the
value of y stays the same when x increases by
any amount.

If the denominator of the slope formula is

zero, the line has no slope. Sometimes we say
that the slope of a vertical line is undefined.

112
 22.Find the slope of the line between the two points.

Solution

23.The function ( ) approximates the temperature ( ), in degrees

Celsius, at x kilometers above sea level. What is the slope of this function? Write a
sentence that explains the meaning of the slope in the context of this application.
Solution
For the linear function ( ) the slope is the coefficient of x. Therefore,
the slope is . The slope means that the temperature is decreasing (because the
slope is negative) 6.5°C for each 1-kilometer increase in height above sea level.

24. The distance that a homing pigeon can fly can be approximated by ( ) where
( ) is the distance, in miles, flown by the pigeon in t hours. Find the slope of this
function. What is the meaning of the slope in the context of the problem?
Solution
For the linear function ( ) the slope is the coefficient of t. Therefore, the slope
is 50. This means that a homing pigeon can fly 50 miles for each 1 hour of flight time.

113
 Slope Intercept Form of a Straight Line
Let m be the slope and c be the y – intercept of a non – vertical line then the equation of
line is ( ) , this equation is called the slope–intercept form of a straight
line.

25. Draw the line that passes through ( ) and has slope .
Solution

26.Draw the line that passes through ( ) and has slope .

Solution

27. Graph ( ) by using the slope and y-intercept.

Solution

y-intercept = ( )

slope = m

114
 28.Graph ( ) by using the slope and y-intercept.
Solution

29.Suppose that a car uses 0.04 gallon of gas per mile driven and that the fuel tank, which
holds 18 gallons of gas, is full. Using this information, determine a linear model for the
amount of fuel remaining in the gas tank after driving x miles.
Solution
The slope is the rate at which the car is using fuel, 0.04 gallon per mile. Because the car
is consuming the fuel, the amount of fuel in the tank is decreasing. Therefore, the slope
is negative and we have m = 0.04.
The amount of fuel in the tank depends on the number of miles x the car has been
driven. Before the car starts (that is, when x = 0), there are 18 gallons of gas in the tank.
The y-intercept is ( )
Using this information, we can create the linear function.
( )
( )
The linear function that models the amount of fuel remaining in the tank is given by
( ) where ( ) is the amount of fuel, in gallons, remaining after
driving x miles. The graph of the function is shown follows.
The x-intercept of a graph is the point at which ( ) .
For this application, ( ) when there are 0 gallons of fuel remaining in the tank.
For x – intercept: Put ( )
( )

The car can travel 450 miles before running

out of gas.

115
 30.Suppose a 20-gallon gas tank contains 2 gallons when a motorist decides to fill up the
tank. If the gas pump fills the tank at a rate of 0.1 gallon per second, find a linear
function that models the amount of fuel in the tank t seconds after fueling begins.
Solution
When fueling begins, at t = 0 there are 2 gallons of gas in the tank. Therefore, the y-
intercept is ( ). The slope is the rate at which fuel is being added to the tank. Because
the amount of fuel in the tank is increasing, the slope is positive and we have m = 0.1.
To find the linear function, replace m and b by their respective values.
()
()
The linear function is ( ) where ( ) is the number of gallons of fuel in
the tank t seconds after fueling begins.

31. The boiling point of water at sea level is 100°C.

The boiling point decreases 3.5°C per 1 kilometer increase in altitude. Find a linear
function that gives the boiling point of water as a function of altitude.
Solution
( )
( )
The linear function is ( ) where ( ) is the boiling point of water in
degrees Celcius at an altitude of ‗a‘ kilometers above sea level.

116
 Point–Slope Formula of a Straight Line
Let ( ) be a point on a line and let m be the slope of the line. Then the equation of the
line can be found using the point–slope formula
( )

32.Find the equation of the line that passes through ( ) and has slope .
Solution

33.Find the equation of the line that passes through ( ) and has slope .
Solution
( ) ( ( ))

34.Based on data from the Kelley Blue Book, the value of a certain car decreases
approximately $250 per month. If the value of the car 2 years after it was purchased
was $14,000, find a linear function that models the value of the car after x months of
ownership. Use this function to find the value of the car after 3 years of ownership.
Solution
Let V represent the value of the car after x months. Then when (2 years is
24 months). A solution of the equation is ( ).The car is decreasing in value
at a rate of $250 per month. Therefore, the slope is . Now use the point–slope
formula to find the linear equation that models the function.

A linear function that models the value of the car after x months of ownership is
( )
To find the value of car after 3 years (36 months), evaluate the function when x = 36.

The value of the car is $11,000 after 3 years of ownership.

117
 35.During a brisk walk, a person burns about 3.8 calories per minute. If a person has
burned 191 calories in 50 minutes, determine a linear function that models the number
of calories burned after t minutes.
Solution

A linear function that models the number of calories burned after minutes is
()

36.Find the equation of the line that passes through ( ) and ( ).

Solution
Find the slope of the line between the two points.

Use the point–slope formula to find the equation of the line.

37.Find the equation of the line that passes through ( ) and ( ).

Solution

118
 Polynomial Function
A function of the form
( )
Where n is a non – negative integer and the coefficients are real
numbers. It can be considered as a polynomial function of x.
Degree of the Polynomial
The highest power of x in a polynomial in x is called the degree of the polynomial. So the
expression is the polynomial of degree n.
Here are some examples of polynomial functions and their degrees.

Nonlinear functions
Polynomial functions of degree greater than 1 are part of a class of functions that are called
nonlinear functions because their graphs are not straight lines. Here are some graphs of
polynomial functions of degree greater than 1.

119
 Just as a first-degree polynomial function is also called a linear function, some of the other
polynomial functions have special names.

38. Let ( )
a. Write the polynomial in standard form.
b. Name the degree of the function.
c. Evaluate the function when x = 3.
Solution
a. Write the polynomial in decreasing powers of x.
( )
b. The degree is 3, the largest exponent on the variable.
c. Value of function at x = 3.

39. Let ( )
a. Write the polynomial in standard form.
b. Name the degree of the function.
c. Evaluate the function when x = 3.
Solution
a. ( )
b. The degree is 2, the largest exponent on the variable.
c. Value of function at x = 3.

120
 Things to Remember
 Constant Polynomial/Equation has degree 0.
 Linear Polynomial/Equation has degree 1.
 Quadratic Polynomial has degree 2.
 Cubic Polynomial/Equation has degree 3.
 Degree 4, is a quadratic polynomial.
 0 is a polynomial of degree 0.
 A polynomial having one term is called monomial.
 A polynomial having two terms is called binomial.
 A polynomial having three terms is called trinomial.

Quadratic Function
A quadratic function in x is a function that can be written in the form
( ) ; where a, b and c are real numbers and .
nd
Or A quadratic function in x is 2 Degree Polynomial in x.
Examples

The graph of a quadratic function in a single variable x is a parabola. The graphs of two
such quadratic functions are shown below.

The figure on the left is the graph of ( ) .The value of a is positive

( ) and the graph opens up.
The figure on the right is the graph of ( ) . The value of a is negative
( ) and the graph opens down.

121
 Vertex of the parabola
The point at which the graph of a parabola has a minimum or a maximum is called the
vertex of the parabola. The vertex of a parabola is the point with the smallest y-coordinate
when a > 0 and the point with the largest y-coordinate when a < 0.
Let ( ) be the equation of a parabola. The coordinates of the vertex are
( . /)
Axis of symmetry
The axis of symmetry of the graph of a quadratic function is a vertical line that passes
through the vertex of the parabola.

40.Find the vertex of the parabola whose equation is

Solution

The vertex is ( )

41.Find the vertex of the parabola whose equation is

Solution

( )
( )
The vertex is ( )

122
 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Let f be defined on an interval (a, b) and let (a, b). Then
(i) f is increasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x2) > f(x1) whenever x2 > x1
(ii) f is decreasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x2) < f(x1) whenever x2 > x1

Fist Derivative Theorem:

Let f be a differentiable function on the open interval (a,b). Then
(i) f is increasing on (a,b) if ( ) for each (a, b).
(ii) f is decreasing on (a,b) if ( ) for each (a, b).
(iii) f is neither increasing nor decreasing on (a,b) if ( ) for each (a, b).

Stationary Point
Any point where f is neither increasing nor decreasing.

Critical value or Critical Point

If and ( ) or ( ) does not exists then c is called Critical value or
Critical Point.

Relative Maxima / Maximum and Relative Minima / Minimum

Function has relative maxima at c if ( ) and function has relative minima at c
if ( ) .

Point of Inflection
Point where the function is increasing before x = 0 and also after x = 0, such point is
called the point of inflection.

123
 42.Show that ( ) is increasing or decreasing function on the interval ( ).
Solution
Given that ( ) then
( )
If then ( ) so ( ) is increasing in ( )
If then ( ) so ( ) is decreasing in ( )
If then ( ) so ( ) is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Hence x = 0 is stationary point. And function has minimum at x = 0.

43.Find the maximum value of ( ) .

Solution

( )
The maximum value of the function is 5, the y-coordinate of the vertex.

44.Find the minimum value of ( ) .

Solution

The vertex is ( ).
The minimum value of the function is , the y-coordinate of the vertex.

124
 45.Find the extreme values for ( ) .
Solution
Given that ( ) then
( ) and ( )
( )
( ) gives no information.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
First derivative does not change sign at x = 0.
Hence ( ( ) ) is a point of inflection.

46.Find the extreme values for ( ) .

Solution
Given that ( ) then
( ) and ( )
( )
. / . So ( ) is minimum at

. / . / . / is required minimum value.

47.Find the extreme values for ( ) .

Solution
Given that ( ) then
( ) and ( )
( )
( ) . So ( ) is maximum at
( ) ( ) ( ) is required maximum value.
( ) . So ( ) is minimum at
( ) ( ) ( ) is required minimum value.

125
 48.The vertex of a parabola that opens up is ( ). What is the minimum value of the
function?
Answer
The minimum value of the function is 7, the y-coordinate of the vertex.
49.A mining company has determined that the cost c, in dollars per ton, of mining a
mineral is given by ( ) , where x is the number of tons of the
mineral that is mined. Find the number of tons of the mineral that should be mined to
minimize the cost. What is the minimum cost?
Solution
To find the number of tons of the mineral that should be mined to minimize the cost
and to find the minimum cost, find the x- and y-coordinates of the vertex of the graph
of ( ) .

( )
To minimize the cost, 5 tons of the mineral should be mined.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The minimum cost per ton is $7.

50. The height s, in feet, of a ball thrown straight up is given by ( ) ,

where t is the time in seconds after the ball is released. Find the time it takes the ball to
reach its maximum height. What is the maximum height?
Solution

( )
The ball reaches its maximum height in 2 seconds.
()
( ) ( ) ( )
The maximum height of the ball is 68 feet.

126
 51.A lifeguard has 600 feet of rope with buoys attached to lay out a rectangular swimming
area on a lake. If the beach forms one side of the rectangle, find the dimensions of the
rectangle that will enclose the greatest swimming area.
Solution
Let l represent the length of the rectangle, let w represent the width of the rectangle,
and let A (which is unknown) represent the area of the rectangle. See the figure. Use
these variables to write expressions for the perimeter and area of the rectangle.

Perimeter:

Area:
( )

Find the w-coordinate of the vertex.

( )
The width is 150 feet. To find l, replace w by 150 in and solve for l.

( )
The dimensions of the rectangle with maximum area are 150 feet by 300 feet.

127
 52. A mason is forming a rectangular floor for a storage shed. The perimeter of the
rectangle is 44 feet. What dimensions will give the floor a maximum area?
Solution
Perimeter:
Area: ( )
Find the w-coordinate of the vertex: ( )
The width is 11 feet. To find l, replace w by 11 in and solve for l.

The length is 11 feet. The dimensions of the rectangle with maximum area are 11 feet
by11 feet.

53.An open box is made from a square piece of cardboard that measures 50 inches on a
side. To construct the box, squares inches on a side are cut from each corner of the
cardboard. The remaining flaps are folded up to create a box.
a. Express the volume of the box as a polynomial function in x.
b. What is the volume of the box when squares 5 inches on a side are cut out?
c. Is it possible for the value of to be 30? Explain your answer.
Solution
a. The volume of a box is a product of its length, width, and height.
From the diagram, the length is 50 – 2x,
the width is 50 – 2x, and the height is x.
Therefore, the volume is given by

The volume is given by ( ) .

b. To find the volume when squares 5 inches on a side
are cut out, evaluate the volume function when x = 5.

When squares 5 inches on a side are removed, the volume of the box is 8000 cubic
inches.
c. If x = 30, then the value of 50 – 2x would be – – ( ) .
Because a length of inches is not possible, the value of x cannot be 30.

128
 54. An open box is made from a square piece of cardboard that measures 50 inches on a
side. To construct the box, squares inches on a side are cut from each corner of the
cardboard. The remaining flaps are folded up to create a box.
Express the surface area of the box as a function of x. The surface area is the sum of the
areas of the four sides of the box and its bottom.
Solution
The surface area is the sum of the areas of the
four sides of the box and the area of its bottom.

55.A lighthouse is 3 miles south of a port.

A ship leaves the port and sails east at
15 mph.
a. Express the distance ( ), in miles, between the ship and the lighthouse in terms of t,
the number of hours the ship has been sailing.
b. Find the distance of the ship from the lighthouse after 3 hours. Round to the nearest
tenth.
Solution
Because the ship is sailing at 15 mph, after t hours the ship has traveled 15t miles, as
shown in the diagram.

Using the Pythagorean Theorem , where c is the length of the hypotenuse

of a right triangle and a and b are the lengths of the legs, we have

129
 To find the distance after 3 hours, replace by 3 and simplify.

After 3 hours, the ship is approximately 45.1 miles from the lighthouse.

56.A plane flies directly over a radar station at an altitude of 2 miles and a speed of 400
miles per hour.
a. Express the distance ( ), in miles, between the plane and the radar station in terms
of t, the number of hours after the plane passes over the radar station.
b. Find the distance of the plane from the radar station after 3 hours. Round to the
nearest tenth.
Solution

130
 57.One of the considerations for a retail company is the cost of maintaining its inventory.
The annual inventory cost is the cost of storing the items plus the cost of reordering the
items. A lighting store has determined that the annual cost, in dollars, of storing x 25-
watt halogen bulbs is 0.10x. The annual cost, in dollars, of reordering x 25-watt halogen
bulbs is .
a. Express the inventory cost, ( ), for the halogen bulbs in terms of x.
b. Find the inventory cost if the company wants to maintain an inventory of 150
25-watt halogen bulbs. Round to the nearest cent.
Solution

The inventory cost is $15.16.

58.A manufacturer has determined that the total cost, in dollars, of producing x straight-
back wooden chairs is given by ( ) . The average cost per chair, ( ), is
the quotient of the total cost and x.
a. Find the function for the average cost per chair.
b. What is the average cost per chair when the manufacturer produces 40 chairs?
Solution

131
 Exponential Function
The exponential function is defined by ( ) where b is called the base, b > 0,
and x is any real number.

59.Evaluate ( ) at and . Round approximate results to the

nearest hundred thousandth.
Solution

Graphs of Exponential Functions/ Exponential Growth Model

The graph of ( ) is shown in Figure. The coordinates of some of the points on
the graph are given in the table.

Observe that the values of y increase as x increases. This is an exponential growth

function. This is typical of the graphs of all exponential functions for which the base is
greater than 1. For the function ( ) which is greater than 1.

132
 60.Evaluate ( ) . / at and √ . Round approximate results to the
nearest hundred thousandth. Also graph it.
Solution

61.Graph the function ( ) . / .

Solution

Observe that the values of y decrease as x increases. This is an exponential decay

function. This is typical of the graphs of all exponential functions for which the
positive base is less than 1. For the function ( ) . / which is less than 1.

133
 62.Is ( ) an exponential growth function or an exponential decay function?
Answer
The base is 0.25, which is less than 1. The function is an exponential decay function.
63.State whether ( ) . / is an exponential growth function or an exponential decay
function. Then graph the function.
Solution
Because the base is less than 1, g is an exponential decay function. Because it is an
exponential decay function, the y-values will decrease as x increases. The y-intercept of
the graph is the point ( ) and the graph also passes through . /. Plot a few
additional points. Then draw a smooth curve through the points, as shown in the figure.

134
 64.State whether ( ) . / is an exponential growth function or an exponential decay
function. Then graph the function.
Solution
Because the base is greater than 1, f is an exponential growth function.

The Number ‘e’

The number e is defined as the number that . / approaches as n increases without
bound.
The letter e was chosen in honor of the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler. The
value of e accurate to eight decimal places is 2.71828183.

135
 The Natural Exponential Function
For all real numbers x, the function defined by ( ) is called the natural
exponential function.
65. Graph ( ) .
Solution

66. Graph ( ) .
Solution

136
 67. When an amount of money P is placed in an account that earns compound interest, the
value A of the money after t years is given by the compound interest formula
. / where r is the annual interest rate as a decimal and n is the number of
compounding periods per year. Suppose $500 is placed in an account that earns 8%
interest compounded daily. Find the value of the investment after 5 years.
Solution
Use the compound interest formula. Because interest is compounded daily, n = 365

After 5 years, there is $745.88 in the account.

68.The radioactive isotope iodine-131 is used to monitor thyroid activity. The number of
grams N of iodine-131 in the body t hours after an injection is given by

() . / . Find the number of grams of the isotope in the body 24 hours after
an injection. Round to the nearest ten-thousandth.
Solution

After 24 hours, there is approximately 1.3766 grams of the isotope in the body.

137
 The next example is based on Newton‘s Law of Cooling. This exponential function can
be used to model the temperature of something that is being cooled.

69.A cup of coffee is heated to 160°F and placed in a room that maintains a temperature of
70°F. The temperature T of the coffee after t minutes is given by
() . Find the temperature of the coffee 20 minutes after it is
placed in the room. Round to the nearest degree.
Solution
Evaluate the function ( ) for .

After 20 minutes the temperature of the coffee is about 104°F.

70.The function ( ) gives the amount of aspirin, in milligrams, in a

patient‘s bloodstream t minutes after the aspirin has been administered. Find the
amount of aspirin in the patient‘s bloodstream after 45 minutes. Round to the nearest
milligram.
Solution

After 45 minutes, there is approximately 107 milligrams of aspirin in the patient‘s

bloodstream.

Logarithm
For b > 0, is equivalent to .

71.Which of the following is the logarithmic form of ?

Solution
is equivalent to .

138
 Remark
The equation is the logarithmic form of and the equation is
the exponential form of . These two forms state exactly the same relationship
between x and y.

72.Write a Logarithmic Equation in Exponential Form and an Exponential Equation in

Logarithmic Form
a. Write ( ) in exponential form.
b. Write in logarithmic form.
Solution
a. ( ) if and only if
b. if and only if

73.Write a Logarithmic Equation in Exponential Form and an Exponential Equation in

Logarithmic Form
a. Write ( ) in exponential form.
b. Write in logarithmic form.
Solution
a. ( ) if and only if
b. if and only if

Equality of Exponents Property

If b > 0 and , then .

74.Evaluate the logarithms. and . /.

Solution

139
 75.Evaluate the logarithms. ( ) and .
Solution

76.Solve .
Solution

77.Solve .
Solution

Common and Natural Logarithms

The function defined by ( ) is called the common logarithmic function.
It is customarily written without the base as ( ) .
The function defined by ( ) is called the natural logarithmic function. It is
customarily written as ( ) .

78. Solve each of the following equations. Round to the nearest thousandth.

Solution

79.Solve each of the following equations. Round to the nearest thousandth.

Solution

140
 80.Graph ( ) .
Solution

81.Graph ( ) .
Solution

141
 82.During the 1980s and 1990s, the average time T of a major league baseball game
tended to increase each year. If the year 1981 is represented by x = 1, then the function
( ) approximates the average time T, in minutes, of a major
league baseball game for the years x = 1 to x = 19.
a. Use the function to determine the average time of a major league baseball game
during the 1981 season and during the 1999 season. Round to the nearest hundredth of
a minute.
b. By how much did the average time of a major league baseball game increase from
1981 to 1999?
Solution
a. The year 1981 is represented by x = 1 and the year 1999 by x = 19.
( ) ( )
In 1981 the average time of a major league baseball game was about 149.57 minutes.
( ) ( )
In 1999 the average time of a major league baseball game was about 172.04 minutes.
b. ( ) ( )
From 1981 to 1999, the average time of a major league baseball game increased by
about 22.47 minutes.

83.The following function models the average typing speed S, in words per minute, of a
student who has been typing for t months.
() ( )
a. Use the function to determine the student‘s average typing speed when the student
first started to type and the student‘s average typing speed after 3 months. Round to the
nearest whole word per minute.
b. By how much did the typing speed increase during the 3 months?
Solution
a. ( ) ( )
The average typing speed when the student first started to type was 5 words per minute.
( ) ( )
The average typing speed after 3 months was about 45 words per minute.
b. ( ) ( )
The typing speed increased by 40 words per minute during the 3 months.

142
 The Richter Scale Magnitude of an Earthquake
An earthquake with an intensity of I has a Richter scale magnitude of . /
Where is the measure of the intensity of a zero-level earthquake.

84.Find the Richter scale magnitude of the 2003 Amazonas, Brazil earthquake, which had
an intensity of . Round to the nearest tenth.
Solution

The 2003 Amazonas, Brazil earthquake had a Richter scale magnitude of 7.1.

85. Previous example: What is the Richter scale magnitude of an earthquake whose
intensity is twice that of the Amazonas, Brazil earthquake.
That is Find the Richter scale magnitude of the 2003 Amazonas, Brazil earthquake,
which had an intensity of ( ). Round to the nearest tenth.
Solution

The Richter scale magnitude of an earthquake whose intensity is twice that of the
Amazonas, Brazil earthquake is 7.4.

86.Find the intensity of the 2003 Colina, Mexico earthquake, which measured 7.6 on
the Richter scale. Round to the nearest thousand.
Solution
. /
The 2003 Colina, Mexico earthquake had an intensity that was approximately
39,811,000 times the intensity of a zero-level earthquake.

87.On April 29, 2003, an earthquake measuring 4.6 on the Richter scale struck Fort Payne,
Alabama. Find the intensity of the quake. Round to the nearest thousand.
Solution
. /
The April 29, 2003 earthquake had an intensity that was approximately 40,000 times
the intensity of a zero-level earthquake.

143
 The pH of a Solution
The pH of a solution with a hydronium-ion concentration of H+ moles per liter is given
by , -
88.Find the pH of each liquid. Round to the nearest tenth.
a. Orange juice containing an H+ concentration of mole per liter
+
b. Milk containing an H concentration of mole per liter
+
c. A baking soda solution containing an H concentration of mole per
liter
Solution

89.Find the pH of each liquid. Round to the nearest tenth.

a. A cleaning solution containing an H+ concentration of mole per liter
b. A cola soft drink containing an H+ concentration of mole per liter
c. Rainwater containing an H+ concentration of mole per liter
Solution

144
 90.A sample of blood has a pH of 7.3. Find the hydronium-ion concentration of the blood.
Solution

The hydronium-ion concentration of the blood is about mole per liter.

91. The water in the Great Salt Lake in Utah has a pH of 10.0. Find the hydronium-ion
concentration of the water.
Solution

The hydronium-ion concentration of the water in the Great Salt Lake in Utah is
mole per liter.

145
 Exercise
1) In Exercises i–vi, graph each equation.
i. ii.
iii. iv.
v. vi.
2) In Exercises i–iv, evaluate the function for the given value.
i. ( ) ii. ( )
iii. ( ) iv. ( )
3) In Exercises 1–14, find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of the equation.

4) In Exercises i–vi, find the slope of the line containing the two points.

i ii

iii iv

v vi

5) In Exercises 1–8, find the equation of the line that passes through the given point
and has the given slope.

146
 6) In Exercises 9–16, find the equation of the line that passes through the given points.

7) In Exercises 1 to 6, a. write (if necessary) the polynomial function in standard form,

b. give the degree of the polynomial function, and c. evaluate the function for the
given values of the variable.

8) In Exercises i to vi, find the minimum or maximum value of each quadratic

function. State whether the value is a minimum or a maximum.

ii

iii

iv

vi

147
 9) Find the extreme values for the following functions defined as;
i. ( ) ii. ( )
iii. ( ) iv. ( )
v. ( ) vi. ( ) ( ) ( )
10) Show that has maximum value at x = e.
11) Show that has maximum value at .
12) Given ( ) , evaluate

13) Given ( ) , evaluate

14) Given ( ) . / , evaluate

15) In Exercises i –x, graph the equation.

i ii

iii iv

v vi

vii viii

ix x

16) In Exercises 1–8, write the exponential equation in logarithmic form.

148
 17) In Exercises 9–16, write the logarithmic equation in exponential form.

18) In Exercises 17–24, evaluate the logarithm.

19) In Exercises 25–32, solve the equation for x.

20) In Exercises 45–50, graph the function.

i ii

iii iv

v vi

149
 CHAPTER

4
LINEAR
EQUATIONS & INEQUALITIES

Systems of linear equations play an important and motivating role in the subject of linear
algebra. In fact, many problems in linear algebra reduce to finding the solution of a system
of linear equations. Thus, the techniques introduced in this chapter will be applicable to
abstract ideas introduced later. On the other hand, some of the abstract results will give us
new insights into the structure and properties of systems of linear equations. All our
systems of linear equations involve scalars as both coefficients and constants, and such
scalars may come from any number field F. There is almost no loss in generality if the
reader assumes that all our scalars are real numbers — that is, that they come from the real
field R.
In this chapter we will learn about;
 Analytical approach to solve simultaneous equations
 Inequalities and their application
 Comparing quantities using analytical tools
Linear Equation: ( )
It is an algebraic equation in which each term has an exponent of one and graphing of
equation results in a straight line.
Or A linear equation in unknowns is an equation that can be put in the
standard form where and b are constants. The
constant is called the coefficient of , and b is called the constant term of the
equation. e.g.
Solutions of Linear Equation:
A solution of the linear equation is a list of values for the
n
unknowns or, equivalently, a vector u in R , say … or
⃗ ( ) such that the following statement (obtained by substituting k i for xi in
the equation) is true:
In such a case we say that u satisfies the equation.

150
 Examples for Linear and Non – Linear Equations

 linear
 not linear
 linear for constants
 linear
 linear
 linear
 not linear
 not linear
 not linear
 √ not linear
 √ linear
 not linear
 linear
 not linear
 not linear
 √ linear
 √ linear
 . / not linear
 not linear
 linear
 not linear

TRY OTHERS ALSO!!!!!!!!

‫ورییالبییکاپوراکیےسمکزایدہہنوہ۔ورییالبیےکاسھتاساکڈرییووٹیہناھکلایگوہ۔دوورییالبیاےھٹکہنوہں۔‬:‫لینئریکاچہپن‬

Variable not appears in this form √ etc.

151
 System of Linear Equations (System in which more than one linear equations involve)

A system of linear equations is a list of linear equations with the same unknowns. In
particular, a system of ‗m‘ linear equations L1, L2,..., Lm in ‗n‘ unknowns can
be put in the standard form

𝑚 No. of equations
j j
𝑛 No. of unknowns

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

where the aij and bi are constants. The number aij is the coefficient of the unknown xj in the
equation Li, and the number bi is the constant term of the equation Li.

 The system of linear equations is called an system. It is called a square system

if that is, if the number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns.
 The system is said to be homogeneous if all the constant terms are zero that is, if
….. Otherwise the system is said to be nonhomogeneous
(inhomogeneous.).
 A solution (or a particular solution) of the system (above) is a list of values for the
unknowns or, equivalently, a vector u in Rn , which is a solution of each of the
equations in the system. The set of all solutions of the system is called the solution set
or the general solution of the system.
 A finite set of linear equations is called a system of linear equations, or more briefly a
linear system. The variables are called unknown.
 A linear equation does not involve any products or roots of variables. All variables
occur only to the first power, and do not appear as arguments of trigonometric,
logarithmic or exponential functions.

152
 1. Solve the equation 3 + 7 = 1.
Solution

2. Solve the equation 2 − 3 − 2 = 3.

Solution

3. Solve the equation −7 + 1 + 2 = 9 − 8 + 1.

Solution

4. Solve the equation; ( ) ( ).

Solution
( ) ( )

5. Solve the equation involving fraction; .

Solution

( ) ( )

153
 6. Solve the equation involving fraction; .
Solution

( ) ( ) ( )

7. Consider the following linear equation in three unknowns x, y, z:

Check ⃗ ( ) is solution of equation or not.

Solution
We note that ,
or, equivalently, the vector ⃗ ( ) is a solution of the equation.
That is, ( ) ( )

8. Consider the following linear equation in three unknowns x, y, z:

Check ( ) is solution of equation or not.

Solution
( ) is not a solution, because on substitution,
we do not get a true statement: ( ) ( )

9. Solve the system of equations by addition method;

2 + 3 = 48 d 9 − 8 = − 24
Solution
2 + 3 = 48 …………( )
9 − 8 = − 24 …………( )
Multiplying ( ) with − 3
− 9 − 6 = − 144
9 − 8 = − 24
Then adding we have y = 12 and putting in ( ) we have x = 8.
Hence the solution set is * +

154
 Radical Equations

An equation in which the unknown letter ( ) appears under a radical sign is called
a radical equation.

For example: √ √ √ √

10.Solve √
Solution
√
√
(√ )

11.Solve √
Solution
√
√
√

(√ ) . /

it is an extraneous root and the solution set is

12.Solve √
Solution
√
(√ ) ( )

155
 Absolute Value

The absolute value of a real number x is defined as follows;

Absolute Value Equations

An equation that contains a variable inside the absolute value bars is called an absolute
value equation.

For example:

13.Solve
Solution

14.Solve
Solution
not possible for real numbers.
So this equation has no solution.

15.Solve
Solution

16.Solve
Solution

( )

156
 17.Consider the following system of linear equations:

It is a system because it has three equations in four unknowns. Determine whether

(a) ( ) and (b) ( ) are solutions of the system.

Solution:

(a) Substitute the values of u in each equation, obtaining

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Yes, u is a solution of the system because it is a solution of each equation.

(b) Substitute the values of v into each successive equation, obtaining

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

No, v is not a solution of the system, because it is not a solution of the second equation.
(We do not need to substitute v into the third equation.)

Consistent and Inconsistent Solutions:

The system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more

solutions, and it is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution.

Underdetermined: A system of linear equations is considered underdetermined if there

are fewer equations than unknowns.

Over determined: A system of linear equations is considered over determined if there are
more equations than unknowns.

157
 18.Solve the system of equations by substitution; 2 + =5 d − 2 = 15
Solution
2 + =5 …………( )
− 2 = 15 …………( )
( )
() ( )
( ) ( )
So our final answer is = 5, = −5

Remember

If the field F of scalars is infinite, such as when F is the real field R or the complex field C,
then we have the following important result.

Result: Suppose the field F is infinite. Then any system of linear equations has

(i) a unique solution, (ii) no solution, or (iii) an infinite number of solutions.

SYSTEM OF
LINEAR
EQUATIONS

CONSISTENT
INCONSISTENT

UNIQUE INFINITE
SOLUTION NUMBER OF NO SOLUTION
SOLUTIONS

158
 Graphing Linear Equations
There are two methods to graph a line:
1) Use the and intercepts: If you have the coordinates of the and intercepts, plot
those two points and connect them with a line.

2) Use slope-intercept form: If you have an equation in slope intercept form ( = + ),

plot the -intercept and then construct the line using the slope. If the equation is not in
slope-intercept form, it can be rearranged to be in slope-intercept form.

159
 19.Graph the equation 6 + 2 = 12.
Solution
Given that 6 + 2 = 12
To find the -intercept, set equal to zero and solve for .
( )
To find the -intercept, set equal to zero and solve for .
( )
Now, plot the points (2,0) and (0,6) on the graph and connect them with a line:

20.Graph the equation 6 + 2 = 12.

Solution
Given that 6 + 2 = 12

Comparing with we have m = 3 and b = 6.

In other words, the slope is −3 and – intercept is at (0,6)

160
 Graphs with one variable
If a graph only involves one variable, it can be graphed as a horizontal or vertical line.
Below are two examples.

21.Graph the equation = 5.

Solution
A horizontal line that crosses the y – axis at (0,5)

22.Graph the equation x = 5.

Solution
A vertical line that crosses the x – axis at (5,0)

161
 Remark: (Geometrical Presentation / Graphics)
Linear system in two unknowns arise in connection with intersection of lines.
 The lines may be parallel and distinct, in which case there is no intersection and
consequently no solution.
 The lines may be intersect at only one point, in which case the system has exactly
one solution.
 The lines may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points of
intersection (the points on the common line) and consequently infinitely many
solutions. (in such system, all equations will be same with few common factors)

23. (A Linear System with one Solution): Solve the following system of linear equations
………..(i)
………..(ii)
Solution
() multiplying with
Adding (i) with (ii)
()
. /
Geometrically this means that the lines represented by the equations in the system
intersect at the single point . /
24. (A Linear System with No Solution): Solve the following system of linear equations
………..(i)
………..(ii)
Solution
() multiplying with
Adding (i) with (ii)
The result is contradictory, so the given system has no solution. Geometrically this
means that the lines may be parallel and distinct, in this case there is no intersection and
consequently no solution.

162
 25. (A Linear System with Infinitely many Solutions):Solve the following system of
linear equations
………..(i)
………..(ii)
Solution:
() multiplying with
Adding (i) with (ii)
Equation does not impose any restriction on ‗x‘ and ‗y‘ and hence can be
omitted. Thus the solution of the system are those values of ‗x‘ and ‗y‘ that satisfy the
single equation
Geometrically this means that the lines corresponding to the two equations in the
original system coincide. And this system will have infinitely many solutions.

How to Find Few Solutions of Such System?

Find the value of ‗x‘ from Common equation.
Put ‗t‘ being Parameter (arbitrary value instead of actual value)
Replace in given system.
Use Upon your taste and get different answers.
We may apply same procedure by replacing ‗x‘ and ‗y‘

26. Find different solutions for problem as follows using Parametric Equation (arbitrary
equation using Parameter instead of actual value).
………..(i) How to find solution of more than
………..(ii) two equations?
Solution 1st method: find x,y,z solving
equations in pair (Lengthy Process)
and put 2nd: solve two equations, find x,y and
put in 3rd equation to get value of z.

3rd method: observe given equations

. / ,
and take common if possible and
. / then check all equations are same or
not, if same then solution will be
. / infinite.

163
 27.Find different solutions for problem as follows using Parametric Equation (arbitrary
equation using Parameter instead of actual value).
………..(i)
………..(ii)
………..(ii)
Solution
Since above all equations have same graphics or formation. Therefore will have
infinitely many solutions. We will solve it using parametric equations.
In above all equations we have the parallel form
and put

( )
( )
( )
*( )( )( )+
Try Others Also!!!!!!!!
Modeling with System of Linear Equations and their Solutions
28. A car rental company charges Rs.30 a day and 15 Pesa a mile for renting a car. Ali
rents a car for two days and his bill comes to Rs. 108. How many miles did he drives?
Solution
Let x be number of miles driven. Mileage cost is 0.15x and daily cost is Rs. 2( ).
Now according to mathematical model

( )
miles

29.Usman inherits Rs. 100,000 and inverts it in two certificates of deposit. One certificate
pays 6 and the other pays simple interest annually. If usman‘s total interest is
Rs. 5025 per year, how much money is invested at each rate?
Solution
Let x be amount invested at 6 , amount invested at is 100,000 – x, interest
earned at 6 is 0.06x and interest earned at is 0.045( – ).
Then according to mathematical model

( – )
rupees
So, usman has invested Rs. 35000 at 6 and the remaining Rs. 65,000 at .

164
 30. A square garden has a walkway 3 ft wide around its outer edge. If the area of entire
garden including the walkway is 18000 ft2 what are the dimensions of the planted area?
Solution
Let x be the length of planted area, length of entire garden ( ) and area of entire
garden ( ) .Then according to mathematical model

( )
√
ft
The planted area of garden is about ft by ft.

31.A rectangular building lot is 8ft longer than its width and has an area of . Find
the dimension of the lot.
Solution
Let be the width of lot, length of lot is ( ).
Then according to mathematical model

( )

or
Since the width of the lot must be a positive numbers, we conclude that . And
the length of the lot is .

32.A man who is 6ft tall wishes to find the height of a certain four story building. He
measures its shadow and find it to be 28ft long, while his own shadow is ft long.
How tall is building?
Solution
Let be the height of building. Then according to mathematical model

So the building is 48ft tall.

165
 33. A manufacturer of soft drinks advertises their orange soda as ―naturally flavored‖
although it contains only orange juice. A new federal regulation stipulates that to
be called ‗natural‘ a drink must contain at least fruit juice. How much pure orange
juice must this manufacturer add to 900 gal of orange soda to conform to the new
regulation?
Solution
Let be the amount of orange juice to be added. Amount of the mixture is ( )
Amount of orange juice in the first vat ( )
Amount of orange juice in the second vat
Amount of orange juice in the mixture ( )
Then according to mathematical model
Amount of orange juice in the first vat + Amount of orange juice in the second vat
= Amount of orange juice in the mixture
( )

The manufacturer should add 50 gal of pure orange juice to the soda.

34. Because of an anticipated heavy rainstorm, the water level in a reservoir must be
lowered by 1ft. Opening spillway A lowers the level by this amount in 4 hours, whereas
opening the smaller spillway B does the job in 6 hours. How long will it take to lower
the water level by 1ft if both spillways are opened?
Solution
Time it takes to lower level 1ft with A and B together
Distance A lowers level in 1 hour
Distance B lowers level in 1 hour
Distance A and B together lowers level in 1 hour
Then according to mathematical model
Fraction done by A + Fraction done by B = Fraction done by both

It will takes hours, or 2h 24 min, to lower the water level by 1ft if both spillways are
open.

166
 Inequality/Inequation
An expression involving the signs is called inequality. It is a statement in
which two algebraic expression are not equal.
For example:
Strict Inequality
An expression involving the signs is called strict inequality.
For example:
Solution of an Inequality
Variable that make the inequality true is called solution of that inequality.
35.Solve 3 + 7 ≥ 1
Solution

36.Solve −5 − 8 ≥ 2
Solution

37.Solve 2 + 3 > 7 or 4 1<3

Solution
2 +3>7 or 4 1<3
2 >4 or 4 <4
>2 or <1
Solution Set = * ∧ +

167
 Exercise
1) Solve the following linear equations in one variable.
i.
ii. ( ) ( )
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

2) Solve the following radical equations.

i. √
ii. √
iii. √
iv. √
v. √ √

3) Solve the following absolute value equations.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

4) Solve the following inequalities.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv. or
v. and

168
 5) Consider the following system of linear equations:

Determine whether given 3 – tuples are solutions of the system?

(a) ( )
(b) ( )
(c) ( )
(d) . /
(e) ( )

6) Consider the following system of linear equations:

Determine whether given 3 – tuples are solutions of the system?

a) . /
b) . /
c) ( )
d) . /
e) . /

169
 7) In each part, solve the linear system, if possible, and use the result to determine
whether the lines represented by the equations in the system have zero, one, or
infinitely many points of intersection. If there is a single point of intersection, give
its coordinates, and if there are infinitely many, find parametric equations for them.

a) and
b) and
c) and

8) In each part use parametric equations to describe the solution set of linear equations.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

9) In each part use parametric equations to describe the infinitely many solutions of
linear equations.

a) and
b) and
c) , and
d) , and

170
 CHAPTER

5
DERIVATIVES
& MATHEMATICAL MODELING

The ancient Greeks knew the concepts of area, volume and centroids etc. which are related
to integral calculus. Later on, in the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac Newton, an English
mathematician (1642-1727) and Gottfried Whilhelm Leibniz, a German mathematician,
(1646-1716) considered the problem of instantaneous rates of change. They reached
independently to the invention of differential calculus. After the development of calculus,
mathematics became a powerful tool for dealing with rates of change and describing the
physical universe.
In this chapter we will learn about;
 Elementary introduction to derivatives in mathematical modeling
 Instantaneous rates
 Graphical presentation of derivatives

Dependent and Independent Variables

If ( ) be a function where , is called an independent variable and y is called a
dependent variable.
Average Rate of Change
( ) ( )
Let a real valued function then (difference quotient); is called average rate of
change.
Derivative of a Function
Let be a real valued function continuous in the interval ( ) (the domain of ),
then the instantaneous rate of change of one variable w.r.to other variable is called
( ) ( )
derivative or if limit of exists then it is called derivative denoted by
and the process of finding derivatives is called differentiation.

171
 Notation for Derivative

Geometrical Interpretation/ Physical Meanings of Derivative

We can find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of a function using derivatives.

Other functions of derivative are as follows;

 Describes processes involving change in one independent variable.

 Defines the average rate of change of the dependent variable.
 Uses the concepts of limits to define the instantaneous rate of change.
 Differentiate most of the standard mathematical functions by rule.
 Differentiate a sum, product or quotient of functions.
 Apply the chain rule to non-standard functions.

172
 Derivatives by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio Method

 ( )
 ( )
 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )


1. Find the Derivatives of √ at x = a, by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio

Method.
Solution
( ) √
√
√ √
(√ √ )(√ √ )
√ √

√ √

. /
√ √

and
√ √

2. Find the Derivatives of ( ), by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio

Method.
Solution
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
,( ) ( )- ( )

( )
(( ))

173
 3. Find the Derivatives of , by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio Method.
Solution
( )
( )
( ) . / [. / ]
( )( )
[ ( ) . / ]
( )( )
[( ) . / ]
( )( )
. / 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
( ) 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
. 0( ) . / 1/

4. Find the Derivatives of ( ) , by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio

Method.
Solution
( ) ( )
,( ) -

,( ) - ( ) 0( ). /1 ( )
. /. /
( ) 6. / 7 ( ) 6 . / . / 7
. /. /
( ) 6. / . / 7
. /. /
( ) . / 6. / . / 7
. /. /
( ) ( ) 6. / . / 7
. /. /
( ) 6. / . / 7

( )

174
 5. Find the Derivatives of ( ) , by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio
Method.
Solution
( ) ( )
, ( ) -
, ( ) - ( ) 0( ). /1 ( )

( ) [. / ]
( )( )
( ) [ ( ) . / ]
( )( )
( ) [( ) . / ]
( )( )
( ) . / 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
( ) ( ) 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
( ) ( ) 0( ) . / 1
( )

6. Find the Derivatives of ( )

, by Definition/ by First Principle/ by ab – initio Method.
Solution
( ) ( )
, ( ) -
, ( ) - ( ) 0( ). /1 ( )

( ) [. / ]
( )( )
( ) [ ( ) . / ]
( )( )
( ) [( ) . / ]
( )( )
( ) . / 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
( ) ( ) 0( ) . / 1
( )( )
( ) ( ) 0( ) . / 1
( )

175
 Some Rule for Derivatives

 The Power Rule: ( )

 ( )
 , ( )- ( )
 , ( ) ( )- ( ) ( )
 The Product Rule: , ( ) ( )- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 The Quotient Rule: 0 ( )
1 , ( )-

7. Calculate . /.
Solution

. / . / . /

8. Find the derivative of w.r.to x.

Solution

. /
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

9. Find the derivative of w.r.to x.

Solution

. /
( ) . / ( )
. /

176
 10.Find the derivative of ( )( ) w.r.to x.
Solution
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )

11.Find the derivative of ( √ )( √ ) w.r.to x.

Solution
( √ )( √ )
( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
. /( √ ) ( √ ). /
√ √
√
( √ ) ( √ ). /
√ √
√
( √ ) (√ ). /
√ √

[ √ √ √ ]
√

12.If then find

Solution

. /
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )

( )

( )

177
 13.If then find
Solution

. /
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )

14.If √ √
then show that √
Solution
√ √

.√ /
√

. /
√

15.If then show that √

Solution

( ) ( )
√
√
√
√( )
( )
Hence √

178
 The Composition Function

Then composition of function and is the function whose values ( ( )) are

found for each x in the domain of g for which ( ) is in the domain of .

The Chain Rule

If ( ( )) is a differentiable function and ( ) is also a differentiable function

then derivative of the composite function ( ( )) is given as .

16. Find the derivative of ( ) w.r.to x.

Solution
( )
Let then
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

17.Find the derivative of √ w.r.to x.

Solution

Let then √
(√ )
√ √

. / ( )
by quotient rule

( )
√ √ ( )

179
 The Parametric Equations

The equations ( ) and ( ) are called parametric equations with parameter t. For
example and are parametric equations with parameter t.

18.Find if .
Solution

( )
( )

Explicit Functions

If ( ) is easily expressed in terms of independent variable x then ( ) is called

explicit function. For example: .

Implicit Functions

If ( ) is not easily expressed in terms of independent variable x then ( ) is

called implicit function. For example: .

19.Find if .
Solution

20.Find if .
Solution

180
 The Trigonometric Functions

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

( )
√

( )
√

( )

( )

( ) , - ( )∪( )
√

( ) , - ( )∪( )
√

The Exponential Functions

A function defined by ( ) if and is any real number is called an

exponential function. Also note that ( ) is called natural exponential function.

Derivative: ( ) and ( )

The Logarithmic Functions

If and then the function defined by is called the

logarithm of x to the base a.

The logarithm functions and are called natural and common logarithm
respectively.

Derivative: ( )

181
 21.Find if √ .
Solution
( )
√
√ ( √ ) √ (√ )
√
( )

22. Differentiate with respect to .

Solution

( )
( )

23.Find if . /.
Solution
./

( . /) ./
√ . /

24.Find if . /.
Solution
. /

4 . /5 . /
( )√( )

182
 25.Find if ( ).
Solution
( )
( ( )) ( )
( )

( )

26.Find if .
Solution

( ) ( )

27.Find if √ .
Solution
√

( √ ) √ (√ ) √ . /
√
√

28.Find if .
Solution

( ) ( )

( )
29.Find if and ( ) .
Solution
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( ) 4 ( ) . /5
( )
( )
( ) ( ) . ( ) /
( )

183
 Mathematical Modeling Using Derivatives

30.A company produces a product whose price (P) changes over time (t). The revenue (R)
is given by R = 100P. The cost (C) of production is C = 2t2 + 50t + 100. Find the rate at
which the profit (P') changes with respect to time.
Solution
Profit (P') = Revenue Cost = 100P (2t2 + 50t + 100)
( ) ( )

. / ( )

31.A population of bacteria grows according to the equation ( ) , where t is

time in hours. Find the rate at which the population is growing after 2 hours.
Solution
( )
At t = 2, bacteria/hour

32.A ball is thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. The height
(h) of the ball above the ground at time t is given by ( ) . Find the
maximum height reached by the ball.
Solution

Set to find maximum height:

( ) ( ) ( ) meters

33.A water tank has a capacity of 1000 liters. Water flows in at a rate of 10 liters/minute
and flows out at a rate of 5 liters/minute. Find the rate at which the water level changes.
Solution
liters/minute

34.A company's profit (P) is given by , where x is the number of units

sold. Find the rate at which profit changes with respect to the number of units sold.
Solution

184
 35.A pharmaceutical company is testing a new drug. The concentration (C) of the drug in
the bloodstream after t hours is given by C(t) = 2t2 - 5t + 1. Find the rate at which the
concentration changes after 4 hours.
Solution
( ) –
At t = 4, ( )

36.A ball is thrown downward from the top of a 50-meter building with an initial velocity
of 10 m/s. The height (h) of the ball above the ground after t seconds is
h(t) = 50 -10t -5t2. Find the velocity and acceleration of the ball after 2 seconds.
Solution
(velocity)

(acceleration)
At t = 2, ( ) m/s

37. A company's sales (S) are given by S = 100x2 + 50x, where x is the amount spent on
advertising. Find the rate at which sales change with respect to advertising.
Solution

38. A population of rabbits grows according to the equation ( ) , where t is

time in months. Find the rate at which the population is growing after 6 months.
Solution
( )
At t = 6, rabbits/month

39. A water tank has a capacity of 2000 liters. Water flows in at a rate of 15 liters/minute
and flows out at a rate of 10 liters/minute. Find the rate at which the water level
changes.
Solution:
liters/minute

185
 40. A company's profit (P) is given by P = 200x - 3x^2, where x is the number of units
sold. Find the rate at which profit changes with respect to the number of units sold.
Solution

41. A population of bacteria grows according to the equation P(t) = 1000e^(0.3t), where t
is time in hours. Find the rate at which the population is growing after 4 hours.
Solution
( )
At t = 4, bacteria/hour

42. A ball is thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 25 m/s. The height
(h) of the ball above the ground at time t is given by h(t) = 25t - 5t2. Find the maximum
height reached by the ball.
Solution

Set to find maximum height:

( ) ( ) ( ) meters

43. A water tank has a capacity of 3000 liters. Water flows in at a rate of 20 liters/minute
and flows out at a rate of 15 liters/minute. Find the rate at which the water level
changes.
Solution
liters/minute

44. A company's revenue (R) is given by R = 500x2 + 200x, where x is the number of units
sold. Find the rate at which revenue changes with respect to the number of units sold.
Solution

186
 Exercise
1) Find the Derivatives of the followings, by Definition/ by First Principle/ by
ab – initio Method.

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. √ 6.
√
7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13. 14.

15. √ 16.
√

17. ( ) 18. ( )

2) Find the Derivatives of the followings, by different techniques.

(√ )( )
1. 2.

(√ )( )
3. 4.

5. 6. ( )( )

√
7. .√ / 8.
√ √

9. √ 10. √

11. √ 12. ( )

13. ( )
14. ( )

15. √ 16. at x = 8
17. ( ) 18. ( )
√ √
19. 20. ( √ )
√ √

187
 3) Find the Derivatives of the followings with respect to independent variable.

1. √ 2. √ √

3. √ 4. ( )

5. √ 6. .√ /
√

7. √ 8. √
( )
9. 10.

11. 12.

13. 14.
15. 16.

17. √ √ 18. ( ) √

19. Prove that if

20. Differentiate w.r.to

4) Find the Derivatives of the followings with respect to independent variable.

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. √ √
5) Find the Derivatives of the followings w.r.to x.

1. √ 2. √

6) Differentiate
1. w.r.to 2. with respect to .

7) If ( ) then show that

8) If √ √ √ then ( )

188
 9) If then show that
10) Differentiate w.r.to x
1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. √

9. . / 10. . /

11) Find if ./ √
12) Show that if . /
13) If ( ), show that ( ) ( )
14) Find ( ) if

1. ( ) √ 2. ( ) ( ) 3. ( ) ( )

4. ( ) ( ) 5. ( ) √ ( ) 6. ( ) √

7. ( ) √ 8. ( ) √ 9. ( )

10. ( ) ( ) 11. ( ) ( ) 12. ( )

189
 MODEULE 3
Statistical Modeling and Analysis
CH#06: STATISTICS: SAMPLING AND DATA ANALYSIS
 Introduction to probabilistic models.
 Bivariate analysis, scatter plots.
 Simple linear regression model and correlation analysis.
 Basic of estimation and confidence interval.
 Testing of hypothesis (z – test; t – test).
 Statistical inference in decision making.
 Quantitative reasoning exercises using statistical models.

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 CHAPTER

6
STATISTICS
SAMPLING & DATA ANALYSIS

Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to extract meaningful
insights and inform decision-making. At the heart of statistical analysis lies sampling and
data analysis, essential components of statistical research. Sampling involves selecting a
subset of individuals, objects, or observations from a larger population to estimate population
characteristics. Effective sampling methods ensure that the sample accurately represents the
population, enabling reliable conclusions. Data analysis involves processing, transforming,
and examining data to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships. Statistical techniques, such
as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and graphical methods, are used to extract
insights from data.

In this chapter we will learn about;

 Introduction, Probabilistic models, Statistical models.

 Data and distribution of data, tabulation.
 Graph, Charts, Bivariate analysis
 Data tendencies via measure of location
 Variability and Measure of dispersion
 Measuring relationships via Regression analysis and correlation.
i.e. Linear Regression and Correlation
 Statistical inference: sampling techniques, estimation techniques and hypothesis
testing for decision and policy making

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 The word ―Statistics‖ is derived from the Latin word Status or the Italian word Statista or
the German word Statistik or the French word Statistique meaning ―a political state‖ or ―the
state – man‘s art‖. It is the discipline that includes procedures or techniques used to collect
process, analyzes numerical data to inferences and to reach decision in the face of
uncertainty. It is the science of collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
numerical data.

According to this definition, there are four stages.

 Collection of data
 Presentation of data
 Analysis of data
 Interpretation

Use/Importance of Statistical Information

 To inform general public

 To explain things that have happened
 To justify a claim
 To provide general comparison
 To estimate the unknown quantities

Limitations of Statistical Information

 Deals with aggregates and not with individuals.

 Deals with numerically specified characteristics.

Types of Statistics

 Descriptive/Deductive Statistics: Branch which deals with concepts and methods

concerned with summarization and description of the important aspects of numerical
data. In it no conclusion is drawn about the population.
 Inferential/Inductive Statistics: Branch which deals with drawing inferences about
the population on the basis of sample information. Its two most types are;
Estimation and Testing of Hypothesis.

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 Introduction to Probabilistic Models
Probabilistic models are mathematical frameworks used to represent and analyze uncertain
relationships between variables, providing a powerful tool for understanding complex
phenomena in various fields, including engineering, economics, biology, and social
sciences. These models quantify uncertainty using probability theory, enabling predictions,
decision-making, and risk assessment under uncertainty. By capturing stochastic
relationships, probabilistic models facilitate:
1. Uncertainty quantification
2. Predictive modeling
3. Decision-making under uncertainty
4. Risk analysis
Applications
1. Machine learning (deep learning, natural language processing)
2. Signal processing and communication
3. Finance (risk management, portfolio optimization)
4. Reliability engineering and maintenance
5. Biostatistics and epidemiology
Types of Probabilistic Models
Bayesian networks, Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC), Probabilistic graphical models,
Stochastic differential equations, Time-series analysis
Benefits
Handling uncertainty and ambiguity, Incorporating prior knowledge, Flexibility and
adaptability, Interpretable results, Scalability

Deterministic Models/Relations

If there is an extract relationship between dependent and independent variables, and there is
no chance of error, the regression line developed for such variables is called deterministic
models. The following equation is an example of deterministic model;

Y = a + bX

Probabilistic Models/Relations

If there is no extract relationship between dependent and independent variables, and there is a
chance of error, the regression line developed for such variables is called Probabilistic
models. The following equation is an example of Probabilistic model;

Y = a + bX +

193
 Statistical Modeling
Statistical modeling is an elaborate method of generating sample data and making real
world predictions using numerous statistical models and explicit assumptions. It helps data
scientists visualize the relationship between random variables and strategically interpret
dataset.

Types of Probabilistic Models

There are several statistical models, each designed to solve a specific research issue or data
format. Here are a few common types of statistical models and their applications.

 Linear Regression Models: These models are used to represent the connection
between a continuous result variable and one or more predictor variables. For
example, depending on a person‘s height, age, and gender, a linear regression model
may be used to estimate their weight.
 Logistic Regression Models: Logistic regression models are used to represent the
connection between a binary outcome variable (for example, yes/no) and one or
more predictor variables. For example, depending on age, blood pressure and
cholesterol levels, a regression logistic model may be used to predict if a patient
would have a heart attack.
 Time Series Models: Time series models are used to model data that change over
time, such as stock prices, weather trends, or monthly sales numbers. These type of
models may be applied to data to find trends, sessional patterns and other forms of
temporal correlations.
 Multilevel Models: These models are used to model data having a hierarchical
structure, such as pupil in school are patients in hospitals. Multilevel models can be
used to investigate how individual – level and group – level factors impact
outcomes, as well as to account for the fact that people in the same group maybe
more similar to each other than those in different groups.
 Structural Equation Models: These types of models are used to represent
complicated interactions between several variables. Structural equation model can
be used to evaluate ideas regarding casual links between variables and to quantify
their strength and direction.
 Clustering Models: Clustering models are used to bring together comparable
observations based on their similarities in terms of features. Clustering algorithm
can be used to uncover patterns in data that would be difficult to detect using other
approaches.

194
 Distributions
 A listing of all classes of the data and their frequencies is called a Frequency
distribution. It is a tabular arrangement for classifying data into different groups
and the number of observations falling in each group corresponds to the respective
group. On the basis of type of variables, it has two types;
Discrete frequency distribution
Continuous frequency distribution
 The data presented in the form of frequency distribution is called Grouped Data.
 A listing of all classes and their relative frequencies is called a Relative Frequency
distribution. Most distributions show frequencies as well as relative frequencies.
1. Discrete Frequency Table by using a Tally Column:
20 coins are tossed 5 times and the number of heads recorded at each toss are given
below; 3,4,2,3,3,5,2,2,2,1,1,2,1,4,2,2,3,3,4,2.
Make frequency distribution of number of heads observed.
Solution: Let X = number of heads. The frequency distribution is given below;
X Tally Marks frequency ( )
1 ǀǀǀ 3
2 ǀǀǀǀ ǀǀǀ 8
3 ǀǀǀǀ 5
4 ǀǀǀ 3
5 ǀ 1
2. Continuous Frequency Table by listing Actual Values:
For data given below;
51,55,32,41,22,30,35,53,30,60,59,15,7,18,40,49,40,25,14,18,19,2,43,22,39,26,34,19,10,
17, 47,38,13,30,34,54,10,21,51,52.
Make frequency distribution with a class interval of size 10.
Solution:
Class/Groups Observations frequency ( )
0–9 2,7 2
10 – 19 10,10,13,14,15,17,18,18,19,19 10
20 – 29 21,22,22,25,26 5
30 – 39 30,30,30,32,34,34,35,38,39 9
40 – 49 40,40,41,43,47,49 6
50 – 59 51,51,52,53,54,55,59 7
60 – 69 60 1

195
 3. Continuous Frequency Table:
Bradley worked a summer job to earn money for college. His weekly hours over a 12 week
period were 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35, 36. Find Distribution table.
Solution
The Distribution would be as follows:

Remember;
 Class Limits: The minimum and the maximum values defined for a class or
group are called Class Limits. The minimum value is called the lower class limit
and maximum value is called the upper class limit of the class.
 Class Boundaries: The real class limits of a class are called class boundaries. A
class boundary is obtained by adding two successive class limits and dividing the
sum by 2. The value so obtained is taken as upper class boundary for the
previous class and lower class boundary for the next class.
 Mid – Point/ Class Mark: For a given class the average of that class obtained by
dividing the sum of upper and lower class by 2, is called the mid – point of class
mark of that class.
 Interval/ Class Width: Difference between the class boundaries.
 Cumulative Frequency: The total of frequency up to an upper class limit or
boundary is called the cumulative frequency.

Classes Frequency Class Mid Cumulative

() Boundaries Point Frequency
10 – 14 5 9.5 – 14.5 12 5
15 – 19 12 14.5 – 19.5 17 5 + 12 = 17
20 – 24 30 19.5 – 24.5 22 17 + 30 = 47
25 – 29 25 24.5 – 29.5 27 47 + 25 = 72
30 – 34 6 29.5 – 34.5 32 72 + 6 = 78

196
 Some Facts about Data

 Observation: It is a fact or figure; we collect about a given variable. It can be

expressed as a number or as a quality.
 Data: The collection of raw fact and figures is called data.
 Data Set: The collection of observations on one or more variables.
 Cross Section Data: Data collected on different elements at the same point in time
or for the same period of time are called cross section data.
 Time Series Data: Data collected on the same element for the same variable at
different points in time or for different periods of time are called time series data.
 Discrete Data: A data which is generated by a discrete variable is called discrete
data.
 Continuous Data: A data which is generated by a continuous variable is called
continuous data.
 Datum: A single numerical fact is datum.
 There are two types of data: Primary data and Secondary data.
 Primary Data: The data that have been initially collected and have not undergone
any statistical treatment are called primary data.
 Source of Primary Data:
Direct personal investigation.
Indirect investigation or interviews.
Collection through questionnaires.
Collection through local sources.
Through internet.
Experimental research.
 Secondary Data: The data which has undergone any statistical treatment at least
once is called primary data.
 Source of Secondary Data:
 Official: Using the publications of statistical divisions, ministry of finance,
the federal and provincial bureau of statistics, ministries of food, agriculture
and industry etc.
 Semi Official: State Bank of Pakistan, Railway Board, Central Cotton
Committee, Board of Economic Inquiry, District Councils, Municipalities etc.
 Publications of Trade Association, Chamber of Commerce etc.
 Technical and Trade Journals and newspapers.
 Research organizations such as universities and other institutions.

197
 Presentation of Data

The device of gathering data often results in a massive volume of statistical data which are in
the form of individual measurement of counts. These are as follows;

 Classification: The process of dividing a set of observations or objects into classes or

groups. It is the sorting of data into homogeneous classes or groups according to their
being alike or not.
 Tabulation: A systematic presentation of data classified under suitable heads and
subheads and placed in columns and rows. It is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows.
 Graphical Display: The visual display of statistical data in the form of point lines,
areas and other geometrical forms and symbols is in the most general term called
graphical display. Such graphical representation divided into graphs and diagrams.

Data handling

Data handling is the process of securing the research data is gathered, archived or disposed of
in a protected and safe way during and after the completion of the analysis process. Data
handling means collecting the set of data and presenting in a different form.

Data Handling Steps

The steps involved in the data handling process are as follows:

 Problem Identification
 Data Collection
 Data Presentation
 Graphical Representation
 Data Analysis
 Conclusion
From the analysis of the data, we can derive the solution to our problem statement. The
data can be usually represented in any one of the following ways. They are:
Bar Graph, Line Graphs, Histograms, Stem and Leaf Plot, Dot Plots, Frequency
Distribution, Cumulative Tables and Graphs

198
 Tabulation
An orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
Graphs of Data
As the old saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. Data summaries can come in
pictures or graphs. Here are some of the typical types of graphs to display distributions.
They can give us a quick overview of the big picture and the characteristics of the data.
Histogram / Frequency Histogram
A histogram is a bar graph where the data is represented in equal intervals. A Frequency
Histogram is a graph that displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the frequencies on
the vertical axis. It consists of vertical bars, whose height is equal to the frequency of the
class (interval). The bars are drawn next to each other (without gaps), since they encompass
the range of the data in numerical order. The left side of each bar starts at the lower limit of
the class interval. The right side goes up to the lower limit of the next interval. A Histogram
is only for quantitative data, not qualitative.
Relative Frequency Histogram
A Relative Frequency Histogram is the same as a frequency histogram, except it uses
relative frequencies for the vertical axis and the bar heights.
Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive
It is graphical representation of frequency distribution taking upper class boundary along
with x – axis and cumulative frequency along y – axis.
Frequency Polygon
It is graphical representation of frequency distribution taking mid point along x – axis and
frequency along y – axis.
Relative Frequency
It is a frequency which is derived by dividing frequency of any particular class by total
frequency.
Historiogram
A Historiogram is a graph showing changes in the values of one period of time to the next is
known as graph of a time series or histogram. Graph of frequency distribution is called
Histogram and the graph of time series is called Historiogram.
Remember
One advantage of using a relative frequency distribution instead of a grouped frequency
distribution is that there is a direct correspondence between the percent values of the
relative frequency distribution and probabilities. For instance, in the relative frequency
distribution in Table 8.5, the percent of the data that lie between 35 and 40 seconds is
14.9%. Thus, if a subscriber is chosen at random, the probability that the subscriber will
require at least 35 seconds but less than 40 seconds to download the music file is 0.149.

199
 4. An Internet service provider (ISP) has installed new computers. To estimate the new
download times its subscribers will experience, the ISP surveyed 1000 of its subscribers to
determine the time required for each subscriber to download a particular file from the
Internet site music.net. Summarized the survey by frequency distribution and histogram.
Solution
The results of that survey are summarized in Table.

A Histogram for the

Frequency Distribution

A Grouped Frequency
Distribution with 12 Classes
Table 1 is called a grouped frequency distribution. It shows how often (frequently)
certain events occurred. Each interval, 0–5, 5–10, and so on, is called a class. This
distribution has 12 classes. For the 10–15 class, 10 is the lower class boundary and 15 is
the upper class boundary. Any data value that lies on a common boundary is assigned to
the higher class. The graph of a frequency distribution is called a histogram. A histogram
provides a pictorial view of how the data are distributed. In Figure, the height of each bar
of the histogram indicates how many subscribers experienced the download times shown
by the class at the base of the bar.

200
 5. An Internet service provider (ISP) has installed new computers. To estimate the new
download times its subscribers will experience, the ISP surveyed 1000 of its subscribers to
determine the time required for each subscriber to download a particular file from the
Internet site music.net. Summarized the survey by relative frequency distribution and
relative frequency histogram.
Solution
The results of that survey are summarized in Table.

A Relative
Frequency
Histogram

A Relative Frequency Distribution

Examine the distribution in Table. It shows the percent of subscribers that are in each class,
as opposed to the frequency distribution in Table on the preceding page, which shows the
number of customers in each class. The type of frequency distribution that lists the percent
of data in each class is called a relative frequency distribution. The relative frequency
histogram in Figure was drawn by using the data in the relative frequency distribution. It
shows the percent of subscribers along its vertical axis.

201
 6. Use the relative frequency distribution in Table to determine
a. the percent of subscribers who required at least 25 seconds to download the file.
b. the probability that a subscriber chosen at random will require at least 5 but less than 20
seconds to download the file.

Solution
a. The percent of data in all the classes with a lower boundary of 25 seconds or more is the
sum of the percents for all of the classes highlighted in red in the distribution below.
Thus the percent of subscribers who required at least 25 seconds to download the file is
69.1%. See Table.
b. The percent of data in all the classes with a lower boundary of at least 5 seconds and an
upper boundary of 20 seconds or less is the sum of the percents in all of the classes
highlighted in blue in the distribution above. Thus the percent of subscribers who
required at least 5 but less than 20 seconds to download the file is 15.2%. The
probability that a subscriber chosen at random will require at least 5 but less than 20
seconds to download the file is 0.152. See Table.

202
 7. Use the relative frequency distribution in Table to determine
a. the percent of subscribers who required less than 25 seconds to download the file.
b. the probability that a subscriber chosen at random will require at least 10 seconds but
less than 30 seconds to download the file.

Solution
a. The percent of data in all classes with an upper bound of 25 seconds or less is the sum
of the percents for the first five classes in Table. Thus the percent of subscribers who
required less than 25 seconds to download the file is 30.9%.
b. The percent of data in all the classes with a lower bound of at least 10 seconds and an
upper bound of 30 seconds or less is the sum of the percents in the third through sixth
classes in Table. Thus the percent of subscribers who required from 10 to 30 seconds to
download the file is 47.8%. The probability that a subscriber chosen at random will
require from 10 to 30 seconds to download the file is 0.478.

203
 8. For Bradley‘s weekly hours at a summer job: 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35, 36.
Find the frequency and relative frequency histograms hours he worked in a week.
Solution
The frequency and relative frequency histograms for Bradley‘s summer job data are shown
below.

204
 9. In the following graph, how many students got the highest score?

Solution
The highest score ranges from 80 to 100. Based on the histogram chart, there were about 15
students. Therefore, the answer is 15.

205
 10.Draw a histogram for the distribution for the following data

Solution

206
 11.The histogram below shows the height (in cm) distribution of 30 people. How many people
have heights between 160 and 170 cm? How many people have heights less than 160 cm?

Solution
Solution for heights between 160 and 170 cm:
We need to look at the third bar because it ranges from 160 cm to
170 cm. The bar indicates that there are 7 people. Therefore, the answer is 7.

207
 Solution of number of people less than 160 cm:
For the people less than 160 cm height, we have to look at the bars from two categories –
140 cm to 150 cm and 150 cm to 160 cm. Therefore,
140-150: 6 people
150-160: 9 people
Total people less than 160 cm is 6 + 9 = 15 people

12.How many students got a grade of ‗A‘ based on the following chart.

208
 Solution
When we observe the bar A, the bar lines up with 5. Therefore, the answer is 5 students.

13.Logan sells four different flavors of jam at an annual farmers market. The graph below
shows the number of jars of each type of jam they sold at the market during the first two
years. Which flavor of jam had the greatest increase in number of jars sold from Year 1 to
Year 2?

209
 Solution
For this problem, we have to calculate the difference between year 1 and year 2 of all the
jars.

Although strawberry has the highest difference, it is not the answer because the number of
jars decreased. Blueberry jars increased from 10 to 18 with an increase of 8 jars. Therefore,
blueberry is the answer.

14. Construct a frequency polygon from the following frequency table.

Solution

210
 Time Series Graphs/ Line Graphs
Line Graphs show trends over a period of time. Time is located on the horizontal axis and
amounts will be located on the vertical axis. Information will be organized into ordered
pairs. To draw the graph, you plot these points and then connect them with straight lines.
In line graph, the x- axis (horizontal axis) consists of data values and the y-axis (vertical
axis) consists of frequency points. The frequency points are connected using line segments.
The graph of time series is called Historiogram.
15.Veronica is a stock trader. She followed the value of a stock and recorded the following
graph for this past week. Use it to answer the following questions.

a) What was the value of the stock on Tuesday?

b) What day of the week was the stock price equal to $40?
c) Between which two consecutive days was the biggest change in stock prices?
Solution
a) When reading the graph the horizontal axis is the day and the vertical axis tells us the
value of the stock that day. For Tuesday the value of the stock was $47.
b) Start by reading the vertical axis and find where the stock price is $40 and then find
the corresponding day on the horizontal axis which is Saturday.
c) We need to look at the graph and find two consecutive points who have the biggest
difference between stock prices. Looking at the graph this occurs between
Wednesday and Thursday.

211
 16.Edge Hill is the smallest incorporated city in the state of Georgia. The line graph below
shows its population every ten years starting in 1960. Use this graph to answer the
following questions.

a) What was the population in 2000?

b) What year was the population equal to 46 people?
c) At approximately what rate did the population decrease from the year 1980 to 1990?
Solution
a) When reading this graph the horizontal axis represents the year and the vertical axis
represents the population size. To answer this problem look for the year 2000 on the
horizontal axis and then read the population size from the vertical axis which is 30
people.
b) For this problem look for the point on the line graph where the population is 46
people. This happens for the year 1970.
c) To answer this question we need to compute a rate. Start by identifying two points
from the graph at the years 1980 and 1990: (1980, 53) and (1990, 22). Now compute
the rate. To do this we will use the slope formula.

What this tells us is that on average the population decreased by approximately 3

people each year between 1980 and 1990.

212
 17.In a survey, 40 mothers were asked how many times per week a teenager must be reminded
to do his or her chores. The results are shown in Table and in Figure.

Solution

18.In a survey, 40 people were asked how many times per year they had their car in the shop
for repairs. The results are shown in Table. Construct a line graph.

Solution

213
 19.The following data shows the Annual Consumer Price Index, each month, for ten years.
Construct a time series graph for the Annual Consumer Price Index data only.

214
 Solution

Uses of a Time Series Graph

Time series graphs are important tools in various applications of statistics. When recording
values of the same variable over an extended period of time, sometimes it is difficult to
discern any trend or pattern. However, once the same data points are displayed graphically,
some features jump out. Time series graphs make trends easy to spot.

215
 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
A clear disadvantage of using a frequency table is that the identity of individual
observations is lost in grouping process. To overcome this draw back, John Turkey
introduced a technique known as the Stem and Leaf Display. This technique offers a quick
and novel way for simultaneously sorting and simplifying data sets, where each number in
data set is divided into two parts, a stem and a leaf. A stem is the leading digit(s) of each
number and used in sorting, while a leaf is the rest of the number or the trailing digit(s) and
shown in display. A vertical line separates the leaf (or leaves) from the stem. For example
the number 243 could be split two ways;
Leading Digit Trailing Digit
2 43
Stem Leaf
Or
Leading Digit Trailing Digit
24 3
Stem Leaf
All possible stems are arranged in order from the smallest to the largest and placed on the
left hand side of the line.
The stem and leaf display is a useful step for listing the data in an array, leaves are
associated with the stem to know the numbers. The stem and leaf table provide a useful
description of the data set and can easily be converted to a frequency table. It is a common
practice to arrange the trailing digits in each case from smallest to highest.

Steps in the Construction of a Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

1. Determine the stems and list them in a column from smallest to largest or largest to
smallest.
2. List the remaining digit of each stem as a leaf to the right of the stem.
3. Include a legend that explains the meaning of the stems and the leaves. Include a title for
the diagram.

216
 20.Construct a stem-and-leaf display from the data and list the data in an array.
48,31,54,37,18,64,61,43,40,71,51,12,52,65,53,
42,39,62,74,48,29,67,30,49,68,35,57,26,27,58
Solution
A scan of the data indicates that the observation range is 12 to 74. We use the first
observation is 48, which has a stem of 4 and a leaf of 8, the second a stem of 3 and a leaf of
1, etc. Then our required stem and leaf display is as follows;
Stem (Leading Digit) Leaf (Trailing Digit)
1 82
2 967
3 17905
4 830289
5 412378
6 415278
7 14

21.Construct stem-and-leaf diagram for the following history test scores:

65, 72, 96, 86, 43, 61, 75, 86, 49, 68, 98, 74, 84, 78, 85, 75, 86, 73
Solution
In the stem-and-leaf diagram on the following page, we have organized the history test
scores by placing all of the scores that are in the 40s in the top row, the scores that are in the
50s in the second row, the scores that are in the 60s in the third row, and so on. The tens
digits of the scores have been placed to the left of the vertical line. In this diagram they are
referred to as stems. The ones digits of the test scores have been placed in the proper row to
the right of the vertical line. In this diagram they are the leaves. It is now easy to make
observations about the distribution of the scores. Only two of the scores are in the 90s. Six
of the scores are in the 70s, and none of the scores are in the 50s. The lowest score is 43 and
the highest is 98.

217
 Remark
The choice of how many leading digits to use as the stem will depend on the particular data
set.

22.Construct stem-and-leaf diagram for the following data set, in which a travel agent has
recorded the amounts spent by customers for a cruise.

Solution
One method of choosing the stems is to let each thousands digit be a stem and each
hundreds digit be a leaf. If the stems and leaves are assigned in this manner, then the
notation 2|1 with a stem of 2 and a leaf of 1, represents a cost of $2100, and 5|4
represents a cost of $5400. A stem-and-leaf diagram can now be constructed by writing
all of the stems in a column from smallest to largest to the left of a vertical line, and
writing the corresponding leaves to the right of the line.

218
 Remark
Sometimes two sets of data can be compared by using a back-to-back stem-and- leaf
diagram, in which common stems are listed in the middle column of the diagram. Leaves
from one data set are displayed to the right of the stems, and leaves from the other data set
are displayed to the left.
23.Construct stem-and-leaf diagram for the following data set below shows the test scores
for two classes that took the same test.
Scores in the range of 70s, 80s, 90s, 40s, 50s, and 60s.
Solution
The back-to-back stem-and-leaf diagram below shows the test scores for two classes
that took the same test. It is easy to see that the 8 A.M. class did better on the test
because it had more scores in the 80s and 90s and fewer scores in the 40s, 50s, and 60s.
The number of scores in the 70s was the same for both classes.

219
 24.Draw Stem and Leaf graph for Susan Dean's spring pre-calculus class, scores for the first
exam were as follows (smallest to largest):
33; 42; 49; 49; 53; 55; 55; 61; 63; 67; 68; 68; 69; 69; 72; 73; 74; 78; 80; 83; 88; 88; 88; 90;
92; 94; 94; 94; 94; 96; 100
Solution

The stemplot shows that most scores fell in the 60s, 70s, 80s, and 90s. Eight out of the 31
scores or approximately 26% . / were in the 90s or 100, a fairly high number of As.
25.For the Park City basketball team, scores for the last 30 games were as follows (smallest to
largest):
32; 32; 33; 34; 38; 40; 42; 42; 43; 44; 46; 47; 47; 48; 48; 48; 49; 50; 50; 51; 52; 52; 52; 53;
54; 56; 57; 57; 60; 61
Construct a stem plot for the data.
Solution

The stemplot is a quick way to graph data and gives an exact picture of the data. You
want to look for an overall pattern and any outliers. An outlier is an observation of data
that does not fit the rest of the data. It is sometimes called an extreme value. When you
graph an outlier, it will appear not to fit the pattern of the graph. Some outliers are due
to mistakes (for example, writing down 50 instead of 500) while others may indicate
that something unusual is happening.

220
 Range Bar
A range bar graph represents a range of data for each independent variable.
26. In the following chart, which month is the warmest month?

Solution
In June, temperatures range from 50°
F to 70° F.
In July, temperatures range from
52° F to 90° F.
In August, temperatures range from
50° F to 95° F, 95 being the highest.
In September, temperatures range
from 40° F to 70° F.
Therefore,
The warmest month is August.
The highest temperature is 95° F.

221
 27.The box plot below summarizes the resting heart rates, in beats per minute, of the members
at a gym. Which of the following could be the range of resting heart rates, in beats per
minute?

Solution
The chart shows resting heart rates (beats/minute), and we are asked to calculate range of
resting heart rates.

We know that
Range = Maximum – Minimum
Range = 101 – 139 = 62
Therefore, the answer is 62 beats per minute.

222
 Chart
A chart is the diagrammatic representation of a spatial series where the data is split into
different categories.

Different types of Charts

Histograms are for quantitative data. There is a similar graph for qualitative data
(categories), called a Bar Graph. In a bar graph, the width of the bars is arbitrary and the
bars are not connected. A Bar Graph is a graph that consists of bars for each category with
the length/height of the bars specifying the frequency for each category. One axis will
indicate the categories and the other axis will indicate the frequency. Bar graphs are often
used for comparing different characteristics of items. Bar graphs can have horizontal or
vertical bars. Can show frequency or relative frequency. Few types are as follows;

Bar Graph/ Bar Chart/ Simple Bar Chart

A simple bar chart is used when the data consists of a single component and also do not
involve much variation.

Multiple Bar Charts

When we represent two or more sets of inter related data and also we want to compare
different phenomena diagrammatically we use multiple bar chart.

Component Bar Charts

Component bar charts are used when the data consists of more than one homogeneous
component, they represents the commutations of the various components of data.

Percentage Component Bar Charts

Percentage component bar charts are used if the comparison of relative values are
concerned. These charts are drawn on percentage basis.

Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a specific type of bar graph where the classes are reordered so that the
bars are in size order.

223
 28.Draw the simple bar chart for the following

Name Asad Amna Hina Raza Umair

Marks 70 57 65 75 82

Solution

224
 29.Draw the multiple bar chart for the following

Name Asad Amna Hina Raza Umair

MBF 70 57 65 75 82

I to B 65 70 57 45 60

Solution

225
 30.Draw the component bar chart for the following

Name Asad Amna Hina Raza Umair

MBF 70 57 65 75 82

I to B 65 70 57 45 60

Solution

226
 31.A group of students surveyed their class about what sport was their favorite.
The results are given below.

a) How many students said basketball was their favorite?

b) How many more students liked Football than Soccer?
Solution
a) Find the bar above that is labelled "Basketball" on the horizontal axis. The number of
students whose favorite is basketball is equivalent to the height of the bar. Read the
height of the bar from the vertical axis. The number of students who said basketball
was their favorite sport was 7.
b) Begin by observing the number of students who liked Football and Soccer from the
bar graph. The number of students who liked Football is 10 and the number of
students who liked Soccer is 4. There are 10 4 = 6 more students that liked
Football than Soccer.

227
 32.The bar graph below shows scores on a Math test.

a) How many B‘s were there?

b) How many test grades are there?
c) How many students scored a C or higher?
Solution
a) This is a horizontal bar graph. The grade categories are on the vertical axis. Begin by
looking for "B". Then look at the horizontal axis for the length of the bar for B‘s.
This gives 5 B‘s.
b) Add all the lengths of each bar for each letter grade together to find the number of
test grades. This gives a total of 4 + 5 + 6 + 2 + 3 = 20
c) Begin by finding the number of test grades for A‘s, B‘s, and C‘s, which are 4, 5, and
6 respectively. Number of grades of C or better are 4 + 5 + 6 = 15.

228
 33.By the end of 2011, Facebook had over 146 million users in the United States. Table shows
three age groups, the number of users in each age group, and the proportion (%) of users in
each age group. Construct a bar graph using this data.

Solution

34.The population in Park City is made up of children, working-age adults, and retirees. Table
shows the three age groups, the number of people in the town from each age group, and the
proportion (%) of people in each age group. Construct a bar graph showing the proportions.

Solution

229
 35.The US Men‘s olympic hockey teams have played in 21 olympic games, winning 11
medals (2 gold, 8 silver, 1 bronze). Make a frequency bar graph and a relative frequency
Pareto chart.
Solution
Below are a frequency bar graph (ordered from worst to best finishes) and a relative
frequency Pareto chart (ordered from highest to lowest).

230
 Graphs can help us get an overall view of the data set. When looking at a graph, pay
attention to the following:
 Center: where is the middle of the graph, and the highest point.
 Spread: how are the parts of the graph spread out from each other?
 Shape: what shape does the graph have? Bell shape, straight across, repeatedly up
and down, random?
 Symmetry: graph can be split in half with two mirror image parts, almost equal
amount on both sides. Graph that extends more out to left is Left-skewed. Graph that
extends more out to right is Right-skewed.
 Outliers: are data values (small parts of the graph) that are far from the other data
(parts).

231
 36.Give an example of symmetric graph.
Answer

37.Give an example of right skewed graph.

Answer

232
 38.Give an example of graph for outlier.
Answer

233
 Circle Graph / Pie Chart
A Circle Graph (or Pie Chart) is a circle cut into sections with varying sizes shaped like
slices of a pizza. The sizes of the sections are based on the relative frequencies of the
categories. The percent or frequency for each category can be specified on the sections of
the pie chart.
It is a graphical device for presenting qualitative data summaries based on subdivision of a
circle into sectors that corresponds to the relative frequency for each class. It is a disk
(circle) divided into pie-shaped pieces proportional to the relative frequencies. A pie chart
should be labeled well, with class and the relative frequency for each slice. If a slice is very
small, then the labels can go outside with an arrow pointing to the corresponding slice. The
preferred way to sketch a pie chart is to start slices at 12 o‘clock and rotate clockwise.

39.For Bradley‘s weekly hours at a summer job: 25, 32, 36, 32, 18, 28, 30, 36, 12, 16, 35, 36.
Construct a Pie Chart.
Solution

234
 40.A pizza chef at Mario‘s Pizza makes a list of all the types of pizza he made on a
particularly busy Tuesday. He then used this list to create a pie chart for the pizza types.

a) What was the least ordered type of pizza?

b) What was the most ordered type of pizza?
Solution
a) Start by identifying the smallest piece on the pie chart. Looking at this graph shows
that this category is that of Hawaiian at 5%.
b) Identifying the largest piece on the pie chart. Looking at this graph shows that this
category is that of Meat Lovers at 35%.
41.Using the Circle Graph answer the following questions.

a) How much in taxes did Tyrone pay in total?

b) How much of Tyrone‘s Taxes went to the City?
c) Which of the categories on the pie chart received the smallest amount of money?
Solution
a) Sum of the money amount for each category represented on the chart. The total
amount is $99 + $157 + $273 + $544 + $751 = $1824.
b) Look on the chart for the piece labeled City and read the value there which is $751.
c) Look at the chart and look for the category with the lowest amount of money. In this
case the category is Emergency Services at $99.

235
 Bivariate Analysis

Bivariate analysis is a statistical technique used to examine the relationship between two
continuous or categorical variables. One variable is dependent while other is independent.

Purpose

 Identify relationships between variables

 Determine correlation or association strength
 Visualize data distribution

Types of Bivariate Analysis

 Scatter Plots: Visualize relationship between two continuous variables

 Correlation Coefficient: Measure strength and direction of linear relationship
 Contingency Tables: Examine relationship between two categorical variables
 T-Tests: Compare means of two groups
 Regression Analysis: Model relationship between independent and dependent
variables

Key Concepts

 Correlation: Measure of linear relationship strength

 Causation: Relationship implying cause-and-effect
 Association: Relationship between variables
 Independence: No relationship between variables

Applications

 Market Research: Analyze customer behavior

 Medical Research: Investigate disease relationships
 Social Sciences: Examine relationships between demographic variables
 Business: Identify relationships between sales and marketing strategies

Regression line or Least-Squares Line

The regression line or least-squares line is the line that minimizes the sum of the squares of
the vertical distances between the data points and the line. Or It is the line for which the
sum of the squares of the vertical distances between the data points and the line is a
minimum.

236
 Linear Regression
The process of finding the regression line is called linear regression.

Regression
The dependence of variable upon one or more other variables is called regression.

Simple Regression
The dependence of one variable upon single independent variable is called simple
regression.

Multiple Regressions
The dependence of one variable upon two or more independent variables is called simple
regression.

Regressor
The variable that forms the basis of estimation or prediction is called regressor. It is also
called as the predictor variable or independent variable or controlled variable or explanatory
variable or non – random variable.

Regressand
The variable whose resulting value depends upon the selected value of the independent
variable is called the regressand. It is also called the response variable or the predicted
variable or dependent variable or explained variable or random variable.

Regression Analysis
Regression analysis refers to the methods of describing the functional ( ) on the
basis of the other ( ) variable.

The Principle of Least Square

This principle says that the sum of the squares of the residual of the observed values from
their corresponding estimated values should be the least or minimum.
Mathematically; ∑( ̂)

237
 Estimated Regression Line

The estimated regression line of The estimated regression line of

Y on X; Y = aYX + aYXX X on Y; X = aXY + aXYY

∑( ̅)( ̅) ∑( ̅)( ̅)
∑( ̅) ∑( ̅)

∑( ̅ ̅) ∑( ̅ ̅)
∑( ̅) ∑( ̅)

(∑ )(∑ ) (∑ )(∑ )
∑ ∑
(∑ ) (∑ )
∑ ∑

∑ (∑ )(∑ ) ∑ (∑ )(∑ )
∑ (∑ ) ∑ (∑ )

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

238
 42.Fit a regression line Y on X from percentage of marks scored by 12 students in statistics X
and economics Y.

x 30 34 26 49 60 62 65 51 44
y 27 18 34 28 26 30 32 30 28

Solution
The estimated regression line is ̂
x y x2 xy
30 27 900 810
34 18 1156 612
26 34 676 884
49 28 2401 1372
60 26 3600 1560
62 30 3844 1860
65 32 4225 2080
51 30 2601 1530
44 28 1936 1232
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

The least square estimate for n = 9 are

∑ (∑ )(∑ )
∑ (∑ )

∑ ∑

The best fitted line is ̂

239
 43.Fit a regression line X on Y from percentage of marks scored by 12 students in statistics X
and economics Y.

x 30 34 26 49 60 62 65 51 44
y 27 18 34 28 26 30 32 30 28

Solution
The estimated regression line is ̂
x y y2 xy
30 27 729 810
34 18 324 612
26 34 1156 884
49 28 784 1372
60 26 676 1560
62 30 900 1860
65 32 1024 2080
51 30 900 1530
44 28 784 1232
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

The least square estimate for n = 9 are

∑ (∑ )(∑ )
∑ (∑ )

∑ ∑

The best fitted line is ̂

240
 Method of Least Square
A procedure in which regression equation is obtained by minimizing the sum of squares of
residuals (errors). The parameter values obtained are called least square estimates.
Normal Equations of Least Square Regression Line
 ∑ ∑ this is the normal equation for ‗a‘
 ∑ ∑ ∑ this is the normal equation for ‗b‘

Residual
Residual is the difference between actual value from predicted value ̂ . This error term is
denoted by . i.e. Residual ̂ ( )
44. Fit a straight line by method of least squares to the following data and estimate Y for
X = 30 where X = Supply and Y = Demand.

Score( ) 0 5 10 15 20 25
GPA( ) 12 15 17 22 24 30

Solution
The estimated equation of straight line is ̂
x y x2 xy
0 12 0 0
5 15 25 75
10 17 100 170
15 22 225 330
20 24 400 480
25 30 625 750
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

The normal equations are

∑ ∑ ……….. ( )
∑ ∑ ∑ ……….. ( )
By 25( ) 2( ) we have
The required fitted straight line is ̂
To estimate the value of Y put X = 30; ̂ ( )

241
 45.Find a straight line by the method of least squares and show that sum of errors is always
zero.

Score( ) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
GPA( ) 12 10 14 11 13 15 16

Solution
The estimated equation of straight line is ̂
x y x2 xy
0 12 0 0
1 10 1 10
2 14 4 28
3 11 9 33
4 13 16 25
5 15 25 75
6 16 36 96
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

The normal equations are

∑ ∑ ……….. ( )
∑ ∑ ∑ ……….. ( )
By ( ) ( ) we have
The required fitted straight line is ̂
x y ̂ ̂
0 12 ( ) 1.25
1 10 ( ) 1.5
2 14 ( ) 1.75
3 11 ( ) 2
4 13 ( ) 0.75
5 15 ( ) 0.50
6 16 ( ) 0.75
∑
Hence
Sum of errors is always zero. i.e. ∑( ̂)

242
 46. The following sample of 8 grade point averages and marks in matriculation was observed
for students from a college.

Score( ) 480 490 510 510

GPA( ) 2.7 2.9 3.3 2.9
Score( ) 530 550 610 640
GPA( ) 3.1 3.0 3.2 3.7

Find the least square line. Estimate the mean GPA of student scoring 600 marks.
Solution
The estimated regression line is ̂
x y x2 xy
480 2.7 230400 1296
490 2.9 240100 1421
510 3.3 260100 1683
510 2.9 260100 1479
530 3.1 280900 1643
550 3.0 302500 1650
610 3.2 372100 1952
640 3.7 409600 2368
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

The least square estimate for n = 8 are

∑ (∑ )(∑ )
∑ (∑ )

∑ ∑

The best fitted line is ̂

For x = 600 we have ̂ ( )

243
 47. Given the following data

x 0 1 2 3 4
y 1.0 1.8 3.3 4.5 6.3
Determine the least square line taking x as independent variable. Find the estimated values for
the given value of x and show that; ∑ ∑̂ ∑ . Also calculate the sum of squares of
the residual. And verify that ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Solution
The estimated regression line is ̂
x y x2 xy
0 1.0 0 0
1 1.8 1 1.8
2 3.3 4 6.6
3 4.5 9 13.5
4 6.3 16 25.2
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
The least square estimate for n = 5 are
∑ (∑ )(∑ ) ∑ ∑
∑ (∑ )
and

The best fitted line is ̂

The estimated values ̂ for the given values of x and the residuals ̂ are obtained as
shown in the following table.
x y ̂ e2 y2
0 1.0 ( ) 0.28 0.0784 1.00
1 1.8 ( ) 0.25 0.0625 3.24
2 3.3 ( ) 0.08 0.0064 10.89
3 4.5 ( ) 0.21 0.0441 20.25
4 6.3 ( ) 0.26 0.0676 39.69
0
It is verified that
∑ ∑ ̂ and ∑ ∑( ̂)
The sum of squares of residual is ∑
Clearly it is verified that ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
As ∑ ( ) ( )

244
 48.Sodium thiosulfate is used by photographers to develop some types of film. The amount of
this chemical that will dissolve in water depends on the temperature of the water. The table
below gives the numbers of grams of sodium thiosulfate that will dissolve in 100 milliliters
of water at various temperatures.

a. Find the linear regression equation for these data.

b. How many grams of sodium thiosulfate does the model predict will dissolve in 100
milliliters of water when the temperature of the water is 70°C?
Round to the nearest tenth of a gram.
Solution
a. the regression equation is
b. Evaluate the regression equation when x = 70

Approximately 162.9 grams of sodium thiosulfate will dissolve when the temperature of the
water is 70°C.

49.The heights and weights of women swimmers on a college swim team are given in the table
below.

a. Find the linear regression equation for these data.

b. Use your regression equation to estimate the weight of a woman swimmer who is 63
inches tall. Round to the nearest pound.
Solution
a. The regression equation is approximately .
b. When x = 63, we have ( ) .
The estimated weight of a woman swimmer who is 63 inches tall is approximately 102
pounds.

245
 50.Earlier we compared speed and stride length for dogs. The table below lists data from a
similar experiment performed with several adult men.

a. Find the equation of the regression line for these data.

b. Use your regression equation to predict the average speeds of adult men with stride
lengths of 2.8 meters and 4.8 meters. Round your results to the nearest tenth of a meter per
second.
Solution
a. the regression equation is approximately
The graph is shown as; you can see that the line fits the data well.

b. Evaluate the regression equation when x = 2.8.

Rounded to the nearest tenth, the predicted average speed for an adult man with a stride
length of 2.8 meters is 4.3 meters per second.
Similarly, substituting 4.8 for gives ( ) , so 9.8 meters per
second is the predicted average speed for an adult man with a stride length of 4.8 meters.

246
 51.The table below lists data from an experiment comparing speed and stride length for

several camels.

a. Find the equation of the regression line for these data.

b. Use your regression equation to predict the average speeds of camels with stride lengths

of 2.7 meters and 4.5 meters. Round your results to the nearest tenth of a meter per second.

Solution

a. The equation of the regression line is approximately

b. When x = 2.7, we have ( ) ,

and when x = 4.5, we have ( ) .

The predicted average speed of a camel with a stride length of 2.7 meters is about 2.9

meters per second, and the predicted average speed for a camel with a stride length of 4.5

meters is approximately 8.5 meters per second.

247
 Correlation
The interdependence between two or more variables is called correlation. It measures the
strength or closeness of relationships between two variables.
Linear Correlation Coefficient
The linear correlation coefficient r is a measurement of the interdependence between the
variables. It measures the numerical strength or closeness of linear relationships between
two variables. It is a measure of how well the regression line fits the given data. If the
regression line has positive slope, then r is positive, and the closer r is to 1, the better the fit.
If the slope of the regression line is negative, then r is negative, and the closer r is to , the
better the fit.
Types of Correlation
Positive or direct correlation: If r is positive, the relationship between the domain and
range values has a positive or direct correlation. In this case, if the domain value
increases, the range value also tends to increase and vice versa. In this case both variables
move in the same direction. The value of correlation coefficient for positive correlation is
between 0 and 1. i.e. .
Examples
 Relationship between lung cancer and smoking habits.
 Increase in temperature in summer increase the sale of room coolers.
 Here are the two variables moves in the same direction
x 12 15 20 27 30
y 8 10 12 19 25

Negative or inverse correlation: If r is negative, the linear relationship between the

domain and range values has a negative or inverse correlation. In this case, if the domain
value increases, the range value tends to decrease. In this case both variables move in the
opposite direction. The value of correlation coefficient for negative correlation is between
and 0. i.e. .
Examples
 The volume of gas will decrease as the pressure increases.
 Increase in supply of a commodity decreases its price.
 Here are the two variables moves in the opposite direction
x 15 18 25 30 33
y 40 35 30 25 20

248
 Zero or null correlation: The absence of any relation between the variables is called zero
correlation. In this case variables are independent to each other. i.e. .
Examples
 Amount of rainfall and the head sizes.
 Here are the two variables with no effect to each other.
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 7 7 7 7 7

Some Graph of Correlation Types

249
 Correlation Coefficient Formulae
( )

√ ( ) ( )

∑ (∑ )(∑ )

√, ∑ (∑ ) -, ∑ (∑ ) -
∑

√,∑ -,∑ -

∑( ̅ )( ̅)
 ̅ ) ∑( ̅)
√∑(
∑

√,∑ -,∑ -
(∑ )(∑ )
∑
 (∑ ) (∑ )
√[∑ ][∑ ]

Properties of Correlation Coefficient

 The Correlation Coefficient always lies between and . i.e.
 The Correlation Coefficient is symmetric w.r.to the variables X and Y.
i.e.
 The Correlation Coefficient is the geometric mean of the two regression
coefficients. i.e. √
 The Correlation Coefficient is a pure number and it has no unit.
 For two independent random variables Correlation Coefficient is zero.
 The Correlation Coefficient is independent of the origin and unit of measurement.
i.e.

250
 52.Calculate the correlation coefficient between percentage of marks scored by 12 students in
statistics X and economics Y.

x 30 34 26 49 60 62 65 51 44
y 27 18 34 28 26 30 32 30 28

Solution
The estimated regression line is ̂
x y x2 y2 xy
30 27 900 729 810
34 18 1156 324 612
26 34 676 1156 884
49 28 2401 784 1372
60 26 3600 676 1560
62 30 3844 900 1860
65 32 4225 1024 2080
51 30 2601 900 1530
44 28 1936 784 1232

Correlation coefficient between X and Y is

∑ (∑ )(∑ )
√, ∑ (∑ ) -, ∑ (∑ ) -

251
 53.Find the linear correlation coefficient for the data on stride length versus speed of an adult
man.

Then find the linear correlation coefficient for the speed data for dogs.

Which regression line is a better fit for the corresponding data?

Solution
After entering the data for adult men and finding the linear regression equation, we have the
linear correlation coefficient as approximately .
Now clear the data for adult men and enter the data for dogs. The regression equation as
approximately and the correlation coefficient as approximately
Both correlation coefficients are positive, but because the value of for the adult
men data is closer to 1 than the value of for the dog data, the regression line for the adult
men fits better than the one for the dogs.

54.Find the linear correlation coefficient for stride length versus speed of a camel as given.

Round your result to the nearest hundredth.

Solution
The table below lists data from an experiment comparing speed and stride length for several
camels.

We have r = 0.998497842, so the linear correlation coefficient is approximately 1.00.

252
 55. Find the correlation coefficient for the data giving the number of persons employed and
cloth manufactured in a textile mill.
Person Employed ( ) 137 209 113 189 176 200 219
Cloth manufactured ( ) 23 47 22 40 39 51 49
Solution
x y x2 y2 xy
137 23 18769 529 3151
209 47 43681 2209 9823
113 22 12769 484 2486
189 40 35721 1600 7560
176 39 30976 1521 6864
200 51 40000 2601 10200
219 49 47961 2401 10731
1243 271 229877 11345 50815

Correlation Coefficient Formula for n = 7

∑ (∑ )(∑ )
√, ∑ (∑ ) -, ∑ (∑ ) -

( ) ( )( )
√, ( ) ( ) -, ( ) ( ) -

√, -, -

253
 56.Find the correlation coefficient by using the deviation from their mean for the data giving
the height and weight of 8 men.

Height ( ) 78 89 97 69 59 79 68 61
Weight ( ) 125 137 156 112 107 136 123 106

Solution
∑ ∑
̅ and ̅

x y ̅ ̅
78 125 3 0
89 137 11 12
97 156 22 31
69 112 6 13
59 107 16 18
79 136 4 11
68 123 7 2
61 106 14 21
Sum 600 1000 0 0

( ̅) ( ̅) ( ̅)( ̅)
9 0 0
196 144 168
484 961 682
36 169 78
256 324 288
16 121 44
49 4 14
196 441 294
Sum 1242 2164 1568

∑( ̅) ( ̅)
√∑( ̅) ∑( ̅)

254
 Scatter Plot
A scatter plot is a graph which represents a set of points on the - axes. It is a chart
type that is normally used to observe and visually display the relationship between
variables. Also used for identification of correlational relationships and identification of
data patterns.

57.A sample of 5 students have the following body weights and heights. The data is
represented in a scatter plot graph. Based on the graph, if a student has a weight of 44 kg,
how tall is the student?

Solution

As previously stated, the points are - points of the given data. The point (110, 35) is the
first point, and the (132, 56) is the last point.
For the height of a student who weighs 44 kg ( -coordinate), we need to find the -
coordinate. The point lines up with 120 cm of height.

255
 58.A research on two stock companies reveals that the closing prices of stocks were positively
correlated to each other. The following chart shows the stock prices of the companies and a
line of best fit. Based on the chart, if the price of stock A is $15, what would the price of
stock B be?

256
 Solution
If the price of stock A is $15, the price of stock B is about $20.

59. Ben started a new job as a car salesman. His supervisor gives him the advice that the more
test drives per day he gets his customers to take the more sales he will make per day. He
records the following data over the past week.

257
 Solution
When we plot this set of data as a scatter plot we get the following graph.

This clearly shows there is a relationship between the two variables. As x increases we see
that y also increases. This shows there is what‘s called a positive linear correlation between
the two variables.
Correlation and Scatter Plots
Specifically, linear correlation, is where there appears to be a linear relationship between
the two variables. There are three types of correlation:
 Positive Correlation. As x increases y increases.
 Negative Correlation. As x increases y decreases.
 Zero Correlation. There is no relationship.

258
 60.Determine if the following scatter plot exhibit positive linear correlation, negative linear
correlation, or no linear correlation.

Solution: The graph shows no pattern. In this case there is no correlation.

61.Determine if the following scatter plot exhibit positive linear correlation, negative linear
correlation, or no linear correlation.

Solution: The graph shows the pattern that as x increases, y increases. This is positive
linear correlation.

62.Determine if the following scatter plot exhibit positive linear correlation, negative linear
correlation, or no linear correlation.

Solution
The graph shows the pattern that as x increases, y decreases. This is negative linear
correlation.

259
 63.The table below shows the maximum exercise heart rate for specific individuals of various
ages who exercise regularly.

a. Sketch a scatter diagram of the data.

b. Find a linear function that models the data.
c. Use this function to predict the maximum exercise heart rate recommended for a
28-year-old person.
Solution
The table below shows the maximum exercise heart rate for specific individuals of various
ages who exercise regularly.

The graph as follows, called a scatter diagram, is a graph of the ordered pairs of the table.
These ordered pairs suggest that the maximum exercise heart rate for an individual
decreases as the person‘s age increases.

Although these points do not lie on one line, it is possible to find a line that approximately
fits the data. One way to do this is to select two data points and then find the equation of the
line that passes through the two points. To do this, we first find the slope of the line between
the two points and then use the point–slope formula to find the equation of the line. Suppose
we choose ( ) as P1 and ( ) as P2.Then the slope of the line between P1 and P2
is

260
 Now use the point–slope formula.

The graph of is shown as follows.

This line approximates the data and can be used to estimate maximum exercise heart rates
for different ages. For example, an exercise physiologist could determine the recommended
maximum exercise heart rate for a 28-year-old individual by replacing in the equation by 28
and determining the value of y.
( )
The maximum exercise heart rate recommended for a 28-year-old person is approximately
153 beats per minute.

261
 64.The average prices per pound of white bread in U.S. cities, as recorded in August of
various years, are listed in the table below.

a. Sketch a scatter diagram of the data.

b. Find a linear function that models the data.
c. Use this function to predict the price per pound of white bread in August of 2011.
Solution
a. We can simplify the data by using 0 for 1997, 1 for 1998, etc.

Looking at the scatter diagram, it appears that a line through the points (3, 0.923) and
(6, 0.996) will fit the data points reasonably well.

262
 The slope of the line through these points is

and the equation of the line is

or approximately . Thus the price per pound of white bread is

approximately , where is the number of years after August 1997.
The year 2011 corresponds to x = 14, so we evaluate the function when x = 14.
( ) ( )
The estimated price of white bread in August 2011 is about $1.19 per pound.

65.The populations of a city for various years are given in the table below.

a. Sketch a scatter diagram of the data.

b. Write an equation for a linear function that models the data.
c. Use the function from part b to predict the city‘s population in the year 2025.
Solution
a. The regression equation is approximately

b. When x = 63, we have ( ) .

The estimated weight of a woman swimmer who is 63 inches tall is approximately 102
pounds.

263
 Variability and Measure of dispersion (already discussed in Reasoning – I)
Dispersion
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the
dispersion or variation of data.
Or Dispersion measures the spread or variability of data points within a dataset.
Types of Dispersion
There are two main types of the dispersion;
 Absolute Dispersion: It measures the variation among the values in the same unit
of measurement in which the original data are given such as rupees, kg, inches etc.
commonly used absolute measures are range, quartiles, mean, standard deviation
and variance.
 Relative Dispersion: If we compare the dispersion of two dissimilar distributions
we need relative term is called relative dispersion. Or The ratio between the
measure of dispersion and corresponding measure of location is called relative
dispersion. These measures are free of unit in which the original data is measure.
Commonly used relative measures are coefficient of range, coefficient of quartiles,
coefficient of mean and coefficient of variation.
Measure of Central Tendencies (Maximum discussed in Reasoning – I)
Central Tendency
Central tendency is a statistical measure that identifies the middle or typical value of a
dataset or distribution. It aims to provide a single value that best represents the entire
dataset. It include mean, median, mode and mid ranges. Remaining topic or discussed
here.

Percentiles/ pth Percentiles

Percentiles are the values of the variate that divide a set of data into one hundred equal
parts after arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.
Or
A value x is called the pth percentile of a data set provided p% of the data values are less
than x.
For ungrouped data
( )
Position of . / and Position of 0 1
( )
For grouped data
. / and . /
Where
Lower class boundary of the model class.
Size of class interval of the model class.
Frequency of the model class.
Sum of the frequencies
Cumulative frequency of the preceding class of the model class.

264
 66.Obtain D65 and D94 from the following data;

Class Frequency Class Frequency

110 – 119 2 160 – 169 18
120 – 129 4 170 – 179 13
130 – 139 17 180 – 189 6
140 – 149 28 190 – 199 5
150 – 159 25 200 – 209 2
Solution

Class Frequency C.B C.F

110 – 119 2 109.5 – 119.5 2
120 – 129 4 119.5 – 119.5 6
130 – 139 17 129.5 – 119.5 23
140 – 149 28 139.5 – 119.5 51
150 – 159 25 149.5 – 119.5 76
160 – 169 18 159.5 – 119.5 94
170 – 179 13 169.5 – 119.5 107
180 – 189 6 179.5 – 119.5 113
190 – 199 5 189.5 – 119.5 118
200 – 209 2 199.5 – 119.5 120
Sum 120

65th Percentile (P65)

. /

94th Percentile (P94)

. /

265
 67. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual salary in 2003 for a
physical therapist was $57,720. If the 85th percentile for the annual salary of a physical
therapist was $71,500, find the percent of physical therapists whose annual salaries were
a. more than $57,720.
b. less than $71,500.
c. between $57,720 and $71,500.
Solution
a. By definition, the median is the 50th percentile. Therefore, 50% of the physical
therapists earned more than $57,720 per year.
b. Because $71,500 is the 85th percentile, 85% of all physical therapists made less than
$71,500.
c. From parts a and b, of the physical therapists earned between
$57,720 and $71,500.

68. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, the median annual salary in 2003 for a police
dispatcher was $28,288. If the 30th percentile for the annual salary of a police dispatcher
was $25,640, find the percent of police dispatchers whose annual salaries were
a. less than $28,288.
b. more than $25,640.
c. between $25,640 and $28,288.
Solution
a. By definition, the median is the 50th percentile. Therefore, 50% of the police
dispatchers earned less than $28,288 per year.
b. Because $25,640 is the 30th percentile, of all police
dispatchers made more than $25,640.
c. From parts a and b, of the police dispatchers earned between
$25,640 and $28,288.

266
 Percentile for a Given Data Value
Given a set of data and a data value x,

69.On a reading examination given to 900 students, Elaine‘s score of 602 was higher than
the scores of 576 of the students who took the examination. What is the percentile for
Elaine‘s score?
Solution

Elaine‘s score of 602 places her at the 64th percentile.

70. On an examination given to 8600 students, Hal‘s score of 405 was higher than the
scores of 3952 of the students who took the examination. What is the percentile for
Hal‘s score?
Solution

Hal‘s score of 405 places him at the 46th percentile.

267
 Deciles
These are the values, which divide the set of observations into ten equal parts after
arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.
Formulae for deciles
For ungrouped data

Position of . /

( )
Position of 0 1

( )
Position of 0 1

( )
Position of 0 1

( )
Position of 0 1

( )
71.Find 4th and 7th deciles from the following data;
17,22,27,29,38,40,42,45,50,54,56,57,60
Solution
4th decile (D4)
( ) ( )
Position of 0 1 0 1 ( )

( )
( )
( )
7th decile (D7)
( ) ( )
Position of 0 1 0 1 ( )

( )
( )
( )

268
 For grouped data
. /
. /
Where
Lower class boundary of the model class.
Size of class interval of the model class.
Frequency of the model class.
Sum of the frequencies
Cumulative frequency of the preceding class of the model class.
72.Obtain D3 and D7 from the following data;
Class Frequency Class Frequency
110 – 119 2 160 – 169 18
120 – 129 4 170 – 179 13
130 – 139 17 180 – 189 6
140 – 149 28 190 – 199 5
150 – 159 25 200 – 209 2
Solution
Class Frequency C.B C.F
110 – 119 2 109.5 – 119.5 2
120 – 129 4 119.5 – 119.5 6
130 – 139 17 129.5 – 119.5 23
140 – 149 28 139.5 – 119.5 51
150 – 159 25 149.5 – 119.5 76
160 – 169 18 159.5 – 119.5 94
170 – 179 13 169.5 – 119.5 107
180 – 189 6 179.5 – 119.5 113
190 – 199 5 189.5 – 119.5 118
200 – 209 2 199.5 – 119.5 120
Sum 120
rd
3 Decile

. /

7rd Decile

. /

269
 Quartiles
Quartiles are the values of the variate that divide a set of data into four equal parts after
arranging the observations in ascending order of magnitude.
Quartile Deviation/ Semi Inter – Quartile Range
It is also called semi inter – quartile range. The SIQR is the measure of dispersion defined
by the difference between third quartile and the first quartile and half of the range is called
quartile deviation. The QD is also an absolute measure of dispersion. Its relative measure
called coefficient of quartile deviation.
Formulae

( )
Where . / and . /
Coefficient of Q.D

73. Find QD of 45,32,21,65,36,53,48,76,27.

Solution
Arrange: 21,27,32,36,45,48,53,65,76
. / . / . / ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
. / . / . / . / ( )

Coefficient of Q.D

270
 Box-and-Whisker Plots
A box-and-whisker plot (sometimes called a box plot) is often used to provide a visual
summary of a set of data. A box-and-whisker plot shows the median, the first and third
quartiles, and the minimum and maximum values of a data set. See the figure below.

Construction of a Box-and-Whisker Plot

1. Draw a horizontal scale that extends from the minimum data value to the maximum data
value.
Above the scale, draw a rectangle (box) with its left side at Q1 and its right side at Q3
2. Draw a vertical line segment across the rectangle at the median, Q2
3. Draw a horizontal line segment, called a whisker, that extends from Q1 to the minimum
and another whisker that extends from Q3 to the maximum.
Importance of a Box-and-Whisker Plot
Box plots have become popular because they are easy to construct and they illustrate several
important features of a data set in a simple diagram. That is we can easily estimate
 the quartiles of the data.
 the range of the data.
 the position of the middle half of the data as shown by the length of the box.

74. The following table lists the calories per 100 milliliters of 25 popular beers. Find the
quartiles of the data and Construct a box-and-whisker plot for the data set.
Calories, per 100 Milliliters, of Selected Beer

NOTE: It is important to start a box plot with a scaled number line. Otherwise the box
plot may not be useful.

271
 Solution
Step 1: Rank the data, as shown in the following table.

Step 2: The median of these 25 data values has a rank of 13. Thus the median is 43. The
second quartile is the median of the data, so
Step 3: There are 12 data values less than the median and 12 data values greater than the
median. The first quartile is the median of the data values less than the median. Thus is
the mean of the data values with ranks of 6 and 7.

The third quartile is the median of the data values greater than the median. Thus is the
mean of the data values with ranks of 19 and 20.

For the data set, we determined that and . The minimum data
value for the data set is 26 and the maximum data value is 73. Thus the box-and-whisker
plot is as shown in Figure.

75.Graph a box-and-whisker plot for the data values shown.

10; 10; 10; 15; 35; 75; 90; 95; 100; 175; 420; 490; 515; 515; 790
The five numbers used to create a box-and-whisker plot are:
Min: 10, Q1: 15, Med: 95, Q3: 490, Max: 790
Solution
The following graph shows the box-and-whisker plot.

272
 76.Construct a box-and-whisker plot for the following data.
The Numbers of Occupied Rooms in a Resort during an 18-Day Period

Solution
For the data set, we determined that
and .

77. Construct box plot for the dataset.

1; 1; 2; 2; 4; 6; 6.8; 7.2; 8; 8.3; 9; 10; 10; 11.5
Solution
Consider the dataset.
1; 1; 2; 2; 4; 6; 6.8; 7.2; 8; 8.3; 9; 10; 10; 11.5
The first quartile is two, the median is seven, and the third quartile is nine. The smallest
value is one, and the largest value is 11.5. The following image shows the constructed box
plot.

The two whiskers extend from the first quartile to the smallest value and from the third
quartile to the largest value. The median is shown with a dashed line.

273
 78.Test scores for a college statistics class held during the day are:
99; 56; 78; 55.5; 32; 90; 80; 81; 56; 59; 45; 77; 84.5; 84; 70; 72; 68; 32; 79; 90
Test scores for a college statistics class held during the evening are:
98; 78; 68; 83; 81; 89; 88; 76; 65; 45; 98; 90; 80; 84.5; 85; 79; 78; 98; 90; 79; 81; 25.5
a. Find the smallest and largest values, the median, and the first and third quartile for
the day class.
b. Find the smallest and largest values, the median, and the first and third quartile for
the night class.
c. For each data set, what percentage of the data is between the smallest value and the
first quartile? the first quartile and the median? the median and the third quartile?
The third quartile and the largest value? What percentage of the data is between the
first quartile and the largest value?
d. Create a box plot for each set of data. Use one number line for both box plots.
e. Which box plot has the widest spread for the middle 50% of the data (the data
between the first and third quartiles)? What does this mean for that set of data in
comparison to the other set of data?
Solution
a. Min = 32, Q1 = 56, M = 74.5, Q3 = 82.5, Max = 99
b. Min = 25.5, Q1 = 78, M = 81, Q3 = 89, Max = 98
c. Day class: There are six data values ranging from 32 to 56: 30%. There are six data
values ranging from 56 to 74.5: 30%. There are five data values ranging from 74.5 to
82.5: 25%. There are five data values ranging from 82.5 to 99: 25%. There are 16
data values between the first quartile, 56, and the largest value, 99: 75%.
Night class:

d.
e. The first data set has the wider spread for the middle 50% of the data. The IQR for
the first data set is greater than the IQR for the second set. This means that there is
more variability in the middle 50% of the first data set.

274
 Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are methods used to select a representative subset of data from a
larger population. It is used in almost every field of life. Some examples are as follows;
 A cook taste a bit of cooked food to find whether it has been properly cooked or not.
 A food inspector takes a sample of food or items like milk, flour etc. to find whether
they are pure or not.
 Cement, steel and bricks are examined before using them in different places.

Below are some important terminologies we will be using in sampling.

 Data is the collection of all observations for a particular variable or variables, from
one more people or things.
 A Population is the collection of all individuals or items under consideration in a
study or the totality of individuals is called population. e.g. Total number of absent
students, number of colour TV sets, Monthly salaries of all employees, number of
computers sold out. Total number of objects in a population is called population size.
 A Sample is the part of a population from which information is actually collected. e.g.
wheat yield per acre for 5 pieces of land. Total number of objects in a sample is called
sample size.
 Sampling is the process of selecting a small portion of the population which represent
all the characteristics of the population.
 Sample Survey is the collection of information from a representative part of the
population. It is carried out by an experimental design.
 A Census is information (data) obtained from the entire population.
 A Parameter is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a
population. Such as mean, median or standard deviation calculated from the
population.
Examples: The average starting salary of elementary school teachers in Georgia is
$33,673.
The average for the whole United States is $35,763.
 A Statistic is a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a sample.
Example: A survey of ten job postings for elementary school teachers in the Atlanta
area, had an average starting salary of $38,541.
 Sampling Error is the difference between the sample static and the population
parameter is called sampling error. i.e. , where t is sample static and is
corresponding population parameter.
 Standard Error is the standard deviation of sampling distribution of any static.
 Bias is the difference between the expected value of the sample static and the true
value of the population parameter. i.e. () , where t is sample static used to
estimate the population static .

275
 Some useful Formulae

 Formulae of Parameters;
∑
Population Mean
∑ ∑
Population Variance . /
Population Proportion
 Formulae of Static;
∑
Sample Mean ̅
∑ ∑
Sample Variance . /
Sample Proportion

Sampling with replacement

Sampling is said to be with replacement when from a finite population, a sampling unit is
drawn, observed and then returned to the population before another unit is drawn. The
population in this case remains the same and a sampling unit might be selected more than
once.

Formula to find number of samples, when sampling is done with replacement is m = Nn

where m is possible number of samples, N is population size and n is sample size.

Results for Sampling Distribution of Means (with replacement)

 Formulae of Parameters;
̅ ∑ ̅ (̅)
∑
Also we may use in need: ̅

̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅)
̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅)
√∑ .
∑
/
Also we may use in need: ̅
√ √
̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅)
̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅)
∑ ∑
. /
Also we may use in need: ̅

276
 79. A population consists of 3,7,11,15,19. Take all possible sample of size 2 with
replacement. Form the sampling distribution of sample mean ̅. Find its means and
variance. Compare it with population mean and variance.

Solution

3,7,11,15,19 N=5 n = 2 with replacement

∑
Population Mean ………… ( )

3 7 11 15 19
9 49 121 225 361
∑ ∑
Population Variance . /

………… ( )

Possible samples of size 2 WR = m = Nn = 52 = 25

Samples ̅ Samples ̅
3,3 3 7,3 5
3,7 5 7,7 7
3,11 7 7,11 9
3,15 9 7,15 11
3,19 11 7,19 13
Samples ̅ Samples ̅
11,3 7 19,3 11
11,7 9 19,7 13
11,11 11 19,11 15
11,15 13 19,15 17
11,19 15 19,19 19

277
 Sampling distribution of sample mean ̅ is

̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅)
3 1 1/25 3/25 9/25
5 2 2/25 10/25 50/25
7 3 3/25 21/25 147/25
9 4 4/25 36/25 324/25
11 5 5/25 55/25 605/25
13 4 4/25 52/25 676/25
15 3 3/25 45/25 675/25
17 2 2/25 34/25 578/25
19 1 1/25 19/25 361/25
total 25 1 275/25 3425/25

̅ ∑ ̅ (̅) ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅

̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅) ( )

̅ ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅

278
 80.A population consists of 4,6,8. Take all possible sample of size 3 with replacement.
Form the sampling distribution of sample mean ̅. Calculate mean and standard error of
mean. Verify the results with population mean and standard deviation.

Solution

4,6,8 N=3 n = 3 with replacement

∑
Population Mean ………… ( )

4 6 8 18
16 36 64 116

Population Variance √∑ .
∑
/

………… ( )
√ √

Possible samples of size 3 WR = m = Nn = 33 = 27

Samples ̅ Samples ̅
4,4,4 4 6,4,4 4.67
4,4,6 4.67 6,4,6 5.33
4,4,8 5.33 6,4,8 6
4,6,4 4.67 6,6,4 5.33
4,6,6 5.33 6,6,6 6
4,6,8 6 6,6,8 6.67
4,8,4 5.33 6,8,4 6
4,8,6 6 6,8,6 6.67
4,8,8 4.67 6,8,8 7.33

279
 Samples ̅
8,4,4 5.33
8,4,6 6
8,4,8 6.67
8,6,4 6
8,6,6 6.67
8,6,8 7.33
8,8,4 6.67
8,8,6 7.33
8,8,8 8

Sampling distribution of sample mean ̅ is

̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅)
4 1 1/27 4/27 16/27
4.67 3 3/27 14.01/27 65.4267/27
5.33 6 6/27 31.98/27 170.4534/27
6 7 7/27 42/27 252/27
6.67 6 6/27 40.02/27 266.9334/27
7.33 3 3/27 21.99/27 161.1867/27
8 1 1/27 8/27 64/27
total 27 1 162/27 996.0002/27

̅ ∑ ̅ (̅) ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅

̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅) √ ( )

̅ ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅

280
 Sampling without replacement

If the sample is taken without replacement from a finite population, the selected element is

not returned to the population before drawing the next element. In without replacement

sampling an element can be selected only once.

Formula to find number of samples, when sampling is done without replacement is

m= NCn where m is possible number of samples, N is population size and n is sample size.

Results for Sampling Distribution of Means (with replacement)

 Formulae of Parameters;

̅ ∑ ̅ (̅)

∑
Also we may use in need: ̅

̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅)

̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅)

√∑ .
∑
/
Also we may use in need: ̅ √ √
√ √

̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅)

̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅)

∑ ∑
. /
Also we may use in need: ̅ . / . /

281
 81.A population consists of 6 members 2,4,6,8,10 and 12. Take all possible sample of size
2 without replacement. Form the sampling distribution of means. Find its means and
variance. Compare it with population mean and variance.

Solution

2,4,6,8,10,12 N=6 n = 2 WOR

∑
Population Mean ………… ( )

2 4 6 8 10 12
4 16 36 64 100 144
∑ ∑
Population Variance . /

. / . / ………… ( )

Possible samples of size 2 WOR = m = NCn = 6C2 = 15

Samples ̅ Samples ̅
2,4 3 4,6 5
2,6 4 4,8 6
2,8 5 4,10 7
2,10 6 4,12 8
2,12 7 6,8 7
Samples ̅
6,10 8
8 9
8,10 9
8,12 10
10,12 11

282
 Sampling distribution of sample mean ̅ is

̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅)
3 1 1/15 3/15 9/15
4 1 1/15 4/15 16/15
5 2 2/15 10/15 50/15
6 2 2/15 12/15 72/15
7 3 3/15 21/15 147/15
8 2 2/15 16/15 128/15
9 2 2/15 18/15 162/15
10 1 1/15 10/15 100/15
11 1 1/15 11/15 121/15
total 15 1 105/15 805/15

̅ ∑ ̅ (̅) ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅

̅ ∑̅ (̅) ( ̅) ( )

̅ ………… ( )

From ( ) and ( ) ̅ . /

283
 82. A population consists of 6 members 3,6,9,12,15 and 18. Take all possible sample of
size 3 without replacement. Form the sampling distribution of means. Find its means
and standard deviation. Also find the standard error.

Solution

3,6,9,12,15,18 N=6 n = 3 WOR

∑
Population Mean

3 6 9 12 15 18
9 36 81 144 225 324

Population S.D √∑ .
∑
/

Possible samples of size 3 WOR = m = NC3 = 6C3 = 20

Samples ̅ Samples ̅
3,6,9 6 6,9,12 9
3,6,12 7 6,9,15 10
3,6,15 8 6,9,18 11
3,6,18 9 6,12,15 11
3,9,12 8 6,12,18 12
3,9,15 9 6,15,18 13
3,9,18 10 9,12,15 12
3,12,15 10 9,12,18 13
3,12,18 11 9,15,18 14
3,15,18 12 12, 15,18 15

284
 Sampling distribution of sample mean ̅ is

̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅) ̅ ( ̅)
6 1 1/20 6/20 36/20
7 1 1/20 7/20 49/20
8 2 2/20 16/20 128/20
9 3 3/20 27/20 243/20
10 3 3/20 30/20 300/20
11 3 3/20 33/20 363/20
12 3 3/20 36/20 432/20
13 2 2/20 26/20 338/20
14 1 1/20 14/20 196/20
15 1 1/20 15/20 225/20
total 20 1 210/20 2310/20

̅ ∑ ̅ (̅)

̅ √∑ ̅ (̅) ( ̅)

̅ √ ( )

285
 Estimation

Estimation is a procedure by which we obtain the value of unknown population parameters

by using the sample information. It is the process of approximating a population parameter
(e.g., mean, proportion, variance) using sample data. It involves making an educated guess
about a population characteristic based on a representative subset of data.

Types of Estimation

Estimation is divided into two types;

 Point Estimation: The process of finding a single value from the sample.
 Interval Estimation: The process of finding a range of values within which the
population parameter is expected to lie with a certain degree of confidence.

Point Estimate

A single numerical value calculated from the sample.

Point Estimator

The rule or formula that is used to estimate a population parameter. Its important
characteristics are unbiasedness, consistency, efficiency and sufficiency.

Estimate

An estimate is defined as numerical values of the unknown population parameter obtained

by apply an estimator. Estimate is divided into two types;

 Point Estimate: It is a single numerical value from the sample.

 Interval Estimate: It is a range of values within which the population parameter is
expected to lie with a certain degree of confidence.

Degree of Freedom

The term degree of freedom is defined as the number of independent or freely chosen
variables.

Central Limit Theorem

The distribution of the means of a large number of samples of size taken from a population
is approximately a normal distribution.

286
 Confidence Intervals
A confidence interval is a type of estimate but, instead of being just one number, it is an
interval of numbers. It provides a range of reasonable values in which we expect the
population parameter to fall. There is no guarantee that a given confidence interval does
capture the parameter, but there is a predictable probability of success. Confidence
intervals are based on the Central Limit Theorem and the hypothesis testing equations.
Let ( ) be a specified high probability and L and U be the functions of sample
observations such that:
( )
Then the interval ( ) is called a ( ) confidence interval for the parameter .
Level of Confidence
The probability of accepting a true null hypothesis is called level of hypothesis. It is
denoted by ( ).
Level of Significance
The probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually true is called level of
significance. It is denoted by .
Test Statistic
A test statistics is a function or formula of sample observations that provides a basis for
testing a null hypothesis. The most commonly used test statistics are Z and t Tests.
Test Significance
Test of significance is a procedure which enables us, on the basis of sampling distribution,
whether to accept or reject a hypothesis.
T-Test/ Small Sample Test
A t-test is a statistical hypothesis test used to determine if there's a significant difference
between the means of two groups. It's commonly used for:
1. Comparing two independent samples (e.g., control vs. treatment).
2. Comparing a sample mean to a known population mean.
3. Testing the significance of regression coefficients.

287
 Types of T-Tests
1. One – sample t-test.
2. Independent samples t-test (two-sample t-test).
3. Paired samples t-test.
Z –Test/ Z – Score Test
A z-test is a statistical hypothesis test used to determine if a sample mean is significantly
different from a known population mean. It's commonly used when:
1. Sample size is large (n > 30).
2. Population standard deviation is known.
3. Data is normally distributed.
Key differences between T-Test and Z-Test
1. Sample size: T-test is used for smaller samples (n < 30), while z-test is used for larger
samples.
2. Population standard deviation: T-test estimates standard deviation from sample data,
while z-test requires known population standard deviation.
3. Distribution: T-test assumes normal distribution, while z-test assumes normal
distribution and large sample size.
Student T-Test vs. T-Test
Student's t-test and t-test are often used interchangeably. However, technically:
1. Student's t-test refers specifically to the test developed by William Sealy Gosset (under
the pseudonym "Student") for small samples.
2. T-test is a broader term encompassing various types of t-tests.
In practice, the terms are used synonymously, and the distinction is often ignored.

288
 83.A random sample selected from a normal population with mean and variance gave
the values 25,31,23,33,28,36,22,26. Give the point estimator for and and find their
point estimates.

Solution

x
25 625
31 961
23 529
33 1089
28 784
39 1296
22 484
26 676
224 6444

∑
Point estimator of population mean ̅

Point estimate of population mean is 28.

∑ ̅ ( )
Point estimator of population variance ̂

Point estimate of population variance is .

289
 Z – values for Commonly used Confidence Levels

Confidence Level Area Z value

90 0.0500 and 0.9500 1.64 or 1.65
95 0.0250 and 0.9750 1.96
96 0.0200 and 0.9800 2.05
97 0.0150 and 0.9850 2.17
98 0.0100 and 0.9900 2.33
99 0.0050 and 0.9950 2.57 or 2.58

84.Confidence Interval for Mean (Z – test): A normal population has a variance of 100.
A random sample of size 16 selected from the population has mean of 52.50. Construct
the 90 confidence interval estimate of the population mean . Interpret the result.

Solution

̅ ( )
√ √

Hence confidence interval for population mean obtained from the observed
sample is ( ).

290
 85.Confidence Interval for Mean (Z – test): A particular component in a transistor circuit
has a lifetime which is known to follow a skew distribution. A random sample of 250
components from a week‘s production given an average lifetime of 840 hours, and the
variance of lifetime is 483(Hours2). Find approximately confidence limits to the
true mean lifetime in the whole population of the product.
Solution

̂ ̂ √ ̅

̂
̅ ( )
√ √

Hence confidence interval for population mean obtained from the observed
sample is ( ).
86.Confidence Interval for Mean (Z – test): A random sample of size n = 200 selected
without replacement from a finite population of size N = 1000 with showed
that ̅ . Construct a confidence interval for the mean of the population.
Solution
̅

̅ √ ( ) √
√ √

Hence confidence interval for population mean obtained from the observed
sample is ( ).

291
 87.Confidence Interval for Mean (t – test): Ten packets of a particular brand of biscuits
are chosen at random and their mass measured in grams. The results are;
∑
assuming that the sample is taken from a normal population with mean mass calculate
the 98 confidence interval for .
Solution
∑

∑ ∑ ̅
̅ ̂ √

( ) ( )

̂
̅ ( )√ ( )
√

Hence confidence interval for population mean obtained from the observed
sample is ( ).
88.Confidence Interval for Mean (t – test): A random sample of eight observations of a
normal variable gave ∑ ∑( ̅) Calculate a 95 confidence
interval for the population mean .
Solution
̂ ̅

∑ ∑( ̅)
̅ ̂ √

( ) ( )

̂
̅ ( )√ ( )
√

Hence confidence interval for population mean obtained from the observed
sample is ( ).

292
 Hypothesis
Any statement which may or may not be true is called hypothesis.
Hypothesis Testing
It is a procedure which enables us to decide on the basis of information obtained from
sample data whether to accept or reject any specified statement or hypothesis or
assumption about the value of population parameter.
Statistical Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is a statement about one or more parameter of a population. This
statement may or may not be true. Its validity is tested on the basis of sample obtained
from the population.
Null Hypothesis
Any hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true is
called null hypothesis. It is generally denoted by H0.
Alternative Hypothesis
Any hypothesis which is different from the null hypothesis. It is accepted when null
hypothesis is rejected. It is generally denoted by HA or H1.
Types of Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis ( ) Alternative Hypothesis ( )

Simple Hypothesis
A hypothesis in which all parameter of the distribution are specified is called simple
hypothesis. For example, if the average age of ICS students is 16 year. i.e. is
a simple hypothesis.
Composite Hypothesis
A hypothesis in which all parameter of the distribution are not specified is called
composite hypothesis. For example, or years are composite
hypothesis.

293
 Power of a Test

If we reject a false null hypothesis, it is called power of a test. It is denoted by ( ).

True Decision
Situation Accept Reject
is true Correct decision Wrong decision
Or level of confidence

is false Wrong decision Correct decision

Critical Values

The values of test statistic which separates the rejection and acceptance region are called
as critical values.

Critical Region/ Rejection Region

Critical region is the part of sampling distribution of a statistics which leads to the
rejection of the null hypothesis.

Acceptance Region

Acceptance region is the part of sampling distribution of a statistics which leads to the
acceptance of the null hypothesis.

Some useful Formulae

̅
 Z – test for Hypothesis Testing:
√

̅
 t – test for Hypothesis Testing: ̂
√

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 Choice of Test for Testing of Hypothesis

Variance Sample Test Use Variance in

Size Formula
known n < 30 Z – test
or n > 30
unknown n > 30 Z – test ̂
unknown n < 30 t – test ̂

General Procedure of testing of Hypothesis (or Null Hypothesis)

The procedure for testing a hypothesis about population parameter involves the following
steps;
 State you problem and formulate and appropriate null hypothesis H0 with an
alternative hypothesis H1.
 Decide upon a level of significance of the test, which is the probability of
rejecting the null hypothesis when H0 is true.
 Choose an appropriate test static.
 Calculate the value of test static from sample data.
 Determine the critical region depends upon the alternative hypothesis H1.
 Make a conclusion. That is, if value of test static falls in the critical region then
reject H0 and if value of test static falls in the accepting region then accept H0.

Two Tailed Test

If the critical region is located equally in both tails of the sampling distribution of test
statistic, the test is called two tailed test. It is also called two sided test.
One Tailed Test
If the critical region is located equally in only one tail of the sampling distribution of test
statistic, the test is called one tailed test. It is also called one sided test.

295
 Testing of Hypothesis using Z – test
 Formulate a hypothesis as
(two sided or two tailed test)
(one sided or one tailed test)
(one sided or one tailed test)
 Decide level of significance (generally)
̅
 Use formula
√
 Calculate the value of test static from sample data.
 Critical Regions:
Variance Sample Size

 Conclusions:
If value of test static falls in the critical region then reject
If value of test static falls in the acceptance region then accept

Testing of Hypothesis using t – test

 Formulate a hypothesis as
(two sided or two tailed test)
(one sided or one tailed test)
(one sided or one tailed test)
 Decide level of significance (generally)
̅
 Use formula ̂
√
 Calculate the value of test static from sample data.
 Critical Regions:
Variance Sample Size
( )

( )
( )

 Conclusions:
If value of test static falls in the critical region then reject
If value of test static falls in the acceptance region then accept

296
 Z – scores
The z-score for a given data value x is the number of standard deviations that x is above or
below the mean of the data. The following formulas show how to calculate the z-score for
a data value in a population and in a sample.
̅
Population: Sample:

89. Must the z-score for a data value be a positive number?

Answer
No. The z-score for a data value x is positive if x is greater than the mean, it is 0 if x is
equal to the mean, and it is negative if x is less than the mean.

90.Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on the first test, for which
the mean of all scores was 65 and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on the
second test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12.
In comparison with the other students, did Raul do better on the first test or the second
test?
Solution
Find the z-score for each test.

Raul scored 0.875 standard deviation above the mean on the first test and 1.25 standard
deviations above the mean on the second test. These z-scores indicate that in
comparison with his classmates, Raul scored better on the second test than he did on the
first test.

91.Cheryl has taken two quizzes in her history class. She scored 15 on the first quiz, for
which the mean of all scores was 12 and the standard deviation was 2.4. Her score on
the second quiz, for which the mean of all scores was 11 and the standard deviation was
2.0, was 14. In comparison with her classmates, did Cheryl do better on the first quiz or
the second quiz?
Solution

These z-scores indicate that in comparison with her classmates, Cheryl did better on the
second quiz than she did on the first quiz.

297
 92.A consumer group tested a sample of 100 light bulbs. It found that the mean life
expectancy of the bulbs was 842 hours, with a standard deviation of 90. One particular
light bulb from the Dura Bright Company had a z-score of 1.2.What was the life span
of this light bulb?
Solution
Substitute the given values into the z-score equation and solve for x.

The light bulb had a life span of 950 hours.

93.Roland received a score of 70 on a test for which the mean score was 65.5. Roland has
learned that the z-score for his test is 0.6.What is the standard deviation for this set of
test scores?
Solution

The standard deviation for this set of test scores is 7.5.

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 94.The mean life time of electric bulbs produce by a company has in the past been 1120
hours with a standard deviation of 125 hours. A sample of 100 electric bulbs recently
chosen from a supply of newly produced bulbs showed a mean life time of 1070 hours.
Test the hypothesis that the mean life time of bulbs has not changed, using 5 level of
significance.

Solution

and

Level of significance:

̅
̅
Test Statistic: implies
√

Critical Region: Reject if

Since the calculated value of Z lies in critical region, so we reject and conclude that
the mean life time of bulbs has changed.

95. It has been found from experience that the mean breaking strength of thread is 9.63N
with a standard deviation of 1.40N. Recently a sample of 36 pieces of thread showed a
mean breaking strength of 8.93N. Can we conclude at 1 level of significance that
thread has become inferior?

Solution

and

Level of significance:

̅
̅
Test Statistic: implies
√

Critical Region: Reject if

Since the calculated value of Z lies in critical region, so we reject and conclude that
the thread has become inferior.

299
 96.The breaking strength of cables produced by a company has a mean of 1800 pounds and
standard deviation of 100 pounds. By a new technique in production process, it is
claimed that breaking strength can be increased. To test this claim, a random sample of
50 cables is tested and it is found that the mean breaking strength is 1850 pounds. Can
we support claim at 0.01 significance level?

Solution

and

Level of significance:

̅
̅
Test Statistic:
√

Critical Region: Reject if

Since the calculated value of Z lies in critical region, so we reject and conclude that
the claim should be supported.

97. A company claims that the average amount of coffee it supplies in jars is 6.0 oz with a
standard deviation of 0.2 oz. a random sample of 100 jars is selected and average is
found to be 5.9. Is the company cheating the customers? Use level of significance.

Solution

and

Level of significance:

̅
̅
Test Statistic:
√

Critical Region:

Since the calculated value of Z lies in critical region, so we reject .

300
 98. A timber company is interested in seeing if the number of board feet per tree has
decreased since moving to a new location of timber. In the past, the company has an
average of 93 board feet per tree. The company believes that the production has
decreased since changing locations, a random sample of 25 trees yields ̅ and
̂ . Assuming the normality of the data, test the hypothesis at a level of
significance.

Solution

and

Level of significance:

̂ ̅
̅
Test Statistic: ̂ √

Critical Region: ( ) ( )

Since the calculated value of t lies in acceptance region, so we accept .

99.Ten cartons are taken at random from an automatic filling machine. The mean net
weight of the 10 cartons is 15.90 oz and the sum of squared deviation from this mean is
0.276 (oz)2. Does the sample mean differ significantly from intended weight of 16 oz?

Solution

and

Level of significance:

∑( ̅)
∑( ̅) ̂ √

̅
Test Statistic: ̂ √

Critical Region: ( ) ( )

Since the calculated value of t lies in acceptance region, so we accept .

301
 Exercise
1) Marks obtained by 60 students of a class are given below;
60,50,46,28,58,64,36,20,50,18,42,56,20,38,40,34,24,64,64,42,46,52,50,44,36,0,
24,30,46,40,64,40,36,14,36,8,56,40,30,36,24,22,36,5058,16,40,34,0,42,42,0,36,
18,18,68,30,46,38,16.
Make frequency distribution using appropriate class interval.
2) For data given below;
1.36,1.46,1.50,1.32,1.45,1.24,1.49,1.64,1.47,1.59,1.41,1.48,1.36,1.48,1.51,1.45,
1.26,1.38,1.76,1.63,1.19,1.56,1.65,1.54,1.61,1.73,1.60,1.50,1.45,1.76,1.67,1.35,
1.55,1.68,1.46,1.40,1.32,1.47,1.64,1.45
Make frequency distribution taking 0.05 as class interval and 1.19 as the lowest
class limit.
3) Draw the histogram for the following frequency distribution;
Classes frequency Classes frequency
110 – 119 2 160 – 119 18
120 – 129 4 170 – 179 13
130 – 139 17 180 – 189 6
140 – 149 28 190 – 199 5
150 – 159 25 200 – 209 2

4) Draw the histogram and a polygon for the following frequency distribution;
X 14 16 18 20 22 24
f 20 22 30 25 13 4

5) The heights of college students are given below;

Heights 14 16 18 20 22 24
Students 20 22 30 25 13 4
Draw a histogram and ogive.
6) The weights of 50 football players are listed below;
193 240 217 283 268 212 251 263 275 208
230 288 259 225 252 230 243 247 280 234
250 236 277 218 245 268 231 269 224 259
258 231 255 228 202 245 246 271 249 255
265 235 243 219 255 245 238 257 254 284
Make a stem and leaf display for the data and convert it to a frequency table with
10 class beginning with 190. Also make its frequency distribution.

302
 7) The data are the distances (in kilometers) from a home to local supermarkets.
Create a stemplot using the data: 1.1; 1.5; 2.3; 2.5; 2.7; 3.2; 3.3; 3.3; 3.5; 3.8; 4.0;
4.2; 4.5; 4.5; 4.7; 4.8; 5.5; 5.6; 6.5; 6.7; 12.3
Do the data seem to have any concentration of values?
HINT: The leaves are to the right of the decimal.
8) The following data show the distances (in miles) from the homes of off-campus
statistics students to the college. Create a stem plot using the data and identify any
outliers:
0.5; 0.7; 1.1; 1.2; 1.2; 1.3; 1.3; 1.5; 1.5; 1.7; 1.7; 1.8; 1.9; 2.0; 2.2; 2.5; 2.6; 2.8;
2.8; 2.8; 3.5; 3.8; 4.4; 4.8; 4.9; 5.2; 5.5; 5.7; 5.8; 8.0

9) Draw simple bar chart to represent the production of commodity ―A‖ during the
years 2000 to 2008:

Years Product Years Product

2000 115 2005 145
2001 113 2006 190
2002 110 2007 210
2003 135 2008 258
2004 100

10) The following table shows disability in simple population;

Type of disability Number of Persons
Blind 13
Deaf and dumb 26
Crippled 41
Other handicapped 33
Draw a simple bar chart.

11) The following table gives the birth and death rates per thousand of few
countries. Represent this data by multiple bar chart;
Country Birth rate Death rate
India 33 24
Japan 32 19
Germany 16 10
Egypt 44 24
Australia 20 9
New Zealand 18 8
France 21 16
Russia 38 16

303
 12) The table shows that quantities in hundreds of Kg of wheat, barley and oats
produced on certain farm during the year 1971 – 75;
Years Wheat Barley Oats
1971 34 18 27
1972 43 14 24
1973 43 16 27
1974 45 16 27
1975 50 13 34
Construct the percentage component bar chart to illustrate the data.
Also draw a multiple bar chart.

13) Represent the data by a Pie Chart;

Districts LHR MTN RWP DGK
Area 50 115 135 165

14) Represent the data by a Pie Chart;

Items Food Clothing House Rent Edu Misc.
Expenditure 75 50 30 25 20

15) Obtain the equation of regression line Y on X between the given values;

X 78 77 85 88 83 83 82
Y 84 80 82 83 88 90 88
X 78 76 83 97 98
Y 91 83 89 78 96

16) Obtain the equation of regression line X on Y between the given values;

X 78 77 85 88 83 83 82
Y 84 80 82 83 88 90 88
X 78 76 83 97 98
Y 91 83 89 78 96

304
 17) Price indices of cotton X and wool Y are given below for the 12 months of a
year. Obtain the correlation coefficient between X and Y and obtain the equation
of the lines of regression between indices.

X 78 77 85 88 83 83 82
Y 84 80 82 83 88 90 88
X 78 76 83 97 98
Y 91 83 89 78 96

18) Calculate the correlation coefficient between percentage of marks scored by 12

students in statistics X and economics Y.
x 50 54 56 59 60 61
y 22 25 34 28 26 30
x 62 65 67 71 71 74
y 32 30 28 36 36 60

19) Calculate the correlation coefficient between supply and demand from the
following data;
x 400 200 700 100 500 300 600
y 60 30 70 10 40 20 52

20) Obtain D3, D7 and D8 from the following data;

i. 127,113,132,128,125,130,119,117,121
ii. 121,115,79,52,102,126,81,65,109,119,115,121,103,75,59,110

21) Find2nd, 3rd, 4th , 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th deciles from the following data;

Class Frequency Class Frequency

10 – 20 7 50 – 60 18
20 – 30 10 60 – 70 10
30 – 40 16 70 – 80 5
40 – 50 24 80 – 90 5

22) Obtain P38, P45, P67 and P86 from the following data;
i. 127,113,132,128,125,130,119,117,121
ii. 121,115,79,52,102,126,81,65,109,119,115,121,103,75,59,110

305
 23) Find 47th and 83th percentiles from the following data;

Class Frequency Class Frequency

15 – 30 2 111 – 126 15
31 – 46 5 127 – 142 11
47 – 62 9 143 – 158 8
63 – 78 13 159 – 174 6
79 – 94 18 175 – 190 3
95 – 110 25

24) The following data are the number of pages in 40 books on a shelf. Construct a
box plot
136; 140; 178; 190; 205; 215; 217; 218; 232; 234; 240; 255; 270; 275; 290; 301;
303; 315; 317; 318; 326; 333; 343; 349; 360; 369; 377; 388; 391; 392; 398; 400;
402; 405; 408; 422; 429; 450; 475; 512

25) Graph a box-and-whisker plot for the data values shown.

0; 5; 5; 15; 30; 30; 45; 50; 50; 60; 75; 110; 140; 240; 330

26) The following data are the heights of 40 students in a statistics class.
59; 60; 61; 62; 62; 63; 63; 64; 64; 64; 65; 65; 65; 65; 65; 65; 65; 65; 65; 66; 66;
67; 67; 68; 68; 69; 70; 70; 70; 70; 70; 71; 71; 72; 72; 73; 74; 74; 75; 77
Construct a box plot with the following properties; the calculator instructions for
the minimum and maximum values as well as the quartiles follow the example.
• Minimum value = 59
• Maximum value = 77
• Q1: First quartile = 64.5
• Q2: Second quartile or median= 66
• Q3: Third quartile = 70

27) A population consists of 2,3,6,8. Take all possible sample of size 2 with
replacement. Form the sampling distribution of sample mean ̅. Also obtain mean
and standard deviation. Verify the results with population mean and standard
deviation.

306
 28) For the population consisting of 4,6,8,10,12. Take all possible sample of size 2
with replacement. Find the means of these samples and make frequency
distribution of the sample means. Calculate the mean and variance of this
frequency distribution and compare it with the mean and variance of the
population.
29) A population consists of 1000 students has a height distribution with .
Find the standard error of mean height for a random sample of 50 students
selected without replacement.
30) A population consists of 1000 students has a height distribution with .
Find the standard error of mean height for a random sample of 50 students
selected with replacement.
31) A population consists of 6 members 2,4,6,8,10 and 12. Take all possible
sample of size 2 with replacement and without replacement. Form the sampling
distribution of means. Find its means and variance. Compare it with population
mean and variance.
32) A random sample of n = 25 values given ̅ . Can this sample be regarded
as drawn from a normal population with mean and at 5 level of
significance.
33) Confidence Interval for Mean (Z – test): An auditor has selected a simple
random sample of 100 accounts from the 8042 accounts receivable of a freight
company to estimate the total audit amount of the receivable in the population.
The sample mean is 33.19 and the sample standard deviation is ̂ 34.48. Obtain
the 95.44 percent confidence interval for the mean audit amount in the
̂
population. Hint: use ̅ √ with .
√
34) Confidence Interval for Mean (Z – test): Find a 90 percent confidence
interval for the mean of a normal distribution with given the sample as
2.3, 0.2, 0.4 , 0.9. Hint: use ̅ with .
√
35) Confidence Interval for Mean (t – test): A random sample of seven
observations of a normal variable gave ∑ ∑ Calculate a
̂
90 confidence interval for the population mean . Hint: use ̅ ( ) .
√

307
 36) Confidence Interval for Mean (t – test): A random sample of twelve
measurements of the breaking strength of cotton threads gave a mean ̅
grams and a standard deviation ̂ grams. Calculate 95 and 99
̂
confidence limits for the actual mean breaking strength. Hint: use ̅ ( )√ .
37) We wish to test the hypothesis that the mean weight of a population of people
is 140 lb, using lb, lb and a sample of 36 people, find the
values of ̅ which would lead to rejection of the hypothesis.
38) A sample of 400 males students is found to have a mean height of 67.47
inches. Can it be regarded as a simple random sample from a large population
with mean height 67.39 with standard deviation of 1.3 inches?
39) Injection of certain type of hormone into hens is said to increase the mean
weight of eggs by 0.3 oz. A sample of 30 eggs has an arithmetic mean 0.4 oz
above the pre injection mean and a value of ̂ equal to 0.20. Is this enough reason
to accept the statement that the mean increase is more than 0.3 oz?
40) A random sample of 25 hens from a normal population showed that the
average laying is 272 eggs per year with a variance of 625 eggs. The company
claimed that the average laying is at least 285 eggs per year. Test the claim of the
company at .
41) A random sample of size n is drawn from normal population with mean 5 and
variance . If n = 9, ̅ and what is ̂?
42) A random sample of size n is drawn from normal population with mean 5 and
variance . If n = 25, ̂ and what is ̅?
43) Blood Pressure A blood pressure test was given to 450 women ages 20 to 36. It
showed that their mean systolic blood pressure was 119.4 mm Hg, with a standard
deviation of 13.2 mm Hg.
a. Determine the z-score, to the nearest hundredth, for a woman who had a
systolic blood pressure reading of 110.5 mm Hg.
b. The z-score for one woman was 2.15.What was her systolic blood pressure
reading?

308
 Recommended Texts

 Akar, G. K., Zembat, İ. Ö., Arslan, S., & Thompson, P. W. Quantitative Reasoning
in Mathematics and Science Education.
 Sharma, A. K. (2005). Text book of elementary statistics.
 Blitzer, R. (2014). Pre – calculus, Pearson Education, Limited.
 Gupta, S. C., & Kapoor, V. K. (2020). Fundamentals of mathematical statistics.
 Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J., Nation, R. D., & Clegg, D. K. (2007).
Mathematical thinking and quantitative reasoning. Cengage Learning
 Blitzer, R., & White, J. (2005). Thinking mathematically.
 Elementary statistics: A step by step approach, by Allan Bluman.
 Introductory Statistics by Barbara Illowsky.
 Statistics and Probability by Las Positas College Publications.
 Introduction to Statistical Theory by Prof Sher Muhammad Choudhry and Prof.
Dr. Shahid Kamal.
 Applied mathematics for business, economics and social sciences by Frank S
Budnick.
 Discrete mathematics with applications by Susanna S. Epp.
 Quantitative Reasoning Algebra and Statistics by MSU Denver Tutoring Center.
 Quantitative Skills & Reasoning by the University of West Georgia.
 ―Using and understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative reasoning Appraoch, by
Benitt, J.O. Briggs, W.L., Badalamenti, A.
 Applied statistical modeling by Salvatore Babones.
 Barrons SAT, by Sharvon Weiner Green, M.A. and Ira K. Wolf.
 Discrete mathematics by K. H. Rosen.
 Introductory statistics by Prem S. Mann.

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