Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar

UEP-LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL

4th Quarter SY: 2024-2025

MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

THIS MODULE IS PREPARED BY:

KEVIN G. AMOR
BSED- SCIENCE 4
RESOURCE TEACHER:
ROCHELLE GORGONIA CONTEGA

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OVERVIEW
The study of science involves observation, logic, and skepticism, which lead to
investigating phenomena using the Scientific Method. Simply stated, the scientific method
is an organized approach to ―figuring out something or acquiring new knowledge or
understanding of the world around us.
Two steps of the scientific method involve constructing a hypothesis and
proposing a theory. A hypothesis is a collection of testable ideas that appear to explain
what is observed. A theory is a body of related and rigorously tested hypotheses pieced
together into a larger, consistent description of nature. Scientists test and retest
hypotheses and theories. If a hypothesis cannot be tested and verified, it does not qualify
as a law or a theory. As technology emerges and advances in science occur, new
revelations and discoveries are found. To maintain the integrity of science, it is critical for
scientists to always be open-minded to discover the unknown.
The purpose of this module is to learn of the early pioneers who used the scientific
method to study our Earth and stars, and of the scientists—Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler,
and Galileo, whose scientific work revolutionized the birth of modern astronomy. This
module likewise looks at some of the earliest history of astronomy and sky gazing, the
contributions of the Greeks, and other known individuals whose contributions to modern
astronomy stands upon.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of the module, you are expected to:
• Compare and contrast the geocentric and heliocentric models by their key
features, supporting evidences, and major proponents;
• Solve problems on planetary motion using Kepler’s Law;
• Reflect on the contributions of early astronomers and scientist and how their
discoveries have influenced the understanding of the universe

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PreTest

Direction: Identify the word/s being describe by the following statements. Choose your
answer in the given Word Box.

Word Box
Nicholas Copernicus Precession
Diurnal Motion Anaxagoras
Eclipse Celestial Sphere
Eratosthenes Johannes Kepler
Tycho Brahe Claudius Ptolemy

1. A Greek mathematician that measures the Earth’s circumference.

2. It is a daily motion of heavenly bodies due to the Earth’s rotation.
3. An imaginary sphere of heavenly bodies concentric with Earth.
4. It occurs when either the Earth or moon cast a shadow into each other
5. He provides an explanation about the phases of the moon.
6. It is the slow wobbling of the Earth’s axis due to the Sun and Moon’s
gravitational pull.
7. He provides a correct explanation about the retrograde motion of the
planets.
8. In his model of the universe, sun and moon revolves around the Earth
while other plants revolve around the sun.
9. Introduce the idea of epicycle and deferent.
10. Formulate three laws of planetary motion.

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 CONTINUATION OF 6.1 LESSON: MOTIONS IN THE SKY

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES

Earth is not a perfect sphere. It bulges a bit in the equator because of the pull of the moon
and the sun. As a result, Earth's axis changes direction over a period of time. Such change
in the orientation of the rotational axis of any rotating body is termed precession. Earth
requires 26,000 years to complete one cycle of precession. A complete cycle of
precession traces out a cone.

(a) A top wobble or leans from one side

to the other as it spins. Its axis traces
out a cone for a complete cycle. Like a
top, (b) Earth's rotational axis gyrates
over a period of 26,000 years.

Earth's precession was historically called precession of the equinoxes because the
position of the equinoxes was slowly and gradually changing with respect to some
background stars.

Hipparchus of Nicaea (known today as Turkey) was credited for having discovered the
precession of the equinoxes. He is said to have made a catalog of stars in the sky, noting
their exact positions in latitudes and longitudes. He compared their positions with those
measured by Timocharis about 150 years earlier. Hipparchus noted that there was a two-
degree shift in the positions of stars. Later on, Earth's precession due to the gravitational
pull of the moon and the sun was called lunisolar precession.

DIURNAL MOTION AND ANNUAL MOTION

It takes 24 hours for Earth to rotate about its axis from west to east. Because of
this, an observer on Earth views the objects in the sky as if they are the ones moving, but
in the opposite direction— from east to west.

The apparent daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky caused
by Earth's rotation about its axis is called diurnal motion. Diurnal motion is responsible
for the daily rising and setting of the sun and the stars.

Earth also revolves around the sun once a year. As a result, the sun also apparently

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changes position in the celestial sphere, moving each day about one degree to the east
relative to the stars. This apparent motion of the sun caused by Earth's revolution around
it is called annual motion. Annual motion accounts for the visibility of a zodiac
constellation at a specific time of the year. Along with the tilt of Earth’s axis, it is also
responsible for the seasons.

The diurnal and annual motions are caused by our changing point of view as Earth rotates
about its axis and revolves around the sun.

ACTIVITY

Watch the video, ―the history of astronomy‖ by insane curiosity using the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RVXFrDYxm80

ANALYSIS

Write a short review about the video and enumerate the contributions of the individuals
who contributed to the study of early astronomy. (Strictly no AI)
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 ABSTRACTION

Astronomy is the oldest of the natural

sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its
origins in the religious, mythological, and
astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges
of these are still found in astrology, a
discipline long interwoven with public and
governmental astronomy, and not completely
disentangled from it until a few centuries ago
in the Western World.
Many of the ancient civilizations observed positions of specific stars and planets,
like the rising and setting times of these objects. Ancient observatories were built to do
this fairly accurately. For example, the Mayan observatory at Chichén Itzá had windows
placed for observations of Venus. The Polynesians were some of the best observers for
their island- to-island sailing navigation. The Chinese made incredibly detailed
observations of the skies. This was done for their Emperor, the ―son of the heavens.
They needed to accurately predict events to show the Emperor ‘s ―divineness.The
Chinese were the first to record observations of comets, meteor showers, meteorites,
eclipse predictions, and supernovae. It was the Chinese as well who built instruments to
conduct these studies.

Other contributions of these early civilizations included the Mesopotamians, who

were the first to develop a comprehensive catalog of the night sky, circa 750 BC, and the
Babylonians, who combined the practice of astrology and astronomy.

The Egyptians also had an infatuation with the heavens. They developed the first
recorded sundials in the form of Obelisks, and around 3500 BC recognized the seasons,
and had implemented a day clock. The Pyramids also had astronomical implications; the
Great Pyramid at Giza completed in 2680 BC, aligned with stars of Osiris and in a specific
compass direction.

Other Ancient Observatories & Sites

Eastern Hemisphere Western Hemisphere
Astronomer Unearths Evidence of Traditions of the Sun -- An experiential
Scientific Tradition in Africa -- An article web site that lets you explore Chaco
about Thebe Medupe, an ethno- and Canyon, learning about NASA research
archeoastronomer and researcher at the on the Sun and Native American solar
South African Astronomical Observatory practices within a larger historical and
who has been exploring traditional African cultural context.
peoples' knowledge of astronomy. In his

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documentary film, Cosmic Africa, Medupe Chaco Canyon -- An Exploratorium
visits remote communities to learn about website that features the Chaco Canyon
the form and significance that astronomy ancient site, in New Mexico, and its
takes in their cultures. connections to cycles of the Sun and
Moon.
Newgrange -- world's oldest The Sundagger -- Anasazi (Native
astronomically-oriented structure! American) marker for solar and lunar
cycles.
Stonehenge -- ancient astronomical site Medicine Wheels and The Bighorn
Medicine Wheel -- Native American
pointer to sun and stars.

Nabta Playa -- An African Stonehenge Sunpath in the Stars -- how the Lakota
Sioux tracked the Sun's movement
Gaocheng -- Chinese observatory for the against the stars.
Emperor
Machu Picchu and Ancient
Angkor Wat -- Cambodian Temple Observatories -- Machu Picchu
Aztec "Sun Stone"
Gotland Grooves
Easter Island Haleakala -- "path to the calling the sun"

The Early Universe

Humans have come up with several models in an effort to understand the universe.
Before the invention of the telescope, they had to rely on their senses for a picture of the
universe with much philosophical and religious symbolism. Around 600 BCE, Thales of
Miletus proposed that Earth is a disk floating on water. In 520 BCE, Anaximander, also
from Miletus, suggested that Earth is a cylinder and that its surface is curved.

As civilization flourished, several other models were proposed. These models can
be grouped under two categories: geocentric and heliocentric. The geocentric model
considers Earth as the center of the universe. The heliocentric model assumes the sun
to be the center of the universe.

THE GEOCENTRIC MODELS

The following were some geocentric models of the universe proposed by the Greeks. In
all these models, Earth and the other heavenly bodies were assumed to be spheres.

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One of the most notable Greek scholars is
Eratosthenes. He has excelled not in the field of
astronomy alone but in the field of geography,
mathematics, poetry, and music as well. He is well-
known for several astronomical breakthroughs. His
most important contribution is the calculation of
the Earth ‘s circumference. His computation was off
by only a few hundred or a few thousand miles. It is
closely accurate considering the lack of apt
technology during that time. He is also responsible for
calculating the tilt of the earth ‘s axis and the
conceptualization of leap day.

Pythagoras was acknowledged to be the first to assert that Earth is round, and that the
heavenly bodies move in circles. In his model, Earth is at rest at the center of the universe,
and everything rotates around it. Pythagoras also considered that the motions of the
planets were mathematically related to music and numbers. These ideas are called “The
Music of the Spheres.”

PHYTHAGORAS

Anaxagoras, a follower of Pythagoras, was credited with having determined the relative
positions of the sun, the moon, and Earth during solar and lunar eclipses.

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PLATO’S “SAVING THE APPEARANCES”

The Greek philosopher and teacher Plato adopted the Pythagorean view of the
motion of the heavenly bodies as combinations of circular motion about Earth. He
assumed that all motions in the universe are perfectly regular, and that all heavenly bodies
are ethereal or perfect. Most of the time, planets move from west to east as predicted.
But occasionally, they backtrack for a few weeks, moving westward in their eastward
motion. This pattern is called retrograde motion.

The followers and students of Plato were called upon to explain the retrograde
motion of the planets. In particular, Plato challenged them with this problem: “What
circular motions, uniform and perfectly regular, are to be admitted as hypotheses so that
it might be possible to save the appearances presented by the planets?” This challenge
is known in the history of astronomy as “Plato’s saving the appearances.”

EUDOXUS’S MODEL

Eudoxus was the first to “save the appearances” that Plato referred to, using a series of
27 concentric spheres on which the sun, the moon, and planets rotate in a perfect circular
motion. The breakdown of the 27 spheres is as follows: one sphere for fixed stars, three
spheres for the sun, three spheres for the moon, and four spheres for each of the five
known planets at the time—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter. Note that he did
not assign any sphere for Earth because, in his model, Earth is fixed.

The four spheres of a planet around Earth are arranged.

The outermost sphere was aligned with the celestial
poles rotating once a day to give the effect of rising and
setting. The next sphere was tilted 23.5° and rotating
slowly to simulate the usual west-to-east movement of
the planet about the fixed stars. The last two spheres
produce the backward motions of the planets. Eudoxus
9explained
| P a g e the rotation of the 27 celestial spheres using
the notion of “intelligences.”
ARISTOTLE’S MODEL

The Aristotelian model also used the 27 celestial spheres of Eudoxus. In addition,
Aristotle used 27 “buffering” spheres between the celestial spheres of Eudoxus and an
outermost sphere that was the domain of what he called the Prime Mover. The Prime
Mover rotated this outermost sphere with constant angular speed, causing the other
spheres to rotate as well. According to Aristotle, the order of heavenly bodies in the
universe was (from Earth out): Earth, moon, Mercury, Venus, sun, Mars Jupiter, Saturn,
the fixed stars, and the firmament of the Prime Mover. The Roman Catholic Church
adopted this idea in Medieval times: the Prime Mover was considered as God, and the
sphere of the firmament as heaven.

ARISTOTLE'S VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE

Aristotle divided the universe into two realms—the terrestrial and the celestial—with the
orbit of the moon as the boundary. Below the moon’s orbit was the terrestrial realm. This
realm was composed of four primordial elements in this sequence: earth, water, air, and
fire. Anything in this region was believed to move naturally according to the element it
was composed of. At or above the moon’s orbit was the celestial realm, which consists of
the fifth element called aether or ether. Aristotle considered celestial bodies to be
ethereal and undergoing decay, while the rest were unchanging and perpetual.

According to Aristotle, Earth is a sphere. He based this proposition on several

observations.
• First, it is only the surface of a sphere that all objects fall straight down.

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 • Second, the view of the constellations changes as one travels from north to south.
• Finally, the shadow of Earth on the moon during a lunar eclipse was round.

Aristotle’s model was based on the three types of terrestrial motion: natural, violent, and
alteration.
• Natural motion is related to the tendency of an object to seek its natural place in
the universe. Heavy elements move toward Earth, while lighter ones move up.
• Violent motion when terrestrial objects can be compelled to move in unnatural
ways by the application of a force.
• Aristotle considered vertical motion as natural, and horizontal motion as violent.
• He also considered motion as a type of change or alteration.
• Alteration is the ability of an object to change. This change can be generation,
corruption, or alteration in quality.
• Generation is “coming to be,” while corruption is “passing away.” Generation of
one object results to corruption of another and vice versa.

PTOLEMY’S MODEL

The Greek mathematician Apollonius, known in his time as “The Great Geometer,”
introduced the idea of an epicycle to explain planetary motion. Earth stood still (didn ‘t
rotate) and the Sun orbited Earth, producing our day and night cycles. To account for the
retrograde of the planets, Ptolemy used looping small circles called epicycles on the
orbits. It was an ingenious system accepted, as Law… except a Geocentric Universe was
wrong.

• An epicycle is a circle on which a planet moves.

• The center of the epicycle in turn moves around Earth along a bigger circular orbit
called the deferent.

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 To account for the variation in the speed of the planets in their annual motion, Greek
astronomer Hipparchus refined this model by considering that Earth was off-center or
eccentric in the deferent where the sun moved. Around 140 AD, Ptolemy devised a more
complex epicyclic model. He defined a point on the other side of the deferent’s center and
called it the equant. The equant and the center of Earth are equidistant from the center
of the deferent. When a planet moved on the epicycle, the epicycle orbited Earth at a
constant rate. In Ptolemy’s model, each planet has its own epicycle and deferent. His
model of the universe survived for more than 14 centuries.

The Greeks not only knew that Earth was round. They also knew the circumference of
Earth to be 25,000 miles. Eratosthenes measured it in 235 BCE using trigonometry and
the knowledge of the angle of elevation of the sun at noon in Alexandria and Syene (now
Aswan, Egypt.

THE HELIOCENTRIC MODEL

Before the heliocentric model came about, Greek astronomer Philolaus initially
proposed a pyocentric model of the universe. According to him, neither Earth nor the
sun was the center of the universe. Planets and heavenly bodies were supposed to move
around a “fire” located at the center of the universe.

In 300 BC, another Greek astronomer Aristarchus proposed the first heliocentric model
of the universe by considering Philolaus’s “central fire” as the center of the cosmos. In
this model, the sun and the other known planets revolve around this “central fire.”
Aristarchus also placed the other known planets at that time based on their distances
from the sun. However, his theory did not last because of the general acceptance of the
Ptolemaic model.

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COPERNICUS’S MODEL

Nicolaus Copernicus asserted that Earth spins on its axis every day and revolves
around the sun just like the other planets; only the moon orbits Earth. He maintained the
concept of uniform circular motion and Ptolemy’s epicycles. He gave reasonable
explanations for the variation of brightness of planets and their retrograde motions.
However, his model had two major scientific flaws: (1) the absence of stellar parallax and
(2) the lack of perceived motion of Earth. Stellar parallax is the apparent displacement of
a star because of a change in the observer’s point of view.

The Copernican model was not initially accepted because of its inconsistencies with
Aristotelian mechanics and inability to explain stellar parallax. Copernicus’s book
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium ( on the Revolution of Celestial Orbs) contained his
heliocentric theory and was published in 1543.

LESSON 6.3 THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

After the death of Copernicus, three astronomers—Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei,

and Johannes Kepler—made significant contributions in modern astronomy. Each of
them had a different approach. Tycho Brahe was a good collector of astronomical data.
Kepler was a mathematician and pure theorist, while Galileo was an experimentalist.
Their contributions helped prove that Earth is indeed not the center of the universe.

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Tycho Brahe’s Universe

Tycho Brahe was considered the last and the

greatest astronomer prior to the invention of the
telescope. At the age of 30, he was able to
establish his own astronomical observatory in
Hven, located between Denmark and Sweden,
under the patronage of Danish King Frederick II. In
his observatory, he accurately measured and
recorded the positions of the sun, the moon, and
the planets for 20 years. Realizing that his data did
not fit into the models of Ptolemy and Copernicus,
he proposed his own model of the universe. In his
universe, the sun orbited Earth, while the other
planets orbited the sun.

GALILEO’S ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS

History claimed that Dutch lens maker Hans Lippershey accidentally discovered
the telescope in 1608, but the importance of this invention was not recognized until Galileo
Galilei improved it with better lenses. Using the telescope, he redesigned, Galileo was
able to see celestial objects in greater detail than ever before. He observed many things
not visible to the naked eye by Renaissance standards. Even when viewed through the

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telescope, he saw that the moon’s surface was not smooth but rough with mountains and
craters. He also observed that the Milky Way was made up of countless stars.

• He observed the phases of Venus, just like the moon. This suggested that Venus
is merely illuminated by the light from the sun and that it revolved around the sun.
The Ptolemaic model cannot account for this.

• Jupiter’s moons were another important body Galileo observed. This showed that
not all heavenly bodies revolved around Earth. There are some revolving bodies
that do not orbit Earth, which contradicted the Greek concept of a universe where
everything revolves around the Earth.

• The telescope also allowed him to see that the planet Saturn was not a single body
but appeared to have “ears.” These were actually Saturn’s rings. He also noted
that the sun had spots and that the spots moved, suggesting the sun rotated.

• Galileo’s telescope and his observations provided the first direct evidence that
contradicted the models of Ptolemy and Aristotle and provided new data that
supported the Copernican model. This strengthened the idea that the Earth was
not the center of the universe.

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Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler worked as assistant to Tycho Brahe. He inherited the numerous

observational data that Tycho recorded for many years. He later used this data to
formulate the three laws of planetary motion.

• The first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits, not in perfect circles
as believed. The sun is located at one of the two foci of the ellipse. The closest
point to the sun in a planet’s orbit is called the perihelion, and the farthest point is
called the aphelion.

• In his second law, he said that a line drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps over
equal areas in equal time. For this to be true, the planet moves fastest at the
perihelion and slowest at the aphelion.

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 Where:
v is the orbiting object‘s velocity
a is the semimajor axis of the object‘s orbit
P is the sidereal period of revolution
r is the distance between the orbiting object and the body being orbited,
such as Earth orbiting the Sun, or the Moon orbiting Earth

• Kepler’s third law is known as the Law of Harmonies. It states that the square of
the periods of the planets is equal to the cube of the mean distance from the sun.
The period is the time it takes to make one complete revolution around the sun. It
is symbolized as T.

𝑇1 2 𝑑1 3
( ) =( )
𝑇2 𝑑2

Where T₁ and T₂ are the periods and d₁ and d₂ are the mean distances of planets
1 and 2 from the sun, respectively.

Planetary distances from the sun are normally expressed in astronomical units, or
AU. One AU is equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the sun.

1 AU = 149597871 kilometers
≈ 150000000 kilometers

The period of other planets is usually computed based on that of Earth, which is a year.
A year is equal to 365.25 days.

Sample Problem 6.1

The mean distance of Mercury from the sun is 0.3871 times that of Earth. Find the ratio
of Mercury’s period to Earth’s period.

Make the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to Mercury and Earth, respectively. Using Kepler’s law
of harmonics:

𝑇1 2 𝑑1 3 𝑇1 2 𝑑1 3/2 0.3871 3/2

( ) =( ) ( ) =( ) =( )
𝑇2 𝑑2 𝑇2 𝑑2 1

= 0.2408

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THE ANALEMMA

When viewed from a fixed position on Earth, the sun does not occupy the same
position in the sky at the same time every day of the year. This is due to the following
reasons:

• Earth’s axis is tilted at 23.5° from the vertical.

• Earth orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit.
• The sun moves at a faster speed when it is near the perihelion, and slower at the
aphelion.

The plot of the position of the sun on Earth at the same time each day is called The
Analemma.

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM TODAY

The solar system is now viewed as consisting of eight planets, with the sun as its
center, and the planets revolve around the sun while spinning about their individual axes.
Furthermore, the solar system is made up of zones.

• The innermost zones are occupied by the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars. These planets are rocky, metallic, and comparatively small.
• The next zone is the asteroid belt, where leftover rocks from the formation of the
solar system can be found. Beyond the asteroid belt is the realm of the giant
planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—which are mostly gases.
• Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, which consists of small celestial
bodies. Pluto, which used to be a planet, is now classified as a “dwarf planet.” In
2006, Pluto lost its status as a planet because it was not the dominant object in its
orbital neighborhood. Aside from Pluto, four other dwarf planets are known today—
Ceres, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.

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 ASSESSMENT

Part I: Multiple Choice

Choose the best answer. Write the letter only.

1. Which model places the Earth at the center of the universe?

A. Heliocentric
B. Geocentric
C. Atomic
D. Spiral

2. Who is the main proponent of the heliocentric model?

A. Aristotle
B. Galileo Galilei
C. Claudius Ptolemy
D. Nicolaus Copernicus

3. Which of the following best describes a major difference between the geocentric
and heliocentric models?
A. Shape of the Earth
B. Number of moons
C. Center of the universe
D. Rotation of the Sun

4. What law explains that planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun?
A. Newton’s Law
B. Kepler’s First Law
C. Copernican Theory
D. Law of Inertia

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Part II: Problem Solving

Solve the following using Kepler’s Third Law:

5. The planet Vulcan was postulated to exist in an attempt to explain the precession of
Mercury. How long will Vulcan make one complete revolution around the sound if its
distance from the sun is two-thirds of the Mercury. You may use data from Sample
Problem 6.1

Part III: Short Answer

6. In your own words, describe one key difference between the geocentric and
heliocentric models.
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7. Why do you think the heliocentric model was controversial during its time?
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Part IV: Reflection

8. Choose one early astronomer (e.g., Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler). Briefly describe their
contribution to astronomy and reflect on how their work helped shape our modern
understanding of the universe. (5-7 sentences).

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FEEDBACK
Do you have any question relative to our topic? Write them below.
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 SUMMARY

To aid you in reviewing the important concepts in this module, here are the highlights.

• Hipparchus refined early models by suggesting that Earth is slightly off-center

(eccentric) in the deferent, where the sun or planets move.
• Ptolemy (140 AD) developed a complex geocentric model with: Ptolemaic model
was dominant for 14 centuries.
• Epicycles – Small circles where planets move. Each planet had its own epicycle
and deferent.
• Deferents – Larger circular paths around Earth.
• Equant – A point opposite Earth’s offset, used to maintain constant speed.
• Eratosthenes (235 BCE) used trigonometry and the sun’s angle at different
locations (Alexandria and Syene) to calculate Earth’s circumference (~25,000
miles), showing that Greeks knew Earth was round.
• Philolaus proposed a pyrocentric model – all celestial bodies orbit a “central fire.”
• Aristarchus built on this by suggesting a heliocentric model – planets revolve
around the sun (as the “central fire”). Aristarchus’s idea didn’t gain support due to
the popularity of Ptolemy’s geocentric system.
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1543) proposed: Sun at the center, planets (including
Earth) revolve around it. Earth spins on its axis daily. Explained retrograde motion
and planet brightness using circular orbits and epicycles.
• Geocentric: Earth is stationary and central. supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle.
• Heliocentric: Sun is central, Earth moves. introduced by Copernicus, proven by
Galileo and Kepler.
• Neil Armstrong – First man on the moon (July 20, 1969); symbolized human
progress in space exploration.
• Tychonic Model – Hybrid model by Tycho Brahe: Sun orbits Earth, other planets
orbit the Sun.
• Tycho Brahe – Collected accurate data without a telescope; proposed a new
model due to inconsistencies in older ones.
• Galileo Galilei – Improved the telescope; discovered Jupiter’s moons, Venus’
phases, and moon’s surface; proved heavenly bodies aren't perfect and not
everything orbits Earth.
• Johannes Kepler – Used Brahe’s data to create 3 Laws of Planetary Motion:
• Law of Ellipses – Planets orbit the sun in ellipses.
• Law of Equal Areas – Planets move faster when closer to the sun.
• Law of Harmonies – Orbital period squared is proportional to distance cubed.

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 • Invention of the telescope led to accurate observations and challenged ancient
beliefs. Galileo’s telescope provided evidence supporting the heliocentric model.
• Analemma – The sun’s position at the same time daily forms a figure-8 due to
Earth’s tilt and elliptical orbit.
• Modern Solar System View – 8 planets orbit the sun; classified into:

REFERENCES:

• Abastillas, Vivicencio Jr. N. 2000. Introduction to Astronomy. Philippines: Phoenix

Publishing House, Inc.
• Santiago, Karen S., et al. 2023. Exploring Life Through Science Second Edition.
Physical Science: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

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